AFPAC refers to the army forces in the Pacific.
CCS refers to the Combined Chiefs of Staff.
CG USAFIA refers to the commanding general, United States Army Forces in Australia.
CINCPAC refers to the commander in chief of the Pacific Fleet.
CINCSWPA refers to the commander in chief of the Southwest Pacific Area.
COMINCH is an abbreviation for commander in chief, US Fleet.
FECOM refers to the Far East Command.
JCS refers to Joint Chiefs of Staff.
RG refers to record group numbers in the MacArthur Memorial Archives and Library, Norfolk, Virginia.
SCAP refers to the supreme commander for the Allied Powers.
SEAC refers to the South East Asia Command.
SWPA refers to the Southwest Pacific Area.
USAFFE refers to the United States Army Forces in the Far East.
USAFPAC refers to the United States Army Forces in the Pacific.
MacArthur to Marshall, RG 2, box 2, folder 1.
Henry Lewis Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
David Horner, Inside the War Cabinet: Directing Australia’s War Efforts, 1939–45 (St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1996), 223.
William Edward Brougher, South to Bataan, North to Mukden: The Prison Diary of Brigadier General W. E. Brougher (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1971), 32.
David Horner, “MacArthur and Curtin: Deciding Australian War Strategy in 1943,” in Peter J. Dean, ed., Australia 1943: The Liberation of New Guinea (Port Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 42.
Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 370n39.
Arthur H. Vandenberg, “Why I Am for MacArthur,” Collier’s, February 12, 1944.
Daniel E. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy: Seventh Amphibious Force Operations, 1943-1945 (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1969), 183.
SEAC War Diary, July 12 and 14, 1945, quoted in Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 649.
George H. Johnston, “How Good Was MacArthur?” Australasian (Melbourne), February 16, 1946.
1. The account of the telephone ringing, MacArthur answering it, and MacArthur’s response is widely reported, but in an interview, Jean MacArthur recalled that she answered the telephone, heard Sutherland ask for the general, and “put the General on.” Jean MacArthur Oral History, June 24, 1984, RG 13, Papers of Mrs. Douglas MacArthur, box 15, folder 5.
1. Roy Morris Jr., Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan (New York: Crown, 1992), 144–45.
2. Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 8–9.
3. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 4–6; William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 17–18.
4. D. Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur, vol. 1, 1880–1941 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), 13–18.
5. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:23–24.
6. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 14.
7. Ibid., 16.
8. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 5. Arthur III had been old enough during the hardship years at Fort Wingate to eschew any possibility of his own military service in such a rough post and thus chose the navy.
9. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:62, 65, 641n. Arthur senior died on August 26, 1896.
10. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:30–31, 63, 66; Annual Report of the Superintendent, United States Military Academy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1899), 4. Otjen represented Wisconsin’s Fourth Congressional District.
11. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:68–71. Hazing became so severe that a cadet died from the abuse during MacArthur’s second year, and MacArthur, while not a hazer himself, was among those called to testify before a congressional committee.
12. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:76–77; Edgerton obituary, New York Times, June 25, 1904.
13. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:79; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 26–27; William F. Halsey and J. Bryan III, Admiral Halsey’s Story (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1947), 6.
14. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:78.
15. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 27–28.
16. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 29–30. Whether MacArthur met Quezon this early is open to doubt. See, for example, Richard Bruce Meixsel, “Manuel L. Quezon, Douglas MacArthur, and the Significance of the Military Mission to the Philippine Commonwealth,” Pacific Historical Review 70, no. 2 (May 2001), 260–61n.
17. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:91–94.
18. Roosevelt to Taft, March 7, 1904, in Elting E. Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, The Square Deal (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951), 744.
19. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:41–43.
20. Ibid., 1:96.
21. Ibid., 1:99–100, 650n.
22. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 34; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:99, 101, 103–4. Among those who crossed his path there were George C. Marshall, Walter Krueger, and Billy Mitchell.
23. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 36.
24. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:115.
25. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 42.
26. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:123–26. It was a different time for medals; their awards in 1914 pale when judged against the deeds of recipients in World War II. The US Navy alone awarded forty-six Medals of Honor for the Veracruz operation.
27. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 46–47.
28. Henry J. Reilly, Americans All: The Rainbow at War—Official History of the 42nd Rainbow Division in the World War (Columbus, OH: F. J. Heer, 1936), 26.
29. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 46.
30. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 53; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:148–49.
31. Mary MacArthur to Baker, October 6, 1917, Newton Diehl Baker Papers, box 3, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
32. Mary MacArthur to Baker, June 7, 1918, and Baker’s reply, June 11, 1918, Baker papers, box 7.
33. Mary MacArthur to Pershing, June 12, 1918, John J. Pershing Papers, box 121, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
34. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:164, 181.
35. New York Times, June 29, 1918; Pershing to Mary MacArthur, July 12, 1918, Pershing papers, box 121.
36. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 59; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:187–89.
37. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 64; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:206–8.
38. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 66; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:217.
39. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:223.
40. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 70.
41. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:238–41. MacArthur was in command of the Forty-Second Division from November 11 to November 22, 1918.
42. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:256.
1. See, for example, MacArthur’s undated letter to Pershing, circa July 1918, upon MacArthur’s promotion to brigadier general, and MacArthur’s letter to Pershing of May 14, 1921, upon Pershing’s appointment as chief of staff: Pershing papers, box 121.
2. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:261.
3. MacArthur’s brigadier general rank became permanent in January of 1920.
4. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 81.
5. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:274–75, 279. To stimulate discussion, MacArthur invited visiting lecturers, including Brigadier General Billy Mitchell, who regaled the corps on January 20, 1920, with stories of the developing might of airpower just two weeks before he went before Congress and boasted that bombers could sink battleships.
6. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 81–82; MacArthur explained his reasons for composing the quotation in a letter he wrote on April 18, 1939: RG 1, Records of the Military Advisor to the Philippine Commonwealth, 1935–1941, box 2, folder 8; also see MacArthur to Pershing, November 19, 1919, Pershing papers, box 121; Army-Navy football game results, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army–Navy_Game, accessed October 1, 2015
7. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:270.
8. George C. Kenney, The MacArthur I Know (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), 246–47.
9. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:285–86.
10. For DOGS, see William Addleman Ganoe, MacArthur Close-up (New York: Vantage, 1962), 54.
11. Pershing to MacArthur, November 22, 1921, Pershing papers, box 121.
12. For Louise’s background, see New York Times, February 15, 1922 (marriage to MacArthur); June 18, 1929 (divorce from MacArthur); June 8, 1930 (subsequent marriage); June 1, 1965 (obituary).
13. William Allen White, The Autobiography of William Allen White (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 572–73.
14. New York Times, January 15, 1922, February 15, 1922. For their approximate meeting date, see their personal letters in Joseph M. Maddalena, ed., The Passionate and Poetic Pen of Douglas MacArthur: The Letters of Douglas MacArthur to His First Wife, Louise (Cromwell) Brooks, (Beverly Hills, CA: Profiles in History), number 13 in a series of auction catalogs available from Maddalena’s gallery.
15. New York Times, February 8, 1922, February 10, 1922. Pershing’s wife and three young daughters died tragically in a fire in their quarters at the Presidio in San Francisco in 1915 while Pershing was on duty in Texas; only a son survived.
16. New York Times, January 31, 1922; Ganoe, MacArthur Close-up, 157, 160; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:293.
17. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:293, 296.
18. Manchester, American Caesar, 133–34.
19. Mary MacArthur to Pershing, circa August 1924, Pershing papers, box 121.
20. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:305–6.
21. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 85–86; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:64–65. There should have been some question of MacArthur’s impartiality in the case. Mitchell’s father, John L. Mitchell, was a comrade in arms of MacArthur’s father from the 24th Wisconsin and as a United States senator from Wisconsin had written letters of recommendation for Douglas during his efforts to secure a presidential appointment to West Point. Douglas did not know Billy Mitchell well from Milwaukee, but their paths had crossed at Fort Leavenworth, and Mitchell had been a guest lecturer at West Point. After the decision, President Coolidge amended Mitchell’s sentence to half pay, but Mitchell, knowing his career was over, chose to resign.
22. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:328.
23. Ibid., 1:322–23.
24. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 88.
25. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:333. It is hard to believe now, but the governor-generalship of the Philippines was a major post during the early twentieth century.
26. New York Times, April 21, 1929.
27. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 83.
28. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:341.
29. Ibid., 1:343, 674–75n.
30. New York Times, August 6, 1930, August 7, 1930; Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, vol. 2, The Cabinet and the Presidency 1920–1933 (New York: Macmillan, 1952), 339; Meixsel, “Manuel L. Quezon,” 264–65.
31. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 89.
32. “Between World Wars,” in American Military History, ed. Spencer Conn, et al. (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1989), 409, http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH/amh-19.htm, accessed July 11, 2013; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:381.
33. Annual Report of the Chief of Staff for the Year Ending June 30, 1932, quoted in Frank C. Waldrop, ed., MacArthur on War (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1942), 143, 148.
34. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:379–80. Stimson refused to believe MacArthur’s extreme position until he repeated it in Stimson’s presence. Although upset, Stimson recognized that MacArthur was being driven by the need to save money on an area that accounted for 25 to 35 percent of his budget and the then-popular notion that banning or retarding new weapons would somehow make the next war less destructive.
35. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:369–71.
36. Walter R. Borneman, The Admirals: Nimitz, Halsey, Leahy, and King—The Five-Star Admirals Who Won the War at Sea (New York: Little, Brown, 2012), 147, 154–55.
37. Dwight D. Eisenhower, At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), 213.
38. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:390; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 90.
39. MacArthur, Reminiscences. 92.
40. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:384–85.
41. Eisenhower, At Ease, 216–18.
42. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 93.
43. Manchester, American Caesar, 149; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:388.
44. Rexford G. Tugwell, The Democratic Roosevelt: A Biography of Franklin D. Roosevelt (Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1969), 349.
45. Richard B. Frank (MacArthur: Lessons in Leadership [New York: St. Martin’s, 2009]) is among those agreeing with my evaluation.
46. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:416.
47. See, for example, MacArthur, Reminiscences, 101; for Marshall’s name, see Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 1, Education of a General, 1880–1939 (New York: Viking, 1963), 323.
48. Annual Report of the Chief of Staff for the Year Ending June 30, 1933, quoted in Waldrop, MacArthur on War, 175; James, Years of MacArthur, 1: 427–28.
49. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 101. MacArthur was successful in having Roosevelt amend his cuts to only $51 million. Among his victories was saving Pershing’s pension from being cut—an action that got him a letter of thanks from Pershing and seems to refute any deep enmity between the two. See James, Years of MacArthur, 1:428; Pershing to MacArthur, February 27, 1933, Pershing papers, box 121.
50. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 4:268.
51. New York Times, May 17, 1934.
52. Manchester, American Caesar, 156 (including the Leahy quote, apparently garnered from interviews); Geoffrey Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die: The Life of Douglas MacArthur (New York: Random House, 1996), 168–70, relying in part on the papers of Pearson’s attorney, Morris Ernest, at the University of Texas. Robert S. Allen was Pearson’s regular coauthor and a codefendant in the suit.
1. Francis Bowes Sayre, second draft of “Freedom Comes to Philippines,” Francis B. Sayre Papers, box 8, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
2. Francis Bowes Sayre, Glad Adventure (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 207–8.
3. MacArthur to Quezon, December 4, 1934, enclosing suggested draft, RG 18, Records of the Chief of Staff, United States Army, 1934–1935, box 1, folder “Correspondence: Philippines”; for an analysis of Quezon’s motivations for this offer, see Meixsel, “Manuel L. Quezon,” 255–92.
4. Carol Morris Petillo, Douglas MacArthur: The Philippine Years (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), 170; Memorandum of the Terms of Agreement for Military Adviser to the President of the Philippine Commonwealth Government, 1935, RG 1, box 1, folder 2; Adjutant General to MacArthur, September 18, 1935, RG 1, box 1, folder 2. Available present-day dollar value calculated to 2012 at http://www.measuringworth.com/uscompare/result.php?year_source=1937&amount=40500&year_result=2012.
5. MacArthur to Quezon, June 1, 1935, RG 18, box 1, folder “Correspondence: Philippines.”
6. MacArthur to Roosevelt, September 9, 1935, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:489.
7. Drum to MacArthur, June 29, 1936, RG 10, VIP correspondence, box 3, folder 86. Drum addressed his letter “Dear Mac.”
8. Roosevelt to MacArthur, September 19, 1935, Elliott Roosevelt, ed., F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928–1945 (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1950), 1:507–8; War Department Special Orders No. 22, September 18, 1935, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:484–85.
9. Eisenhower, At Ease, 223.
10. MacArthur to Roosevelt, Woodring, Craig, and Surles, October 2, 1935, RG 1, box 1, folder 2.
11. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 103; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:485 regarding Hutter.
12. New York Times, January 24, 2000.
13. Clark Lee and Richard Henschel, Douglas MacArthur (New York: Henry Holt, 1952), 67–68.
14. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:513, 553–55. Jean MacArthur recounted her first visit to West Point to Colonel Paul Miles on one of her subsequent visits; author interview with Miles, May 13, 2014.
