1The Scientific Method and Criminal Justice and Criminology as Social Sciences
Learning to Become a Researcher
Circumscribing Criminal Justice and Criminology
Circumscribing the Other Social and Behavioral Sciences
Other Disciplines that Utilize Social Science Research Methods
Features of the Scientific Methods
Types of Questions Addressed by Social Scientists
Varied Adherence to the Scientific Method
2Formulating Scientific Questions and Locating Background Research
The Nature of Scientific Variables
Conceptual Versus Operational Definitions of Variables
Formulating and Refining Scientific Questions
Locating Information on Topics of Interest
How to Get Copies of Articles of Interest
Distinctiveness of Scientific Communication
How Scientific Research Gets Reviewed and Sometimes Published
PART II: The Importance of Statistics
3Univariate Statistics and the Concept of Statistical Significance
The Nature of Univariate Statistical Concepts
Illustrating the Concepts of Averages and Dispersions
Building the Concept of Statistical Significance
Hypothesis Testing and the Concept of the Null Hypothesis
Closing Remarks about Statistical Significance and Inferential Statistics
4Bivariate and Multivariate Statistics: The Concept of Correlation
Curvilenear Versus Linear Correlations
Interpreting Statements about the Strength of Correlations
The Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting Two Studies Based on Correlation
Correlation Does Not Equal Causation: Words of Caution
Reflections on the Importance of Statistics in the Research Process
Multivariate Statistics: When Bivariate Statistics Are Not Enough
Closing Comments on Multivariate Statistics
PART III: Documentation and Measurement
5Research Report Structure and Styles for Citing and Referencing
The Basic Format for a Research Report
Identifying the Parts of a Research Report
Citation and Referencing Styles
6Reliability, Validity, and Precision in Measurement
Handedness as an Example of Problems in Measurement
Three Aspects of Accurate Measurement
Factors Analysis for Refining Measurement Accuracy
Some Closing Remarks about Reliability, Validity, and Precision
PART IV: Selecting and Retaining Those to Be Studied
The Nature of Scientific Surveys
Representative Versus Nonrepresentative Samples
Probability Versus Non-Probability Sampling Methods
8The Human Side of Sampling and the Reliability of Self-Reports
People’s Willingness to Serve as Research Subjects
Assessing the Extent and Causes of Sample Attrition
New Computer-Assisted ‘‘Interviewing’’
Techniques for Minimizing and Detecting Subject Dishonesty
PART V: Types of Social Science Data
9Data Based on Self-Reports: Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaires
Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Based on Self-Reports
Response Options for Questions
Deciding Which Response Option to Use
Guidelines for Item Construction
Clustering Items with Similar Formats
Examples of Poorly Phrased Questions
Combining Two or More Items to Improve Reliability
Time Diaries: A Special Type of Questionnaire
Computerized Questionnaires and Use of the Internet
Final Comments on Questionnaire Data
10Direct Observations: Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative Direct Observations
Procedures in Ethnographic and Participant Observation Data Collection
Quantitative Direct Observations
Laboratory and Clinical Observations
Direct Observations among Nonhuman Animals
Closing Comments on Direct Observations
11Archival Data Analysis and Meta-Analysis
Analyzing Cross-Cultural Atlases
Review Articles and Meta-Analyses
12Measuring Crime and Criminality
Categorizing and Measuring Crime
The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially
Crime Victimization Survey Data
What Can We Conclude about the Three Main Measures of Crime in America?
PART VI: Probing for Causal Explanations
13Theories, Models, Hypotheses, and Empirical Reality
The Nature of Scientific Theorizing
Criteria for Assessing the Elegance of a Scientific Theory
How Theories Fit into the Research Process
Hypothesis Testing and Attempts to Generalize
Closing Remarks Regarding Scientific Theorizing
Basic Experimental Terminology
Main Types of Experimental Designs
Pitfalls with Human Experimentation
Shortcomings of Experimental Research
Quasi-Experiments Compared with Controlled Experiments
Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Narrower Sense
Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Broader Sense
Quasi-Experimental Designs for Addressing Nature–Nurture Issues
PART VII: Avoiding Harm and Doing Good
16Ethical Issues in Social and Behavioral Science Research
Responsibilities to Research Subjects
Responsibilities to Fellow Social and Behavioral Scientists
17Evaluation and Other Applied Research
Conceptualizing Evaluation Research
Terminology Surrounding Evaluation Research
History of Evaluation Research
Locating Reports of Evaluation Research
Program Evaluation: Doing It Right
Program Evaluation: A Source of Tension
Closing Thoughts about Evaluation Research
Appendix A: The American Psychological Association Referencing Style
APA Referencing Format for Articles
APA Referencing Format for Books
APA Referencing Format for Chapters in Edited Books
Appendix B: Guidelines and Recommendations for Preparing Research Reports
Overall Format and Style of a Research Manuscript
The Basic Format for the Initial Pages
What Follows the Body of a Research Manuscript?
Tailoring a Research Manuscript for a Specific Journal
Appendix C: Guidelines for Professional Writing in the Social and Behavioral Sciences