15. Forbes to Summerall, October 17, 1927, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:335–36.
16. Grace Person Hayes, The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1982), 4–5.
17. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 6.
18. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:503–4; Meixsel, “Manuel L. Quezon,” 271n. MacArthur’s plans to make the Philippines “invasion proof” by constructing “a fleet of tiny, high-speed fighting craft” were even reported in the New York Times, May 30, 1936.
19. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:504; Eisenhower, At Ease, 225.
20. Krueger to Craig, February 16, 1938, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:546–47.
21. MacArthur to Quezon, June 1, 1935, RG 18, box 1, folder “Correspondence: Philippines.”
22. Craig to MacArthur, August 6, 1937, RG 44a, Selected Papers of Brigadier General Bonner F. Fellers, USA, Military Secretary to General MacArthur, SWPA, SCAP, 1913–1972, box 3, folder 23; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:521; for a discussion that MacArthur’s rhetoric in regard to military preparations in the Philippines had not played well in Washington during his spring 1937 visit, see Meixsel, “Manuel L. Quezon,” 287–88.
23. MacArthur to Craig, September 16, 1937, RG 1, box 1, folder 5.
24. Dwight D. Eisenhower interview, RG 32, Oral History Collection, box 6.
25. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:500.
26. Woodring to Roosevelt, January 21, 1938, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:525.
27. Eisenhower, At Ease, 225–26.
28. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:537–38; Sayre, Glad Adventure, 209.
29. Eisenhower interview, in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:564.
30. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:565–67.
31. Pogue, Education of a General, 107, 175, 281–82, 294–96, 401n.
32. MacArthur to Early, March 21, 1941, Official File 400, Appointments, Philippine Islands, High Commissioner, Franklin D. Roosevelt Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York.
33. Watson to MacArthur, April 15, 1941, RG 1, box 2, folder 33.
34. Marshall to MacArthur, June 20, 1941, RG 1, box 2, folder 35.
35. Roosevelt to Ickes, July 1, 1941, in Roosevelt, ed., F.D.R. His Personal Letters, 2:1173–74.
36. Marshall to MacArthur, July 26, 1941, RG 1, box 2, folder 36.
37. Quezon to MacArthur, July 27, 1941, RG 10, VIP files; Sayre, Glad Adventure, 217.
38. MacArthur to O’Laughlin, October 6, 1941, John Callan O’Laughlin Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
39. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 8–12.
40. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 17; Louis Morton, Strategy and Command: The First Two Years, vol. 1 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1962), 86–91.
41. Marshall to MacArthur, November 28, 1941, RG 15, Materials Donated by the General Public, box 13, folder 4; for an example of MacArthur’s optimism, see MacArthur to Marshall, October 28, 1941, RG 2, Records of Headquarters, US Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), 1941–1942, box 2, folder 1. Stimson called “the contagious optimism of General Douglas MacArthur” one of the two leading causes—the other being the reliance on B-17s—for the shift in American policy to defend the Philippines aggressively and “make it foolhardy for the Japanese to carry their expansion southward.” Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), 388.
1. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 128.
2. Louis Morton, The Fall of the Philippines, vol. 2 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1993), 24, 49.
3. William H. Bartsch, December 8, 1941: MacArthur’s Pearl Harbor (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2003), 427; Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 42. The latter count may include older planes used for training in the Philippine Air Corps; it is also possible that deliveries of newer planes contribute to the discrepancies.
4. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 42.
5. James, Years of MacArthur, 1:608.
6. Ibid., 1:527, 594.
7. Ibid., 1:531–33, 591.
8. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 69. MacArthur divided his USAFFE command into four operational groups: the North Luzon Force, commanded by Wainwright, which included the principal American division in the islands; the South Luzon Force, commanded by Brigadier General George M. Parker Jr.; the Visayan-Mindanao Force, commanded by Colonel William F. Sharp, which included almost half the Philippine army scattered throughout the islands south of Luzon; and the Manila Bay and Subic Bay coastal defenses, commanded by Brigadier General George F. Moore.
9. James Leutze, A Different Kind of Victory: A Biography of Admiral Thomas C. Hart (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1981), 212, 334n.
10. Leutze, Hart, 216–17.
11. Hart diary, November 8, 1941, quoted in Leutze, Hart, 217.
12. Leutze, Hart, 217; James, Years of MacArthur, 1:615.
13. Leutze, Hart, 218. Lest anyone think it was politics, both Hart and MacArthur were ardent Republicans.
14. Leutze, Hart, 218; Time, November 24, 1941. The same disparity in rank existed in Hawaii between Admiral Husband Kimmel and Lieutenant General Walter Short, but it did not seem to affect their relationship, despite whatever shortcomings in their coordination became obvious after December 7.
15. Leutze, Hart, 163–64, 218. The other naval officer who would always be in that category was William D. Leahy, another Annapolis classmate of Arthur III’s and, until 1939, Roosevelt’s chief of naval operations; Leahy was then ambassador to Vichy France, and Arthur III’s son Douglas II was on his staff.
16. Hart diary, February 7, 1940 quoted in Leutze, Hart, 164.
17. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 102, 128.
18. Leutze, Hart, 219–20; Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 18; James D. Hornfischer, Ship of Ghosts: The Story of the USS Houston, FDR’s Legendary Lost Cruiser, and the Epic Saga of Her Survivors (New York: Bantam, 2006), 32, 35.
19. Marshall to MacArthur, November 27, 1941, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 71.
20. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 71–72.
21. Sayre, Glad Adventure, 221.
22. MacArthur to Marshall, November 28, 1941, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 72.
23. Office Log, October–December 1941, RG 2, box 3, folder 4.
24. Leutze, Hart, 224–25.
25. Ibid., 225–26.
26. Jonathan M. Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story (New York: Doubleday, 1946), 17.
27. MacArthur to Arnold, December 6, 1941, quoted in Lewis H. Brereton, The Brereton Diaries: The War in the Air in the Pacific, Middle East, and Europe, 3 October 1941–8 May 1945 (New York: William Morrow, 1946), 36–37.
28. For a solid biography of Brereton, see Roger G. Miller, “A Pretty Damn Able Commander: Lewis Hyde Brereton, Part I and II,” Air Power History 47, no. 4 (Winter 2000), 4–27, and 48, no. 1 (Spring 2001), 22–45.
29. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 218.
30. Ibid., 218–19, 473n.
31. Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 32; Walter D. Edmonds, “What Happened at Clark Field,” The Atlantic (July 1951), 32; Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 211; William H. Bartsch, “Was MacArthur Ill-Served by his Air Force Commanders in the Philippines?” Air Power History 44, no. 2 (Summer 1997), 44–63.
32. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 230, 474–475nn3–4; Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 34–35.
33. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 238, 243, 476n19.
34. Ibid., 244–49, 427.
35. Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 38; Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 249, 478n43.
36. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 79.
37. Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 3, The Rising Sun in the Pacific (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 168–69.
38. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 79n9.
39. Morison, Rising Sun, 169.
40. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 79.
41. Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor (New York: Penguin 1991), 527.
42. Marshall to MacArthur, December 7, 1941 (12:05 p.m.), RG 2, box 3, folder 1; Prange, At Dawn We Slept, 553.
43. Marshall to MacArthur, December 7, 1941 (3:22 p.m.), RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
44. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 260.
45. Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 38.
46. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 276–77, 483 n28.
47. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 277, 483n29; Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 38–39.
48. Barstch, December 8, 1941, 277, 280–81, 483nn30, 39–40; Edmonds, “What Happened at Clark Field,” 24.
49. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 282.
50. Ibid., 260–61.
51. Ibid., 283, 484n46.
52. Ibid., 284, 485n49.
53. Ibid., 283, 484n45.
54. Ibid., 261, 287.
55. Ibid., 292–94, 296.
56. D. Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur, vol. 2, 1941–1945 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), 15.
57. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 297, 303–4.
58. Ibid., 298–303.
59. Ibid., 308–9.
60. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 264–66. The four Japanese reconnaissance planes returned to Formosa later that morning, but fog forced them to land at bases farther north.
61. Saburo Sakai, Samurai! Flying the Zero in WWII with Japan’s Fighter Ace (New York: Ballantine, 1957), 49.
62. Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 425.
63. Sakai, Samurai!, 50.
1. Aircraft and personnel losses at Clark and Iba Fields on December 8 have always been a matter of debate; some differences may stem from planes subsequently repaired. See, for example, Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 88; Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 409, 439, 442; and James, Years of MacArthur, 2:4.
2. MacArthur to Marshall, December 8, 1941, quoted in Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 263.
3. Gerow [Marshall] to MacArthur, December 8, 1941, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
4. Adams [Arnold] to MacArthur, December 8, 1941, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
5. MacArthur to Marshall, December 8, 1941, quoted in Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 263, 480n15.
6. New York Times, September 28, 1946; Edmonds, “What Happened at Clark Field,” 32. For more on Sutherland’s differing recollections, see Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 82n17, n19, and James, Years of MacArthur, 2:10–11, quoting MacArthur’s answers to the February 8, 1954, Morton questionnaire.
7. New York Times, September 28, 1946.
8. H. H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), 273; Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 50.
9. MacArthur to Arnold, December 10, 1941, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
10. Arnold, Global Mission, 272; Bartsch, December 8, 1941, 263.
11. Claire L. Chennault, Way of a Fighter: The Memoirs of Claire Lee Chennault (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1949), 124.
12. Edgar D. Whitcomb, Escape from Corregidor (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1958), 23.
13. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 2, Ordeal and Hope, 1939–1942 (New York: Viking, 1966), 234.
14. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:20; Leutze, Hart, 233. Saburo Sakai commented that torrential rains on December 9 interrupted Japanese operations; Samurai!, 52.
15. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 146n.
16. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 235, 470n9.
17. Diary, December 14, 1941, Henry Lewis Stimson Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
18. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 236.
19. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1949), 18, 21–22.
20. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 60, 98. Japanese planners had assumed that the airfield at Aparri was operational and suitable for heavy bombers. Indeed, this had been MacArthur’s long-range plan, but time had gotten the better of him, and facilities there were limited and largely unoccupied.
21. Brereton, Brereton Diaries, 53–56.
22. Ibid., 62.
23. Ibid., 63–64.
24. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 154–55.
25. Stark to Marshall, December 23, 1941, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 155.
26. Hart Memorandum on Last Two Interviews with General MacArthur, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:21.
27. Leutze, Hart, 242.
28. Stark to Hart, December 17, 1941, quoted in Leutze, Hart, 242.
29. Hart memorandum, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:21.
30. Leutze, Hart, 241–43; for a full account of American submarine actions in the Philippines, see Clay Blair Jr., Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, 1975).
31. Leutze, Hart, 240.
32. Leutze, Hart, 244–46; Blair, Silent Victory, 130; MacArthur Proclamation, December 24, 1941, RG 2, box 2, folder 2.
33. MacArthur to Marshall, December 27, 1941, RG 2, box 2, folder 6.
34. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:23–24.
35. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 139.
36. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:24–25. Selleck became one of MacArthur’s harshest critics, telling James that his doctor had “forbidden me to talk about subjects which will raise my blood pressure.” Of MacArthur, Selleck said only: “My relations with him were ugly, and I bitterly disliked the man.” Oral Reminiscences of Colonel Clyde A. Selleck, RG 49, D. Clayton James Collection.
37. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:27–28.
38. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 125.
39. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 124. For troop estimates, see Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 162n.
40. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 164.
41. Sid Huff, My Fifteen Years with General MacArthur (New York: Paperback Library, 1964), 38.
42. MacArthur Headquarters Diary, December 24, 1941, RG 3, Records of Headquarters, Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), 1942–45, box 1, folder 4; Manuel Luis Quezon, The Good Fight (New York: D. Appleton–Century, 1946), 213–14; Sayre, Glad Adventure, 230.
43. Huff, My Fifteen Years, 39.
44. New York Times, December 25, 1941.
45. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:30–31, James, Years of MacArthur, 1:607–8.
46. Alvin P. Stauffer, The Quartermaster Corps: Operations in the War Against Japan vol. 5, bk. 3, of The United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1990), 10.
47. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 165n; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:30–31. According to the New York Times of December 28, 1941, a German broadcast claimed that the Japanese military did not recognize Manila as an open city “because the decision was taken by General [Douglas] MacArthur without consultation with the Philippine population.”
48. Stauffer, Quartermaster Corps, 9, 11; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:31–33.
49. Stauffer, Quartermaster Corps, 9; E. B. Miller, Bataan Uncensored (Little Falls: Military Historical Society of Minnesota, 1991), 75.
50. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:36–37.
51. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 130.
1. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 166–67, 178.
2. Ibid., 180, 180n, 181.
3. Ibid., 126, 182.
4. Ibid., 183, 199–201.
5. MacArthur Headquarters Diary, December 31, 1941, RG 3, box 1, folder 4.
6. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 208–10, 215.
7. MacArthur to Marshall, January 7, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 6.
8. MacArthur to Marshall, January 1, 1942, and Marshall to MacArthur, January 2, 1942, quoted in Morton, Strategy and Command, 186–87.
9. Marshall to MacArthur, January 11, 1942, quoted in Morton, Strategy and Command, 168–71.
10. Gerow to Marshall, January 3, 1942, quoted in Morton, Strategy and Command, 187.
11. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 245.
12. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe, 25.
13. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 395–96.
14. Don Lohbeck, Patrick J. Hurley (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1956), 164.
15. See James, Years of MacArthur, 2:54 for Brigadier General Milton A. Hill’s recollection of a later visit by MacArthur “to one of the corps headquarters.” This may in fact have been a subsequent visit by Sutherland.
16. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:48–49.
17. Ibid., 2:52–53.
18. MacArthur Headquarters Diary, January 10, 1942, RG 3, box 1, folder 4; Oral Reminiscences of General Harold K. Johnson, 11, RG 49, box 1.
19. Quezon, The Good Fight, 245; for leaflets, see New York Times, January 31, 1942.
20. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 131.
21. Ibid., 132.
22. Miller, Bataan Uncensored, 193–94.
23. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:57.
24. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 290; MacArthur to Marshall, January 23, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
25. Robert H. Ferrell, ed., The Eisenhower Diaries (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 44; Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 291n.
26. Sutherland to Chynoweth, February 1, 1942, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:60; Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 325. Chynoweth became another of MacArthur’s harshest critics, particularly over the issue of food and ammunition being “highly over-centralized” and not distributed to the southern islands. As for MacArthur’s command presence, Chynoweth rated him “a very poor soldier in the technical sense [because] he wasn’t interested in it. He never visited. He didn’t get out. He never went to see anybody. He was the most remote commander that I’ve ever known.” Oral Reminiscences of Brigadier General Bradford G. Chynoweth, RG 49, box 2, 5–6.
27. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:60–61; Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 261–62.
28. Matome Ugaki, Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941–1945 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), 101.
29. Whitcomb, Escape from Corregidor, 36–37.
30. Ibid., 46–47.
31. Ibid., 41–42.
32. Luce to MacArthur, December 6, 1941, Clare Boothe Luce Papers, box 104, folder 12, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Shortly before leaving Manila, Luce told Charles Willoughby, MacArthur’s intelligence chief, with whom she had an affair, that “MacArthur would either never be heard of again, or he would one day return to the U.S.A. while the whole American people yelled, ‘Hail MacArthur.’” Sylvia Jukes Morris, Rage for Fame: The Ascent of Clare Boothe Luce (New York: Random House, 1997), 540n25.
33. Life, December 8, 1941; Time, December 29, 1941.
34. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:89.
35. MacArthur to Marshall, March 7, 1942, RG 15, box 23, folder 23. Regarding the report of Homma’s suicide, MacArthur said that he could not “completely substantiate this report,” but nonetheless urged Marshall to “initiate publicity in this matter.”
36. Diller interview, James, Years of MacArthur, 2:90.
37. Excerpts from radiograms from Coordinator of Information, Washington, DC, pertaining to General Douglas MacArthur, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
38. Drew Pearson and Robert S. Allen, “The Real General MacArthur,” Liberty, March 7, 1942, 20–22. Despite the complimentary nature of the article, George Van Horn Moseley, MacArthur’s acerbic and reactionary deputy chief of staff during the 1930s, could not forgive the authors’ earlier actions and scrawled on his copy: “A poor article written by two skunks.”
39. MacArthur was, Eisenhower said, “the only commander I recall who used the heading bearing his own name for official messages and communiqués—‘MacArthur Headquarters.’” Eisenhower interview, RG 32, box 6.
40. Whitcomb, Escape from Corregidor, 40.
1. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:91–92.
2. Quezon to Roosevelt, January 13, 1942, RG 4, Records of Headquarters, US Army Forces in the Pacific (USAFPAC), 1942–1947, box 15, folder 1.
3. Quezon to MacArthur, January 28, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
4. Roosevelt to MacArthur, January 30, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
5. Marshall to MacArthur, February 3, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1. A public opinion poll conducted among Americans on January 5, 1942, found them evenly split (at 42 percent each) on whether, if the Philippines should fall, “the government should get General MacArthur out beforehand so he can fight again, or have him stay with his troops to the end.” In Hadley Cantril, ed., Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), 428.
6. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 46 (January 29, 1942).
7. MacArthur to Marshall, February 4, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
8. Marshall to MacArthur, February 8, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1. Eisenhower was less gracious in his diary: “Another long message on ‘strategy’ to MacArthur. He sent in one extolling the virtues of the flank offensive. Wonder what he thinks we’ve been studying for all these years. His lecture would have been good for plebes.” Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 47 (February 8, 1942).
9. Quezon to Roosevelt, dispatched as part of MacArthur to Marshall, February 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 1. Quezon discussed the neutrality option and the embarrassment of collaborators with Commissioner Sayre; see Memorandum of conversation between High Commissioner Sayre and President Quezon re general situation in Philippines, February 8, 1942, box 9, folder “Quezon,” Sayre papers.
10. MacArthur to Marshall, February 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 1.
11. Stimson diary, February 8 and 9, 1942; Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 248. A handwritten annotation in Stimson’s diary termed this the “fight to the finish” order for the Philippines.
12. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 47 (February 9, 1942). Eisenhower had already speculated in his diary: “MacArthur is losing his nerve”; February 3, 1942.
13. Roosevelt to Quezon, February 10, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
14. Roosevelt to MacArthur, February 10, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
15. MacArthur to Roosevelt, February 11, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
16. MacArthur to Marshall, February 10, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1; Roosevelt to MacArthur, February 11, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
17. Marshall to MacArthur, circa February 11, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
18. MacArthur to Marshall, February 12, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 138–39.
19. Versions of their discussion and Jean MacArthur’s answer appear in many places, including in Frazier Hunt, The Untold Story of Douglas MacArthur (New York: Devin-Adair, 1954), 253; also see MacArthur to Roosevelt, February 11, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 1.
20. Huff, My Fifteen Years, 8; Marshall to MacArthur, February 14, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
21. Wavell to MacArthur, February 19, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
22. For an account of the Java Sea battles, see Jeffrey R. Cox, Rising Sun, Falling Skies: The Disastrous Java Sea Campaign of World War II (Oxford: Osprey, 2014).
23. Blair, Silent Victory, 152; Allied Warship Commanders, Chester Carl Smith, USN, http://uboat.net/allies/commanders/3225.html, accessed September 8, 2013; Diary of Basilio J. Valdes, February 20, 1942, https://philippinediaryproject.wordpress.com/1942/02/20/february-20-1942-friday/, accessed September 9, 2013; MacArthur to Riggs, February 23, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4. The Swordfish also embarked the staff of the Asiatic Fleet’s submarine command when Hart evacuated Manila.
24. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 139–40; MacArthur to Pershing, February 15, 1942, and Pershing to MacArthur, no date, Pershing papers, box 121.
25. MacArthur to Hurley, February 9, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
26. Hurley to Marshall, February 21, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 353.
27. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 49 (February 22, 1942).
28. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 49 (February 23, 1942).
29. Marshall to MacArthur, February 23, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
30. See for example, MacArthur, Reminiscences, 140; Hunt, Untold Story, 256–57; Lee and Henschel, Douglas MacArthur, 156.
31. MacArthur to Marshall, February 24, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 358.
32. Marshall to MacArthur, February 25, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 1; MacArthur to Marshall, February 26, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
33. Memorandum of the Terms of the Agreement Between the President of the Philippine Commonwealth and General MacArthur, undated, RG 1, box 1, folder 2; Adjutant General to MacArthur, September 18, 1935, RG 1, box 1, folder 2.
34. Executive Order No. 1, January 3, 1942, RG 30, Papers of Lieutenant General Richard K. Sutherland, USA, Chief of Staff, SWPA, 1941–1945, box 2, folder 12; Paul P. Rogers, “MacArthur, Quezon and Executive Order Number One: Another View,” Pacific Historical Review 52, no. 1 (February 1983), 93–94; 2012 values based on CPI at http://www.measuringworth.com/uscompare/relativevalue.php.
35. Carol Petillo, “Douglas MacArthur and Manuel Quezon: A Note on an Imperial Bond,” Pacific Historical Review 48, no. 1 (February 1979), 114; Petillo, The Philippine Years, 208, 278n112–13, 279n115; MacArthur to Chase National Bank (via Adjutant General), February 15, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 7. A letter of thanks mentioning but not describing this executive order is in Quezon to MacArthur, February 20, 1942, RG 2, box 3, folder 7. According to Petillo’s research, of the four recipients, only Sutherland “left any retrievable record of this event,” and Sutherland may have done so “either intentionally or negligently.”
36. Petillo, “Douglas MacArthur,” 115n, 116n. For Stimson’s criticism of MacArthur, see, for example, Stimson diary, March 23, 1942.
37. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 63, 404–5n (June 20, 1942).
38. Marshall to MacArthur, March 6, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4.
39. MacArthur to Brett, March 1, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 1.
40. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:74–75; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 141.
41. Rockwell to Bulkeley, March 10, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 1.
42. Charles [sic] Bulkeley interview, RG 32, box 6, Oral History Interviews folder, number 19, page 14.
43. Huff, My Fifteen Years, 51–52.
44. Ibid., 55.
45. Jean MacArthur interview, RG 13, box 15, folder 6.
1. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 144.
2. There are many accounts of this voyage, and many of them conflict on the details. This account is generally from George W. Smith, MacArthur’s Escape: John “Wild Man” Bulkeley and the Rescue of an American Hero (St. Paul, MN: Zenith Press, 2005).
3. W. L. White, They Were Expendable: An American Torpedo Boat Squadron in the U.S. Retreat from the Philippines (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942), 137.
4. Huff, Fifteen Years, 63–64.
5. Manchester, American Caesar, 262.
6. John Bulkeley interview, RG 32, box 6. MacArthur recommended Bulkeley for the Medal of Honor. His award citation spoke generally about Bulkeley’s bravery leading Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three from December 7, 1941, to April 10, 1942, and did not specifically mention the Corregidor evacuation. Bulkeley and the MacArthurs remained close, and the general did all he could to advance Bulkeley’s career. He retired a vice admiral.
7. MacArthur to Marshall, March 14, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 360. Contrary to MacArthur’s doubts and despite a lack of brakes, Pease’s B-17 made it back to Australia.
8. Jean MacArthur Oral History, RG 13, box 15, folder 6.
9. Blair, Silent Victory, 170–71. Whatever MacArthur’s reasons for not waiting to depart Corregidor by submarine were, they did not include a lack of space for his party on the Permit. When the Permit arrived at Corregidor, the senior naval officer ordered Chapple to take on eight officers and thirty-two enlisted men, most of them from the Cast code-breaking unit. These forty, plus Schumacher, six of his crew from PT-32 (eight others were offloaded there), and Chapple’s regular crew meant that 111 were crowded on board. The submarine headed for Australia, but Chapple was astonished to receive orders to conduct a war patrol just south of Manila en route. He did so, tangling with three destroyers and enduring a savage depth-charge attack. When he finally arrived in Australia after twenty-three days at sea with 111 people on board, he received an unexpected reprimand stating that, as the commanding officer, he should have “protested the carrying of a total of one hundred eleven persons in his ship.”
10. Huff, Fifteen Years, 66–67.
11. Paul P. Rogers, The Good Years: MacArthur and Sutherland (New York: Praeger, 1990), 193.
12. Huff, Fifteen Years, 67.
13. Rogers, The Good Years, 193–94; Huff, Fifteen Years, 67–68.
14. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:108; Lee and Henschel, Douglas MacArthur, 160.
15. Huff, Fifteen Years, 72.
16. The Argus (Melbourne), January 3, 1955.
17. Chronicle (Adelaide), March 26, 1942.
18. Ibid.
19. Roosevelt, Complete Presidential Press Conferences, 19:208–9, March 17, 1942.
20. New York Times, March 18, 1942. In just four days, from March 16–19, 1942, the Times featured MacArthur in a total of twenty-one articles.
21. Editorial, New York Times, March 18, 1942.
22. New York Times, March 18, 1942.
23. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 51 (March 19, 1942).
24. Special Arrangements for General MacArthur’s Arrival, RG 36, Selected Papers of Lieutenant General Stephen J. Chamberlin, USA, 1942–1946, box 1, folder 10.
25. The Argus (Melbourne), March 23, 1942.
26. John Hersey, Men on Bataan (New York: Knopf, 1944), 306.
27. MacArthur Press Statement, March 21, 1942, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
28. Ugaki, Fading Victory, 106 (March 23, 1942).
29. The Argus (Melbourne), March 23, 1942.
30. MacArthur to Marshall, March 21, 1942, Henry Harley Arnold Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
31. John Jacob Beck, MacArthur and Wainwright: Sacrifice of the Philippines (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974), 167.
32. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 49 (February 23, 1942).
33. War Department to Sutherland, January 31, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 1.
34. Sutherland to Marshall, March 23, 1942, RG 30, box 2, folder 9.
35. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 254.
36. Marshall to Sutherland, March 25, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4; Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 253–54, 471n51–52.
37. MacArthur to Wainwright, March 29, 1942, RG 30, box 2, folder 9.
1. Gavin Long, MacArthur as Military Commander (London: B. T. Batsford, 1969), 52.
2. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:78; Oral Reminiscences of Major General Richard J. Marshall, RG 49; “The Man Behind MacArthur,” Time, December 7, 1942.
3. For one version of Willoughby’s life, particularly his political persuasion, see Frank Kluckhohn, “Heidelberg to Madrid—The Story of General Willoughby,” The Reporter, August 19, 1952.
4. Roosevelt, Complete Presidential Press Conferences, 19:156, February 24, 1942; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:86.
5. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:87.
6. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 53, (March 31, 1942).
7. Eisenhower interview, RG 32, box 6. Eisenhower went on to say: “Later General Marshall tried to initiate a Medal of Honor for me after the North African landings, but I told him that I would refuse to accept it and thought that all men in high command and headquarters jobs should be excluded from that honor.”
8. H. R. 6649, 77th Congress, 2nd session, February 23, 1942. Hill was not reelected.
9. Executive Order No. 9096, 42 Fed. Reg. 2195, March 12, 1942.
10. Borneman, Admirals, 260–61.
11. Morton, Strategy and Command, 243, 246.
12. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 100–101.
13. Directive to the Supreme Commander in the Southwest Pacific Area (CCS 57/1) March 30, 1942, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 614–15.
14. Directive to the Commander in Chief of the Pacific Ocean Area (CCS 51/1) March 30, 1942, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 617–18.
15. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 102–3, 766n66; Morton, Strategy and Command, 251. Hayes says that no Marshall reply was found as of 1982.
16. MacArthur to Shedden, April 13, 1942, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:844n.
17. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 422.
18. MacArthur to Marshall, April 8, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 441.
19. MacArthur to Wainwright, April 4, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 452.
20. Wainwright to MacArthur, April 8, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 453.
21. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 455–56.
22. Ibid., 458n18.
23. Wainwright to MacArthur, April 9, 1942, quoted in Beck, MacArthur and Wainwright, 194–95.
24. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 467.
25. MacArthur to Fellers, June 18, 1943, RG 44a, box 3, folder “Correspondence.”
26. Long, MacArthur as Military Commander, 83.
27. Time, March 30, 1942. MacArthur was no stranger to newspapers. During his tenure as chief of staff and his years in the Philippines, the New York Times ran hundreds of MacArthur articles and reported his activities, from the social—giving his deceased brother’s daughter away in marriage—to the professional, including speculation about his successor as chief of staff and his Hyde Park luncheon with FDR. By 1940, those reports increasingly chronicled his supervision of Philippine defenses and occasionally noted his views on world events, such as his call for supporting Great Britain. New York Times, June 26, 1935 (Mary MacArthur wedding); May 1, 1937 (his wedding); September 4, 1935 (FDR luncheon); September 16, 1940 (Great Britain support).
28. Time, April 20, 1942.
29. George Clark, “The Neighbors” cartoon, April 13, 1942, found as a clipping in George Van Horn Moseley Papers, Library of Congress, box 9, folder 14.
30. Bob Considine, MacArthur the Magnificent (London: Hutchinson, 1942), 14–15, 128.
1. MacArthur to Marshall, March 21, 1942, Arnold papers.
2. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:121–22; Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 375, 479n; Dudley McCarthy, South-West Pacific Area—First Year: Kokoda to Wau, Australia in the War of 1939–1945, ser. 1, vol. 5 (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1959), 29; Peter J. Dean, The Architect of Victory: The Military Career of Lieutenant-General Sir Frank Horton Berryman (Port Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 210; David Horner, Inside the War Cabinet: Directing Australia’s War Efforts, 1939–45 (St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1996), 114.
3. “General Hal George, 2nd Lt. Robert D. Jasper, & War Correspondent Mel Jacoby Killed in a Kittyhawk Ground Accident at Batchelor Airfield on 29 April 1942,” in http://www.ozatwar.com/ozcrashes/nt105.htm, accessed October 20, 2013. Twenty-five-year-old Jacoby had recently married Annalee Whitmore, who became a celebrated World War II correspondent in her own right. They had been honeymooning in Manila before evacuating by boat on New Year’s Eve.
4. Chronicle (Adelaide), March 26, 1942, 26.
5. Ugaki, Fading Victory, 68 (January 5, 1942).
6. Report of Prime Minister and Chiefs of Staff to Emperor, March 13, 1942, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 611–13. This report also called the prospects of any peace between its ally, Germany, and Germany’s former ally, the Soviet Union, “utterly hopeless” and concluded that any attempt to mediate that dispute “would be detrimental” to Japan’s relations with each.
7. Samuel Milner, Victory in Papua, vol. 4 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1989), 3; Horner, Inside the War Cabinet, 97–98, 108.
8. Milner, Victory in Papua, 12–13; Steven Bullard, “Japanese Strategy and Intentions Towards Australia,” in Peter J. Dean, ed., Australia 1942: In the Shadow of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 129–137.
9. Milner, Victory in Papua, 6–8. Part of the reason that Admiral Leary resisted Brett’s first request for his newer B-17s to transport MacArthur from Del Monte was that they were busy bombing Japanese troop concentrations at Rabaul.
10. John B. Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral: Frank Jack Fletcher at Coral Sea, Midway, and Guadalcanal (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 92–95; Milner, Victory in Papua, 10–11.
11. Marshall to CG USAFIA, April 27, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 3.
12. “Australia’s Prime Ministers,” National Archives of Australia, at http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/curtin/in-office.aspx, accessed July 26, 2014.
13. Sydney Morning Herald, December 29, 1941.
14. Wilkinson journal, October 19, 1942, quoted in Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 260.
15. Dean, Australia 1942, 185.
16. Churchill to Roosevelt, April 29, 1942, in Milner, Victory in Papua, 28–29.
17. Marshall to MacArthur, April 30, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 3.
18. MacArthur to Marshall, May 3, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 3.
19. Roosevelt to MacArthur, May 6, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 3. Stimson was harsher in his criticism of MacArthur’s Australian lobbying. From Australian sources, he learned that “MacArthur is talking very disloyally to the Australians about the plans of his superiors here. In short, he is arguing very strongly and really egging the Australians on to try to make the Australian theatre the main theatre of the war and to postpone what we are trying to do in regard to fighting Hitler first.” Stimson diary, May 13, 1942.
20. The standard works on King are Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), and Ernest J. King and Walter Muir Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record (New York: Norton, 1952).
21. The standard biography of Nimitz, who declined to write his memoirs, is E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1976).
22. King to Roosevelt, memorandum, March 5, 1942, Safe Files, box 3, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
23. Marshall to MacArthur, April 30, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 3.
24. MacArthur to Marshall, May 1, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 3.
25. Edward J. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA: Codebreaking and the War Against Japan, 1942–1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 15–16, 36; Edwin T. Layton, “And I Was There”: Pearl Harbor and Midway—Breaking the Secrets (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 389–90.
26. Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral, 125–27.
27. Milner, Victory in Papua, 35.
28. Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral, 138–39.
29. Milner, Victory in Papua, 36; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:159–60.
30. George Hermon Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, Australia in the War of 1939–1945, ser. 2, vol. 2 (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1968), 47–50.
31. Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway, and Submarine Actions (Boston: Little, Brown, 1988), 39; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:161. Morison’s take on this action was to write: “Ship recognition comes hard to the ‘fly-fly boys’ of every nation; let those who have tried it from 10,000 feet, without previous training, cast the first stone!”
32. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 143–44; Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral, 168.
33. Borneman, Admirals, 248–49.
34. Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 154–55; SWPA press release (May 8, 1942), communiqué no. 20 (May 8, 1942), and communiqués no. 21 and 22 (May 9, 1942), RG 4, box 47, folder 1.
35. Marshall to MacArthur, May 9, 1942, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:166.
36. MacArthur to Marshall, May 10, 1942, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:166–67.
37. Roosevelt to King, May 18, 1942, in Roosevelt, F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 2:1320–21.
38. MacArthur to Nimitz, May 19, 1942, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:162–63.
39. Robert H. Van Volkenburgh interview, in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:162.
1. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 54 (May 6, 1942).
2. Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 360–65.
3. MacArthur to Sharp, May 9, 1942, quoted in Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 575; Wainwright to Sharp, May 7, 1942, RG 2, box 2, folder 4; Morton, Fall of the Philippines, 466, 562, 569–73.
4. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 258.
5. MacArthur to Marshall, August 1, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
6. Appreciation by the [Australian] Chiefs of Staff, February 27, 1942, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 23.
7. Appreciation by the [Australian] Chiefs of Staff, February 27, 1942, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 24.
8. Milner, Victory in Papua, 12–13. The Japanese army nixed suggestions to invade Ceylon for the same reason it opposed an invasion of Australia—the operation would tie up too many men and resources.
9. David Horner, “MacArthur and Curtin: Deciding Australian War Strategy in 1943,” in Peter J. Dean, ed., Australia 1943: The Liberation of New Guinea (Port Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 41; Long, MacArthur as Military Commander, 95.
10. Curtin to MacArthur, May 16, 1942, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 24. The March 26, 1942, minutes of the Australian Advisory War Council—a more political group than Curtin’s war cabinet but with considerable overlap—paraphrase MacArthur as saying: “It is doubtful whether the Japanese would undertake an invasion of Australia as the spoils here are not sufficient to warrant the risk. From a strategic point of view, invasion of Australia would be a blunder.” Minutes of Advisory War Council Meeting, Canberra, 26 March, 1942, quoted in Horner, Inside the War Cabinet, 225.
11. Long, MacArthur as Military Commander, 95–96, quoting, in part, an April 25, 1942, SWPA communiqué.
12. McCarthy, Kokoda to Wau, 82.
13. Sydney Morning Herald, May 9, 1942.
14. MacArthur to Curtin, October 6, 1942, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 24.
15. SWPA communiqué, March 18, 1943, quoted in Long, MacArthur as Military Commander, 94–95.
16. MacArthur to Curtin, November 6, 1943, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 25.
17. Curtin to Blamey, November 16, 1943, quoted in Morton, Strategy and Command, 255.
18. MacArthur to Smith, March 5, 1953, quoted in Morton, Strategy and Command, 255.
19. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 152; Courtney Whitney, MacArthur: His Rendezvous with History (New York: Knopf, 1956), 64–65; Charles A. Willoughby and John Chamberlain, MacArthur: 1941–1951 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954), 67.
20. Milner, Victory in Papua, 27, 39.
21. Ibid., 26, 41–42.
22. Ibid., 41.
23. MacArthur to Blamey, June 9, 1942, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 43.
24. Milner, Victory in Papua, 44.
25. For the best recent accounts of the Battle of Midway, see Craig L. Symonds, The Battle of Midway (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), and Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully, Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2007), particularly 63–66, regarding the impact of the Shokaku and Zuikaku missing Midway.
26. MacArthur to Nimitz, June 8, 1942, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
27. John Miller Jr., Guadalcanal: The First Offensive, vol. 3 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1995), 9.
28. MacArthur to Marshall, June 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
29. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:185–86; Marshall to MacArthur, June 23, 1942, and MacArthur to Marshall, June 24, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
30. Rogers, The Good Years, 245.
31. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:188.
32. D. Clayton James, “American and Japanese Strategies in the Pacific War,” in Peter Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 731.
33. MacArthur to Marshall, June 24, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder, 4.
34. MacArthur to Marshall, June 28, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
35. Marshall to MacArthur, June 29, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
36. Joint Directive for Offensive Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area Agreed Upon by the United States Chiefs of Staff, 2 July 1942, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 619–20.
37. Marshall to MacArthur, July 4, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
38. Miller, Guadalcanal, 7–8.
39. Milner, Victory in Papua, 3.
40. Milner, Victory in Papua, 51–55; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:191–93.
41. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:13–14.
42. Rogers, The Good Years, 276–78.
43. Arnold, Global Mission, 331. The extent of the MacArthur-Brett enmity is evidenced by an episode involving Brett’s use of a B-17 for his return to the United States after his recall. MacArthur maintained that he had given Brett permission to take the plane only as far as Hawaii and ordered him to “return it without delay to Australia.” According to MacArthur, “I specifically ordered that under no circumstances whatever was this plane to proceed beyond Hawaii.” Telling Marshall that Brett had “acted in direct violation of a mandatory order,” MacArthur recommended that “appropriate action be taken with regard to General Brett’s deliberate disobedience of a lawful order.” Marshall, who had his hands full with far weightier matters, responded: “General Brett is firmly of the opinion that you approved memorandum he presented to you authorizing him to bring this plane to the United States. The present situation is obviously a misunderstanding. The plane needed overhauling badly and will go in the shops here. Accordingly desire that the whole matter be dropped. Naturally this plane will be replaced as an attrition loss.” MacArthur to Marshall, September 1, 1942, and Marshall to MacArthur, September 2, 1942, Arnold papers, reel 158.
44. Thomas E. Griffith Jr., MacArthur’s Airman: General George C. Kenney and the War in the Southwest Pacific (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 1–6.
45. Griffith, MacArthur’s Airman, 14–16.
46. Ibid., 17, 42.
47. Ibid., 46, 56.
48. Marshall to MacArthur, July 7, 1942, and MacArthur to Marshall, July 7, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
49. George C. Kenney, General Kenney Reports: A Personal History of the Pacific War (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1987), 9, 11.
50. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 26–27.
51. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 28–29. In 2015, the MacArthur Museum Brisbane occupies this space with exhibits and archives related to the general’s wartime activities. The insurance company continued to use a portion of the building throughout the war despite its accommodation to MacArthur. See www.mmb.org.au.
52. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 29–30.
1. Milner, Victory in Papua, 62–65.
2. Ibid., 70.
3. King to Marshall, July 31, 1942, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 72.
4. MacArthur and Ghormley to Marshall and King, July 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
5. King to Marshall, July 10, 1942, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:202.
6. MacArthur and Ghormley to Marshall and King, July 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
7. Milner, Victory in Papua, 58, 65–66, 70.
8. Ibid., 66–68, 72, 77. The Kawaguichi Detachment, sent to Guadalcanal, would be decimated in heavy fighting on Bloody Ridge.
9. Ibid., 76–77, 80–81.
10. Ibid., 86–87.
11. SWPA communiqué no. 140, August 31, 1942, quoted in Charles Willoughby, et al., eds., Reports of General MacArthur: The Campaigns of MacArthur in the Pacific, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Chief of Military History, 1994), 70.
12. Milner, Victory in Papua, 89–91.
13. Ibid., 92.
14. The Kenney alcohol story comes from Griffith, MacArthur’s Airman, 25. Eichelberger didn’t remember this story until Kenney told him in New Guinea in 1942, according to Robert L. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road to Tokyo (New York: Viking, 1950), xv. Biographies of Eichelberger include J. F. Shortal, Forged by Fire: General Robert L. Eichelberger and the Pacific War (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1987), and Paul Chwialkowski, In Caesar’s Shadow: The Life of General Robert Eichelberger (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993).
15. Chwialkowski, In Caesar’s Shadow, 52–53; “Richardson’s intense feelings,” Marshall to MacArthur, July 30, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
16. Rogers, The Good Years, 317.
17. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 11–12; Milner, Victory in Papua, 92, 133. Part of the problem was that troops trained in large measure by officers and NCOs without combat experience had yet to meet wartime reality. According to the official Australian history, “The Australian soldier lived hard during training; in battle he was in many respects no more uncomfortable than he had often been before. The American formations on the other hand tended, in Australian opinion, to clutter themselves up with inessential paraphernalia, and thus to increase the difference between camp life and battle conditions to such an extent that contact with the latter was bound to produce a rude shock, even to the most high-spirited.” See McCarthy, Kokoda to Wau, 33.
18. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 53.
19. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 97–99; Milner, Victory in Papua, 95.
20. Milner, Victory in Papua, 97–100.
21. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 11–12. Whitehead would remain Kenney’s right arm throughout the war. Walker was reportedly killed in January of 1943 while leading a bomber raid against Rabaul, despite Kenney’s orders to stay out of combat. Some speculation exists that Walker survived a crash landing only to die as a prisoner of war.
22. See, for example, Kenney’s interview recollections in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:246–247, and Rogers, The Good Years, 329.
23. MacArthur to Kenney, September 6, 1942, quoted in Griffith, MacArthur’s Airman, 89.
24. MacArthur to Marshall, September 16, 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1.
25. MacArthur to Marshall, September 30, 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1.
26. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:226, 231.
27. Marshall to MacArthur, September 21, 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1.
28. MacArthur to Marshall, September 17, 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1.
29. Marshall to MacArthur, September 11[?], 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1.
30. MacArthur to Marshall, September 22, 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1.
31. Marshall to MacArthur, September 23, 1942, RG 4, box 16, folder 1; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 115.
32. Borneman, Admirals, 294–97. Hap Arnold took part in the Nouméa conference after having been in Australia to meet with MacArthur and inspect Kenney’s air operations. In his diary, Arnold gave Kenney high praise—“a real leader and has the finest bunch of pilots I have seen”—and MacArthur mixed reviews: “Thinking it over, MacArthur’s two hour talk gives me the impression of a brilliant mind, obsessed by a plan he can’t carry out; frustrated to the extreme, much more nervous than when I formerly knew him, hands twitch and tremble, shell-shocked.” See John W. Huston, ed., American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold’s World War II Diaries (Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press, 2002), 1:394.
33. Eichelberger to MacArthur, September 29, 1942, RG 30, box 1, folder 6.
34. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:173; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 101.
35. McCarthy, Kokoda to Wau, 280; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:232–33; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 105.
36. Milner, Victory in Papua, 104–6, 110, 113, 115, 121, 214, 413; for MacArthur’s report of Horii’s death, see SWPA press release, December 21, 1942, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
37. SWPA press release, November 18, 1942, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
38. Milner, Victory in Papua, 125–27.
39. McCarthy, Kokoda to Wau, 310.
40. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 23.
41. Ibid., 34.
42. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:241.
43. Halsey to MacArthur, November 28, 1942, RG 4, box 10, folder 2.
44. MacArthur to Marshall, November 29, 1942, RG 4, box, 16, folder 1.
45. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 15–16.
46. Sutherland to Chamberlin, November 29, 1942, Selected Papers of Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger, USA, Commanding General, Eighth Army, SWPA, USAFPAC, FECOM, 1942–1948, RG 41, box 1, folder 3.
47. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 20–21.
48. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 157–58; “absolute nadir,” Frank, MacArthur, 63.
49. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 21–22; Milner, Victory in Papua, 205n.
50. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 22.
51. For “inspired leadership,” see Eichelberger to Sutherland, December 3, 1942, RG 41, box 1, folder 2; Harding to MacArthur, December 7, 1942, RG 30, box 1, folder 6. Harding went on to minor commands in the Canal Zone and the Caribbean before overseeing the army’s official history of the war.
52. Eichelberger to Sutherland, December 13, 1942, RG 41, box 1, folder 2.
53. MacArthur to Eichelberger, December 13, 1942, RG 41, box 1, folder 2.
54. MacArthur to Eichelberger, December 25, 1942, RG 41, box 1, folder 2.
55. Rogers, The Good Years, 341.
1. Fortune, November 1942, 8, 14. In the segregationist manner of the time, Fortune broke the results into “White students” and “Negro students.” The latter named Roosevelt first, followed by Joe Louis, MacArthur, and George Washington Carver.
2. Pittsburgh Press, June 5, 1942; Portland Guardian (Victoria), June 13, 1942; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:171.
3. Blamey to MacArthur, January 28, 1943, and MacArthur to Blamey, February 12, 1943, RG 4, box 6, folder 2. Among the reasons for the friction were “the spectacle of American troops with Australian girls, particularly the wives of absent soldiers, and the American custom of caressing girls in public [and] boasting by some American troops, and their tendency to draw guns or knives in a quarrel.” See McCarthy, Kokoda to Wau, 625–26.
4. Long, MacArthur as Military Commander, 118.
5. Ibid., 119.
6. Time, July 6, 1942.
7. MacArthur to Marshall, August 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
8. Marshall to MacArthur, August 10, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4; Washington Post, August 7, 1942.
9. MacArthur to Marshall, August 11, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
10. Huston, American Airpower, 1:392–93, September 25, 1942.
11. Edward V. Rickenbacker, Rickenbacker: An Autobiography (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 327, 337, 376.
12. For such speculation, see, for example, Frank, MacArthur, 59; W. David Lewis, Eddie Rickenbacker: An American Hero of the Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 414–15, 443–44, 622n; Finis Farr, Rickenbacker’s Luck: An American Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979), 241.
13. For one person’s speculation about Sutherland’s thoughts, see Rogers, The Good Years, 342.
14. Eichelberger to American Troops in the Buna Area, January 3, 1943, RG 41, box 1, folder 3.
15. SWPA communiqué no. 271, January 8, 1943, quoted in Willoughby, et al., Reports of General MacArthur, 1:98.
16. MacArthur to Eichelberger, January 8, 1943, RG 41, box 1, folder 3.
17. Miller, Guadalcanal, 348.
18. Jay Luvaas, ed., Dear Miss Em: General Eichelberger’s War in the Pacific, 1942–1945 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 62.
19. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 57; Courier-Mail (Brisbane), January 8, 1943.
20. Milner, Victory in Papua, 330, 347, 358, 361–62.
21. Eichelberger to Sutherland, January 16, 1943, RG 41, box 1, folder 3.
22. Order of the Day, January 22, 1943, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 365.
23. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 22.
24. Mitsuo Koiwai postwar testimony, quoted in Milner, Victory in Papua, 374.
25. SWPA communiqué no. 291, January 28, 1943, RG 4, box 47, folder 3.
26. Milner, Victory in Papua, 370–72.
27. Miller, Guadalcanal, 350. These numbers do not include air or naval losses, the latter of which totaled more than four thousand American sailors in the naval engagements around Guadalcanal.
28. Milner, Victory in Papua, 372.
29. SWPA press release, January 24, 1943, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
30. SWPA press release, January 9, 1943, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
31. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:275–76. After the North African campaign, Marshall recommended Eisenhower for a Medal of Honor after he had seen far less frontline action than Eichelberger. Eisenhower refused to be considered for it, thinking it an undeserved combat decoration and—according to what Eichelberger claimed Eisenhower told him after the war—“because he knew of a man who had received one for sitting in a hole in the ground—meaning MacArthur” on Corregidor. See Luvaas, Dear Miss Em, 76n15.
32. Michael Schaller, Douglas MacArthur: The Far Eastern General (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 69.
33. Life, February 15, 1943, 17–18; Saturday Evening Post, February 20, 1943, 22.
34. Luvaas, Dear Miss Em, 65.
35. Ibid.
36. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 157; Luvaas, Dear Miss Em, 65.
37. It has generally been reported by historians that the British had their way on the first two points and that the Americans prevailed on the latter. Given the indirect nature of the first two against Germany, it has even been argued that they combined with the third to create “a de-facto Pacific-first strategy in the face of direct presidential orders to the contrary.” See Mark A. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries: The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Grand Alliance, and U.S. Strategy in World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 101.
38. Arnold to Marshall, October 6, 1942, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 265.
39. Streett to Wedemeyer, October 9, 1942, and Wedemeyer to Streett, October 11, 1942, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 265. The War Plans Division became the Operations Division, War Department General Staff, effective March 23, 1942.
40. Streett to Handy, October 31, 1942, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 265–66.
41. New York Times, February 23, 1942; Stimson diary, December 10, 1941; Huston, American Airpower, 1:392–93, September 25, 1942.
42. For a further discussion of the myth—or reality—of unity of command, see Phillip S. Meilinger, “Unity of Command in the Pacific During World War II,” Joint Force Quarterly 56 (2010), 152–56.
43. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, 507.
44. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 266–67.
45. Ibid., 269–71.
1. MacArthur and Ghormley to Marshall and King, July 8, 1942, RG 4, box 15, folder 4.
2. MacArthur to Marshall, January 27, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 2.
3. King to Marshall, February 6, 1943, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 309.
4. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 311, 821n30.
5. John Miller Jr., Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul, vol. 5 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1959), 34–36.
6. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 67; Miller, Cartwheel, 36–38.
7. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, xii.
8. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 68; Miller, Cartwheel, 40. Based on Ultra, Kenney’s bombers disrupted an earlier attempt to reinforce Lae, sinking two transports, damaging another, and eliminating six hundred soldiers who might have made the difference at Wau. Ultra was not, however, infallible. Because of a temporary blackout caused by a change of cipher key, cryptanalysts missed the move of ten thousand men of the Twentieth Division from Palau to Wewak. See Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 66.
9. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 69–71, 251n22; Miller, Cartwheel, 40–41; “We went in,” New York Times, March 7, 1943.
10. SWPA communiqué no. 326, March 4, 1943, RG 4, box 47, folder 3. There were no cruisers in the immediate Bismarck–Huon Gulf area, although large destroyers were routinely misidentified as light cruisers by both sides.
11. Diller interview, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:295.
12. SWPA communiqué no. 329, March 7, 1943, RG 4, box 47, folder 3.
13. Washington Post, April 14, 1943.
14. Ibid., April 14, 1943.
15. Wedemeyer to Marshall, April 15, 1943, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:297.
16. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944, vol. 4 of The Army Air Forces in World War II (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 147–49.
17. Marshall to MacArthur, September 7, 1943, RG 3, box 1, folder 7.
18. MacArthur to Marshall, September 7, 1943, RG 3, box 1, folder 7.
19. Marshall to MacArthur, September 8, 1943, RG 3, box 1, folder 7; Kenney to Arnold, September 14, 1943, RG 4; box 6, folder 1; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:299. The air force historical office accepted the lower losses.
20. Washington Post, September 4, 1945.
21. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:300.
22. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 171; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 205; Whitney, Rendezvous with History, 85; Willoughby, MacArthur, 111.
23. Kenney, The MacArthur I Know, 91. This book was released in the wake of MacArthur’s firing by Truman and essentially reiterated pro-MacArthur accounts from General Kenney Reports.
24. Kenney interview, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:301–2; Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 6, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier (Boston: Little, Brown, 1950), 64.
25. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:303.
26. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 71–72.
27. Washington Post, September 4, 1945.
28. Rickenbacker, Rickenbacker, 332–33.
29. Maurice Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1944, vol. 4 of United States Army in World War II: The War Department (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1994), 92n62.
30. Matloff, Strategic Planning, 93.
31. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 313–14; Matloff, Strategic Planning, 92n61, 97; Richard M. Leighton and Robert W. Coakley, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940–1943 vol. 5 of United States Army in World War II: The War Department (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1995), 694.
32. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 211–12.
33. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 315–16.
34. Memo, Sutherland, Spruance, and Browning to JCS, “Offensive Operations in the South and Southwest Pacific Areas during 1943,” March 20, 1943, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 326.
35. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 327.
36. Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive: Offensive Operations in the South and Southwest Pacific Areas During 1943, 28 March 1943, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 641.
1. Borneman, Admirals, 43–48, 78; “had the time,” Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 33; for a full-length biography of Halsey, see E. B. Potter, Bull Halsey: A Biography (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1985).
2. Borneman, Admirals, 156–58, 177–78; Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 66.
3. MacArthur to Halsey, February 9, 1943, RG 4, box 10, folder 2.
4. Halsey to Nimitz, February 13, 1943, William Frederick Halsey Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, box 15, file folder “Special Correspondence, Nimitz, 1941–April 1943.”
5. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 154.
6. MacArthur to Nimitz and Halsey, January 13, 1943, RG 4, box 10, folder 2. Despite his “Allied” command, MacArthur seems to have been loath to have the Australian Blamey preside over SWPA in his absence.
7. Marshall to MacArthur, January, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 2.
8. Potter, Bull Halsey, 215.
9. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 154–55.
10. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 173–74.
11. Nimitz to Halsey, May 14, 1943, Chester W. Nimitz Papers, series 13, box 120, Naval History and Heritage Command, Washington, DC.
12. The Elkton III plan is reproduced in Morton, Strategy and Command, 675–85; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:315–16; Miller, Cartwheel, 26.
13. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:317.
14. MacArthur to Marshall, June 12, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 3.
15. An extract from the final report of the Trident Conference, approved May 25, 1943, is reproduced in Morton, Strategy and Command, 648–49. The invasion of the Gilbert Islands, and what would prove to be bloody Tarawa, was not added as a step to precede the Marshall invasion until the Quadrant Conference in late August.
16. MacArthur to Marshall, June 24, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 3.
17. MacArthur to Marshall, June 20, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 3.
18. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 1943–1945 (New York: Viking, 1973), 253.
19. Sydney Morning Herald, May 14, 1943; Potter, Bull Halsey, 219–20, 400n. Apparently for security reasons, it took almost a month for reports of their conference to appear in newspapers in Australia and the United States.
20. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:320–21; Borneman, Admirals, 315–16, 517-18n.
21. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 174–75.
22. For biographical material about Barbey, see Daniel E. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy: Seventh Amphibious Force Operations, 1943–1945 (Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute, 1969), and Paolo E. Coletta’s chapter on Barbey in William M. Leary, ed., We Shall Return! MacArthur’s Commanders and the Defeat of Japan (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988).
23. Morison, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier, 130, 134.
24. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 24.
25. Ibid., 232.
26. For biographies of Krueger, see Kevin C. Holzimmer, General Walter Krueger: Unsung Hero of the Pacific War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), and William M. Leary’s chapter about Krueger in Leary, We Shall Return! “Doctrine knits,” Holzimmer, General Walter Krueger, 42; “love to try,” ibid., 97. Halsey did a similar exchange stint at the Army War College while Krueger was at Jefferson Barracks.
27. MacArthur to Marshall, January 11, 1943, quoted in Willoughby, et al., Reports of General MacArthur, 1:107n.
28. Holzimmer, General Walter Krueger, 101–2; Leary, We Shall Return, 66; “What [Kreuger’s] seniors,” Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 27.
29. Luvaas, Dear Miss Em, 67.
30. Chart of the command organization, Southwest Pacific Area, July 1943, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 409.
31. Morison, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier, 133.
32. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 42, 57.
33. “Biggest anti-Navy agitator,” Tarbuck to Barbey, May 19, 1961, quoted in Gerald E. Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1995), 362; Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 61.
34. Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan, 178–79.
35. SWPA press release, August 18, 1943, RG 4, box 49, folder 1.
36. MacArthur to Halsey, August 23, 1943, and Halsey to MacArthur, August 25, 1943, Halsey papers, box 15, folder “MacArthur.”
37. Miller, Cartwheel, 202–5.
1. Miller, Cartwheel, 224.
2. Marshall to MacArthur, July 21, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 3.
3. MacArthur to Marshall, July 23, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 3.
4. Halsey notes, April 2, 1951, Halsey papers, box 35.
5. Extract of the Final Report of the Combined Chiefs of Staff to the President and Prime Minister at the Quadrant Conference, 24 August 1943 (CCS 319/5), in Morton, Strategy and Command, 650–53.
6. Miller, Cartwheel, 225; Marshall to MacArthur, October 2, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 4.
7. Willoughby, et al., Reports of General MacArthur, 1:121.
8. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:324.
9. Miller, Cartwheel, 191.
10. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 288–89.
11. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 179.
12. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 289. According to Kenney’s interview with D. Clayton James, he was in the lead B-17, and MacArthur was in the number three plane. George C. Kenney interview, RG 49, box 1.
13. Kenney to Arnold, September 7, 1943, quoted in Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan, 185. The numbers of aircraft are Kenney’s and differ slightly from squadron reports. See Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan, 724–25n95.
14. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 293; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 179; SWPA communiqué no. 541, October 4, 1943, RG 4, box 47, folder 1.
15. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 179.
16. Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan, 186.
17. Miller, Cartwheel, 212–13; Japan’s National Defense Zone, September 1943, plate 57 in Willoughby, et al., Reports of General MacArthur, 2:227.
18. Miller, Cartwheel, 217–18. Adair to Barbey, August 5, 1960, quoted in Leary, We Shall Return!, 219.
19. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:329; Willoughby, et al., Reports of General MacArthur, 2:229.
20. SWPA communiqué no. 541, October 4, 1943, RG 4, box 47, folder 4.
21. David Dexter, The New Guinea Offensives, Australia in the War of 1939–1945, ser. 1, vol. 6 (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1961), 483.
22. Miller, Cartwheel, 272–73n2.
23. Kenney to MacArthur, October 10, 1943, quoted in Miller, Cartwheel, 273.
24. Miller, Cartwheel, 273–74.
25. Whitehead to Kenney, November 11, 1943, Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan, 329–30; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 326–27.
26. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 327; Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 100.
27. Miller, Cartwheel, 274–75.
28. For biographies of Kinkaid, see Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, and Wheeler’s chapter on Kinkaid in Leary, We Shall Return!
29. Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 273–86; see also John B. Lundstrom, The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1994), 353, 356–459.
30. MacArthur’s displeasure with Carpender, evidently exacerbated by Sutherland’s and Kenney’s routine antagonism of the navy, is referenced in Buell, Master of Sea Power, 319–20; D. Clayton James, A Time for Giants: The Politics of the American High Command in World War II (New York: Franklin Watts, 1987), 110; Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 343; and James, Years of MacArthur, 2:357–58, 866n18. As MacArthur put it: “[Carpender] is not especially fitted to serve in a mixed command due to his concentration upon his own service channels rather than the broader concept of inter-service integration of outlook.” MacArthur to King, June 17, 1943, RG 4, box 10, folder 3.
31. MacArthur to Marshall, October 27, 1943, Marshall to MacArthur, October 27, 1943, MacArthur to Marshall, October 28, 1943, RG 4, box 16, folder 4.
32. Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 345, 349.
33. George McMillan, The Old Breed: A History of the First Marine Division in World War II (Washington, DC: Infantry Journal Press, 1949), 168–70; Miller, Cartwheel, 278; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:343.
34. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 89.
35. Leary, We Shall Return!, 221.
36. Miller, Cartwheel, 279, 284, 291–92.
37. Willoughby and Chamberlain, MacArthur, 139.
38. Morison, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier, 377–78.
39. Krueger to MacArthur and MacArthur to Krueger, December 28, 1943, RG 4, box 14, folder 3.
40. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:335.
1. Courier-Mail (Brisbane), September 27, 1943, quoting in part the New York Herald Tribune and Army and Navy Journal.
2. Whitehill interview with King, August 29, 1949, box 7, file folder 28, Naval Historical Collection, Naval War College, Newport, RI; Eisenhower’s corroboration of King’s account is in Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe, 196.
3. William D. Leahy, I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time (New York: Whittlesey House, 1950), 201–2.
4. Ibid., 207–8.
5. Leahy, I Was There, 209; Charles F. Brower, Defeating Japan: The Joint Chiefs of Staff and Strategy in the Pacific War, 1943–1945 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 83–84.
6. Brower, Defeating Japan, 86–87. King was among those who questioned in hindsight what impact the decision to scrap Operation Buccaneer had on postwar China and the eventual collapse of Chiang Kai-shek’s government. See King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King, 525–26.
7. Overall Plan for the Defeat of Japan: Report by the Combined Staff Planners, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 668–69. Had Operation Buccaneer gone forward, it might have required closer cooperation between American and British commands.
8. Paul P. Rogers, The Bitter Years: MacArthur and Sutherland (New York: Praeger, 1991), 57.
9. Ibid.
10. Jean MacArthur acknowledged MacArthur’s habit of rehearsing speeches, particularly “Duty, Honor, Country.” Paul Miles, in discussion with the author, January 31, 2014, recounting conversations with Jean MacArthur and William C. Westmoreland.
11. For Paul Rogers’s insights into Sutherland’s transformation, which should be taken cautiously, see The Bitter Years, 58–59.
12. Morton, Strategy and Command, 537–38, 541–42.
13. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, pp. 506-507.
14. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe, 206–7. According to Marshall, the president told him, “Well I didn’t feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington.” As Marshall’s chief biographer put it, “The prominent part taken by the Chief of Staff in current meetings… must have made the President realize anew the necessity of retaining him in the Allied councils.” Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 320–21.
15. Weldon E. “Dusty” Rhoades, Flying MacArthur to Victory (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1987), 137.
16. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 160; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 322–23.
17. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 160–61.
18. Ibid., 162–65.
19. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 323. There has been some speculation over the years about Marshall’s motives in traveling to the Pacific. Bruce Mangan, a retired American intelligence officer, quoted Frank McCarthy, Marshall’s aide, secretary of the General Staff, and later the producer of the films Patton and MacArthur, as saying, in a conversation around 1979, that “‘taking the long way home’ was Marshall’s way of getting through the disappointment” of not having been given command of Operation Overlord. However, McCarthy told Pogue in earlier letters that Marshall gave “no indication of despair” in not getting the post. Marshall would have had to harbor particular bitterness if the tonic he chose to ease it with was a visit with Douglas MacArthur, who, after all, had been the cause of considerable stomach acid! Bruce Mangan, e-mail message to author, January 31, 2014; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 325, 641n62.
20. Hunt, Untold Story of Douglas MacArthur, 313–14. MacArthur apostles Charles Willoughby and Courtney Whitney did not mention Marshall’s visit in their books.
21. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 333; Rogers, The Bitter Years, 61.
22. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 333–34; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:370-371; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 323–24; Rogers, The Bitter Years, 61; Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 354–55.
23. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 183–84.
24. Marshall to MacArthur, December 23, 1943, RG 15, box 13, folder 5.
25. Hunt, Untold Story of Douglas MacArthur, 314.
26. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:374. As noted earlier, MacArthur had been the direct beneficiary of King’s constant calls for more resources in the Pacific. There is one other myth that grew out of the brief MacArthur-Marshall meeting on Goodenough Island that must be dismissed. Writing in American Caesar, William Manchester quoted Marshall as interrupting MacArthur when he referred to “my staff” by retorting, “You don’t have a staff, General. You have a court.” While at some levels that might have been an accurate characterization, it is hardly in keeping with Marshall’s widely acknowledged persona for him to have said it. No less an authority than Forrest Pogue took Manchester to task for citing as its source Pogue’s own biography of Marshall. Pogue vehemently disclaimed responsibility for the quote and doubted Marshall made it. Pogue went on to say that he knew of no one who would take authorship of yet another sentence in Manchester’s footnoted paragraph. It took a swipe at Marshall by noting, as if it were somehow related, that “the Chief of Staff had been off horseback riding when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and tactful officers never reminded him of it.” Manchester, American Caesar, 352, 729n156; Forrest Pogue, “The Military in a Democracy—A Review: American Caesar,” International Security 3, no. 4 (Spring 1979), 65.
27. Matloff, Strategic Planning, 399.
28. Ibid., 396–97.
29. Table 5—U.S. Overseas Deployment: 31 December 1943, in Matloff, Strategic Planning, 398.
30. MacArthur to O’Laughlin, October 26, 1943, RG 3, box 1, folder 7.
31. Table 6—Strength, U.S. Forces in the Pacific, 31 December 1943, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 538; Australian estimate from John Robertson, Australia at War 1939–1945 (Melbourne: Heinemann, 1981), 124.
32. Table 7—Major U.S. Combat Forces in the Pacific, 31 December 1943, and Table 8—Major U.S. Combat and Air Forces in Pacific and European Areas, 31 December 1943, in Morton, Strategy and Command, 539–40.
33. Morton, Strategy and Command, 521–22; Matloff, Strategic Planning, 317; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:353.
34. Matloff, Strategic Planning, 400–401.
35. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:352.
36. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 100.
37. Robert W. Coakley and Richard M. Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943–1945, vol. 6 of United States Army in World War II: The War Department (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1989), 246.
38. Table 21—Shipbuilding in 1944: Evolution of the Program in 1943, in Coakley and Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy, 258.
39. MacArthur to Duncan, March 3, 1944, RG 10, box 3, folder 92.
40. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 61–62.
1. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 128.
2. Miller, Cartwheel, 302–4.
3. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 92–93.
4. Borneman, Admirals, 348, 350–53.
5. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 186.
6. Draft of letter from Halsey to “My dear John” (whose identity is unknown), April 2, 1951, Halsey papers, box 35. Why King included Rabaul in his question when he was well aware of the bypass decision is uncertain, but that’s the way Halsey remembered the exchange.
7. Miller, Cartwheel, 308. For more on the January 27–28, 1944, conference at Pearl Harbor, particularly the erroneous perception reported to MacArthur that Nimitz and his staff suddenly leaned toward supporting the New Guinea axis over the central Pacific, see Matloff, Strategic Planning, 455–57; Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 546–47; and Borneman, Admirals, 360–61.
8. Miller, Cartwheel, 315.
9. John Miller Jr., “MacArthur and the Admiralties,” in Kent Roberts Greenfield, ed., Command Decisions (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1987), 295.
10. Ibid., 296–97.
11. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 359–60.
12. Miller, “MacArthur and the Admiralties,” 298–99; Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 102.
13. Miller, Cartwheel, 317.
14. Kinkaid to Miller, November 16, 1953, quoted in Miller, “MacArthur and the Admiralties,” 299.
15. MacArthur to Marshall, February 2, 1944, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 548–49.
16. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 550.
17. MacArthur to Marshall, February 27, 1944, RG 4, box 16, folder 6.
18. Marshall to MacArthur, March 9, 1944, RG 4, box 16, folder 4.
19. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 189. Rhoades flew the Bataan to Port Moresby to await their return.
20. Miller, “MacArthur and the Admiralties,” 300; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 361.
21. Roger Olaf Egeberg, The General: MacArthur and the Man He Called “Doc” (New York: Hippocrene, 1983), 15–17, 25.
22. Miller, “MacArthur and the Admiralties,” 300.
23. SPWA press release, March 1, 1944 (10:00 p.m.), RG 4, box 49, folder 3.
24. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 188.
25. Egeberg, The General, 30.
26. Ibid., 33–34.
27. SWPA press release, March 1, 1944, RG 4, box 49, folder 3.
28. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 190.
29. Miller, Reduction of Rabaul, 330–32.
30. SWPA press release, unknown date, RG 4, box 49, folder 3.
31. Miller, Cartwheel, 324, 343, 348–49; SWPA communiqué no. 700, March 10, 1944, RG 4, box 48, folder 1.
32. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 189–90.
33. Leahy, I Was There, 224.
34. Ibid., 229–30.
35. MacArthur to Leahy, December 28, 1949, RG 10, VIP files.
36. Leahy to MacArthur, January 5, 1950, RG 10, VIP files.
37. Leahy, I Was There, 228.
38. Truk had an undeserved reputation as a “Gibraltar of the Pacific” but was more important than Rabaul as a linchpin in Japanese naval operations. Discussions about bypassing Truk or taking it by direct assault went on for months, although because it was located in the Central Pacific Area, MacArthur was not directly involved.
39. Memo, Naval Bases in South Pacific Areas for Supporting Future Operations, March 27, 1944, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 564–65.
40. Marshall to MacArthur, March 19, 1944, RG 15, box 13, folder 5.
1. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 94–95, 104, 232.
2. MacArthur to Marshall, March 5, 1944, RG 4, box 16, folder 4.
3. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 369–70; Griffith, MacArthur’s Airman, 158, 294n12. Griffith deems it unlikely that Kenney would have proposed such a move.
4. Halsey to unknown recipient (draft of letter), April 2, 1951, Halsey papers, box 35.
5. Fellers to Barbey, August 3, 1960, RG 44a, box 1, folder 3. The aide was likely Roger Egeberg or Larry Lehrbas. According to Fellers, the navy and air force planners were Captain Ray Tarbuck and Colonel Royden E. Beebe Jr.
6. Fellers to Barbey, August 3, 1960, November 9, 1965, and November 17, 1965, RG 44a, box 1, folder 3. See Hunt, Untold Story of Douglas MacArthur, 325. Fellers told Barbey that Hunt’s account was “accurate.” Willoughby apparently sided with Chamberlin: see Willoughby, MacArthur, 104, about “Steve Chamberlin’s account,” claiming Chamberlin proposed Hollandia at a conference that included MacArthur, Kenney, and Dick Marshall.
7. Barbey to Fellers, July 29, 1960, RG 44a, box 1, folder 3.
8. Fellers to Chamberlin, March 20, 1944, RG 44a, box 1, folder 8.
9. JCS to MacArthur and Nimitz, March 12, 1944, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 559–60; see also Matloff, Strategic Planning, 458–59.
10. Leahy, I Was There, 230.
11. MacArthur to Nimitz, March 15, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6.
12. Nimitz to MacArthur, March 15, 1944, RG-4, box 10, folder 6.
13. Potter, Nimitz, 290–91. Halsey did not attend this conference because he had just seen MacArthur and was occupied with wrapping up the Emirau operation.
14. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 373–74, 377; Potter, Nimitz, 290.
15. Nimitz to King, April 2, 1944, quoted in James, A Time for Giants, 178.
16. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 162.
17. Robert Ross Smith, The Approach to the Philippines, vol. 8 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1996), 22.
18. Barbey to Fellers, August 19, 1960, RG 44a, box 1, folder 3.
19. Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan, 592–95; Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 373–74, 379–81.
20. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 9, 100, 102. One of Eichelberger’s strangest experiences that year came on MacArthur’s sixty-fourth birthday—January 26, 1944—when MacArthur visited Eichelberger’s training camp at Rockhampton. A photo of the two was circulated with the caption “General MacArthur and General Eichelberger at the New Guinea Front.” Eichelberger claimed that the dead giveaway was “the unmistakable nose of a Packard motorcar in one corner of the picture [and] there weren’t any Packards in the New Guinea jungle in early 1944” (page 99).
21. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 217; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:450. These two sources, as well as Egeberg’s, differ as to who piloted which aircraft.
22. Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 30–31.
23. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 169–70.
24. Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 365.
25. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 167–69; Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 102–3; Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 48–49.
26. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 169; Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 52.
27. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 105.
28. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:448; Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 53–54.
29. Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 55–58.
30. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 172.
31. Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 78–79.
32. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 173; Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 107.
33. SPWA press release, April 24, 1944, RG 4, box 49, folder 3; Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 219.
34. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 178–79.
35. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 192.
36. GHQ SPWA, Communiqué No. 745, April 24, 1944, RG 4, box 48, folder 1.
37. William Manchester, Goodbye Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War (New York: Little, Brown, 1979), 243. See also Manchester’s characterization of it as “a military classic.” Manchester, American Caesar, 344.
38. Smith, Approach to the Philippines, 577.
39. Marshall to MacArthur, June 8, 1944, RG 15, box 13, folder 5.
40. Kenney interview, in James, A Time for Giants, 200.
41. MacArthur to Marshall, June 18, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 1.
42. Marshall to MacArthur, June 24, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 1. For an appraisal of Marshall as a global strategist, see Paul L. Miles, “Marshall as Grand Strategist,” in Charles F. Brower, ed., George C. Marshall: Servant of the American Nation (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
1. MacArthur to Wood, May 7, 1914, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 1:121; MacArthur to Pershing, circa July 1918, Pershing papers, box 121; New York Times, April 21, 1929; Drum to MacArthur, June 29, 1936, RG 10, box 3, folder 6. As to the first point, it is my observation that those who suggest the presidency for others are merely hoping to have similar suggestions fall their own way.
2. MacArthur to Carver, January 10, 1938, RG 1, box 1, folder 10.
3. Wendell Willkie, “Let Us Do More Proposing Than Opposing,” Vital Speeches of the Day 8, no. 8 (March 1, 1942), 299.
4. New York Times, May 20, 1942. Following MacArthur in the top five were Wendell Willkie, Thomas E. Dewey, Henry A. Wallace, and Donald M. Nelson.
5. Time, November 9, 1942, 21–22.
6. The Argus (Melbourne), October 30, 1942.
7. Stimson diary, October 29, 1942.
8. Huff, Fifteen Years, 89; Arthur H. Vandenberg Jr., ed., The Private Papers of Senator Vandenberg (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), 77–78.
9. MacArthur to Vandenberg, April 13, 1943, Private Papers, 77.
10. Schaller, Douglas MacArthur, 77–78, quoting from Wilkinson journal entries of November 1, 1942, and January 14 and February 13, 1943.
11. Wilkinson recorded Stuart’s perceptions in his journal on January 26, 1943; a copy of the journal from Churchill College, Cambridge, is in RG 15, box 15, folder 2.
12. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:427–28.
13. Franklin D. Roosevelt press conference, October 5, 1943, #920, pages 9–11, http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/_resources/images/pc/pc0153.pdf, accessed January 15, 2015; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:361–62.
14. Vandenberg to Wood, November 5, 1943, Private Papers, 82–83. For Willoughby’s role, see, for example, Vandenberg to Willoughby, August 17, 1943, RG 10, VIP files.
15. John McCarten, “General MacArthur: Fact and Legend” American Mercury 58 (January 1944), 7–18. The Army War College’s library service recommended the McCarten article in its monthly bulletin describing materials distributed to unit libraries; D. Clayton James noted that it was “the only published article about him” that was placed in his personnel file. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:413, 871n12.
16. Arthur H. Vandenberg, “Why I Am for MacArthur,” Colliers, February 12, 1944, 14, 48–49.
17. McCarthy to chief of staff, February 16, 1944, RG 15, box 13, folder 5.
18. Editorial, “MacArthur and the Censorship,” Harper’s Magazine 188 (May 1944), 537.
19. New York Times, May 6, 1944.
20. The situation closest to this was that of General George B. McClellan during the Civil War. Dodderer that he was during the Peninsula campaign, McClellan had held no major command for the better part of two years before he challenged Lincoln in the 1864 election while still nominally on active duty. Democrat James K. Polk was uncomfortable with the presidential ambitions of his two top generals during the Mexican-American War—Whigs Winfield Scott and Zachary Taylor—but Polk had made it clear that he would serve but one term, and Scott and Taylor remained generally silent on their presidential interests.
21. McCarten, “General MacArthur: Fact and Legend,” 8; see also Vandenberg to Willoughby, August 17, 1943, Private Papers, 80, outlining the plan to do “absolutely nothing of a promotional nature which would involve ‘our campaign’ in any ordinary political atmosphere or involve us in any of the usual preconvention methods.”
22. MacArthur to Fellers, December 29, 1939, RG 44a, box 3, folder 23.
23. Miller to MacArthur, September 18, 1943, RG 10, VIP files; MacArthur to Miller, October 2, 1943, reproduced in New York Times, April 14, 1944.
24. Miller to MacArthur, January 27, 1944, RG 10, VIP files; MacArthur to Miller, February 11, 1944, reproduced in New York Times, April 14, 1944.
25. Cantril, Public Opinion, 626, 632. The August 17, 1943, poll showed MacArthur with only 7 percent, but the question was asked of all voters. The other samplings were among Republicans.
26. Cantril, Public Opinion, 634. It is further telling that in all the polls reported by Public Opinion during 1943 and 1944, MacArthur’s is the only military name to appear regularly. One cannot find Marshall, Eisenhower, Somervell, or any other name save that of Harold Stassen, who started as a politician.
27. Vandenberg to Wood, April 10, 1944, Private Papers, 83–84.
28. SWPA press release, April 17, 1944, RG 4, box 49, folder 3.
29. SWPA press release, April 30, 1944, RG 4, box 49, folder 3. General William Tecumseh Sherman started the art of absolute denial in politics when he professed in 1872, “I hereby state, and mean all that I say, that I never have been and never will be a candidate for President; that if nominated by either party, I should peremptorily decline; and even if unanimously elected I should decline to serve.”
30. Vandenberg to MacArthur, June 6, 1944, RG 3, box 1, folder 8.
31. Marshall to MacArthur, July 6, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 1.
32. MacArthur to Marshall, July 18, 1944, and Marshall to MacArthur, July 18, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 1.
33. Leahy, I Was There, 247–48.
34. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 249, 252–53 (July 10 and 15, 1944). Despite MacArthur’s routinely reported vitality and the fact many Allied leaders, including the president’s wife, had been crisscrossing the globe in support of the war effort, for a man of sixty-four, twenty-six hours in the air was a taxing trip.
35. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 256–58, July 26, 1944. Why Roger Egeberg didn’t accompany MacArthur as his physician is not known. Chambers was likely the doctor instrumental in getting Egeberg assigned to MacArthur. Rhoades noted his amusement at the fact that some newsmen erroneously reported that MacArthur arrived in Hawaii in the Bataan.
36. Schedule from daily log at FDR Library at http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/daybyday/daylog/july-26th-1944/, accessed July 14, 2014.
37. Leahy, I Was There, 249–50.
38. Newspaper clippings, Chester W. Nimitz Collection, section 8, Naval History and Heritage Command.
39. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 199.
40. Egeberg interview, October 18, 1976, quoted in Manchester, American Caesar, 368.
41. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 197–98.
42. Leahy, I Was There, 251.
43. William D. Leahy diary, July 29, 1944, William D. Leahy Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
44. Leahy, I Was There, 250–51.
45. Ibid., 250.
46. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 260–61 (July 29, 1944).
47. Roosevelt, Complete Presidential Press Conferences, 24:33, July 29, 1944.
48. Leahy, I Was There, 255. This meeting occurred on August 22. Nothing in the record suggests that the chiefs considered Leahy’s report of Roosevelt’s comments in the Luzon–Formosa debate as a directive to take Luzon first. Hayes, History of Joint Chiefs, 875n34.
1. Bonner Fellers draft of Pearl Harbor conference notes, page 7, RG 44a, box 3, folder 16.
2. King to MacArthur, July 21, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6. A messenger delivered this letter to MacArthur on the evening of MacArthur’s arrival in Honolulu.
3. MacArthur to King, August 5, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6.
4. Roosevelt to MacArthur, August 9, 1944, RG 15, box 23, folder 23.
5. MacArthur to Roosevelt, August 26, 1944, RG 15, box 23, folder 23.
6. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 453.
7. Marshall to MacArthur, September 12, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2. It should be noted in Great Britain’s defense that the British always anticipated that any operations in the SWPA—unless boundaries changed—would be under MacArthur’s supreme command, just as American troops in the CBI theater were under Mountbatten’s supreme command.
8. Roosevelt to MacArthur, September 15, 1944, RG 15, box 23, folder 23.
9. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 479.
10. Ibid., 480. New Zealand had little to do with MacArthur because it was in the South Pacific Area.
11. Ibid., 481.
12. Ibid., 484.
13. Ibid., 479. Nonetheless, in one of his many tirades about lack of American support for his theater, MacArthur once let a ray of truth show through and told John O’Laughlin: “If I had not had the Australians I would have been lost indeed.” MacArthur to O’Laughlin, October 26, 1943, RG 3, box 1, folder 7.
14. Dean, Architect of Victory, 272–74; Peter J. Dean, “MacArthur’s War: Strategy, Command and Plans for the 1943 Offensives,” in Dean, Australia 1943, 57. As Australia’s official war history described it, MacArthur’s sidelining of Australian troops was “achieved by stealth and by the employment of subterfuges that were undignified and at times absurd.” Gavin Long, The Final Campaigns: Australia in the War of 1939–1945, ser. 1, vol. 7 (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1963), 599.
15. Marshall to MacArthur, August 9, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2. The Ninety-Third Division was a segregated unit that had served with distinction in France during World War I and had recently been reactivated.
16. MacArthur to Marshall, August 9, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
17. Matloff, Strategic Planning, 483–85.
18. As D. Clayton James noted in an article on strategy after the completion of his MacArthur trilogy: “The recurring piecemeal nature of Japanese ground, sea, and air defensive operations demonstrated a serious lack of coordination and cooperation between the army and navy commands that made American inter-service rivalries appear mild in contrast.” James, “American and Japanese Strategies,” 718.
19. Robert Ross Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, vol. 10 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1993), 9–10; Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 614–16. The fourth member of the Joint Chiefs, Hap Arnold, commanding general of the US Army Air Forces, was no longer too concerned with the prospects of bomber bases in China because B-29s were about to start flying against Japan’s home islands from safer and more reliably supplied bases in the Marianas. That proved a good thing, because as Chinese resistance weakened, Japanese forces overran air bases in southern China previously planned for B-29 use.
20. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 616–20; Matloff, Strategic Planning, 486–87. The islands in the Palau archipelago, including the tiny atoll of Peleliu, lie near the center of a circle encompassing Hollandia, Mindanao, the Marianas, and Truk. With Truk isolated, Palau was a natural springboard to the Philippines as well as a center for land-based air.
21. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 287 (September 19, 1944).
22. For more on Spruance’s role at the Battle of the Philippine Sea, see Borneman, Admirals, 364–68.
23. MacArthur to Halsey, undated, Halsey papers, box 15, folder “MacArthur.”
24. Halsey to MacArthur, June 10, 1944, RG 10, VIP file.
25. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 198–200.
26. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 200; M. Hamlin Cannon, Leyte: Return to the Philippines, vol. 9 of The United States Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1993), 8–9.
27. Borneman, Admirals, 385. A regimental combat team occupied Ulithi and its fine anchorage without opposition on September 23, a week after the Peleliu invasion.
28. MacArthur to Joint Chiefs, September 15, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 453–54, quoting Marshall’s biennial report to the secretary of war. Despite the intrigue over a larger role for the British in the Pacific, including the deployment of the British fleet, the American Joint Chiefs appear to have made this decision without consulting their British counterparts—another indication that the Americans continued to consider the Pacific their domain.
29. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:488–89, 800; Egeberg, The General, 59; SWPA press release, September 15, 1944, RG 4, box 49, folder 3.
30. MacArthur to Sutherland, September 16, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6.
31. Hunt, Untold Story of Douglas MacArthur, 341.
32. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 160.
33. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 432.
34. JCS to MacArthur, September 13, 1944, quoted in Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 621.
35. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 434; Rogers, The Bitter Years, 161–62.
36. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 162.
37. Sutherland likely told Marshall he was acting for MacArthur.
38. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 285.
39. The Argus (Melbourne), March 27, 1944, 6; Rogers, The Bitter Years, 65–68.
40. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 209.
41. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 81–85.
42. Ibid., 91–92.
43. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 147, 149; Egeberg, The General, 59.
44. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 163–66; Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 283, 285. Sutherland told Rhoades that he wanted Clarke returned to Brisbane on the Bataan along with MacArthur but that under the circumstances it “was not possible.” He directed Rhoades to arrange other transportation for her.
45. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 623–24.
1. MacArthur’s office itinerary is reported in James, Years of MacArthur, vol. 2, appendix B. James, page 494, gives a total night count at Hollandia of four, assuming that MacArthur boarded the Nashville on the evening of September 12 instead of sleeping in his quarters ashore. In any event, he was there for a portion of only six days.
2. Willoughby and Chamberlain, MacArthur, 187–88; Rogers, The Bitter Years, 148.
3. Kenney, The MacArthur I Know, 92–94.
4. Huff, Fifteen Years, 95.
5. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 212.
6. Marshall to MacArthur, September 27, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
7. CINCPAC to CINCSWPA, September 15, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6.
8. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 156–57, 164.
9. Cannon, Leyte, 24.
10. Ibid., 25–27.
11. “Cool and very aggressive,” Krueger to MacArthur, July 2, 1944, quoted in Holzimmer, General Walter Krueger, 188–89.
12. Cannon, Leyte, 25, 28–30.
13. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:545, 547–48.
14. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 289 (September 24, 1944).
15. Ibid., 290, September 30, 1944; for one reprise of the MacArthur-Curtin relationship, see Robertson, Australia at War, 118–20.
16. MacArthur to Jean MacArthur, October 15, 1944, RG 10, VIP files.
17. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 293 (October 14–15, 1944).
18. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 214.
19. Robertson, Australia at War, 167.
20. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:553–55.
21. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 216–17.
22. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 448.
23. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:559–60.
24. SWPA special communiqué, October 20, 1944, RG 4, box 48, folder 2.
25. SWPA communiqué no. 927, October 21, 1944, RG 4, box 48, folder 2.
26. Roosevelt to MacArthur, October 21, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
27. Halsey to MacArthur, October 21, 1944, RG 10, VIP file.
28. C. Vann Woodward, The Battle for Leyte Gulf: The Incredible Story of World War II’s Largest Naval Battle (New York: Skyhorse, 2007), 19–20.
29. Borneman, Admirals, 387–91; Woodward, Battle for Leyte Gulf, 14, 32, 42, 90, 159.
30. Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 396–98; Borneman, Admirals, 391–92.
31. Halsey, Admiral Halsey’s Story, 214.
32. Halsey to King via Nimitz, November 13, 1944, Action Report Third Fleet, Enclosure A, 28, 31, Halsey papers, box 35.
33. Woodward, Battle for Leyte Gulf, 216.
34. United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (Pacific War), (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1946), 8.
35. Akin to Sutherland, October 25, 1944, RG 4, box 6, folder 4. MacArthur was not the only one seeking information, as Barbey sent Captain Ray Tarbuck to the Wasatch to get similar clarification on the enemy situation. See Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 255.
36. COM Third Fleet to CINCPAC, CINCSWPA, COM Seventh Fleet, COMINCH, October 25, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6.
37. This quote by Grant is well circulated, and it is not entirely clear whether it stems from Grant’s legend or subsequent MacArthur family lore.
38. Evan Thomas, Sea of Thunder: Four Commanders and the Last Great Naval Campaign, 1941–1945 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 325, quoting Sutherland papers.
39. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 168.
40. Kenney, The MacArthur I Know, 170.
41. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 626n23, quoting Stimson diary, November 22, 1944.
42. MacArthur to Nimitz and MacArthur to Halsey, October 29, 1944, RG 4, box 10, folder 6.
43. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 230.
1. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:566–67.
2. SWPA press release, November 3, 1944, RG 4, box 49, folder 3.
3. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:567–69; Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, vol. 5 of The Army Air Forces in World War II (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 386; Cannon, Leyte, 306; Kinkaid to MacArthur, November 1, 1944, and MacArthur to Kinkaid, November 13, 1944, RG 4, box 6, folder 4.
4. Cannon, Leyte, 276.
5. Sixth Army Report, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:572.
6. Craven and Cate, Matterhorn to Nagasaki, 385.
7. Ibid., 390.
8. Kinkaid to MacArthur, November 30, 1944, RG 4, box 6, folder 4.
9. Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 411–13; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:606–7; Rogers, The Bitter Years, 209.
10. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 22–25.
11. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 657–58.
12. SWPA communiqué no. 975, December 8, 1944, RG 4, box 48, folder 2.
13. Cannon, Leyte, 362.
14. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 45–46.
15. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 47–48; Borneman, Admirals, 409–11.
16. Public Law 482, 78th Congress, December 14, 1944.
17. MacArthur to Roosevelt, December 16, 1944, RG 5, Records of General Headquarters, SCAP, 1945–1951, box 1, folder 10.
18. MacArthur to Rear Echelon GHQ, December 16, 1944, RG 26, Service Record and Papers of General Douglas MacArthur, USA, 1903–1964, box 1, folder 2A.
19. Egeberg, The General, 91.
20. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 322–23 (November 23, 1944).
21. Ibid., 324–25, November 24 and 30, 1944.
22. Egeberg, The General, 92–93.
23. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 211.
24. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 333 (December 18, 1944).
25. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 213–17.
26. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 337–38 (December 29, 1944).
27. SWPA communiqué no. 993, December 26, 1944, RG 4, box 48, folder 2.
28. Sixth Army Reports, quoted in Cannon, Leyte, 361.
29. Cannon, Leyte, 367–68.
30. Eleventh Airborne Division history, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:602.
31. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 181–82.
32. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 180.
33. Ibid., 180–85.
34. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 29–30.
35. Marshall to MacArthur, February 27, 1945, RG 15, box 13, folder 6.
36. MacArthur to Jean MacArthur, January 8, 1945, RG 10, VIP files.
37. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:619–20; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 240.
38. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:620–21.
39. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 241.
40. SWPA communiqué no. 1008, January 10, 1945, RG 4, box 48, folder 3.
41. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:622; Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 52–53.
42. Clyde Eddleman interview, RG 49, “Oral Reminiscences II, Eddleman.”
43. Walter Krueger, From Down Under to Nippon: The Story of the Sixth Army in World War II (Washington, DC: Zenger, 1979), 227.
44. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 94–97.
45. Egeberg, The General, 115.
46. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 244.
47. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 171, 181, 184–85; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:627.
48. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 211–12.
49. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 212–13; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 244.
50. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:630; Wheeler, Kinkaid of the Seventh Fleet, 422–23; Nimitz to MacArthur, February 7, 1945, and MacArthur to Kinkaid, February 8, 1945, Nimitz “gray book”; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 245.
51. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 246; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:631–33; confirmation of the Palawan massacre appeared in the Canberra Times, March 5, 1945.
52. SWPA communiqué no. 1035, February 6, 1945, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:637, 889n14.
53. Griswold papers quoted in Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 232.
54. Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 240–44.
1. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 248.
2. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 253–54. Of the men MacArthur took with him off Corregidor, Brigadier General Harold H. George had been killed in a runway accident in 1942 and Lieutenant Colonel Joe R. Sherr lost his life in an air crash in India in 1943.
3. Krueger to MacArthur and MacArthur to Krueger, February 17, 1945, RG 4, box 14, folder 3.
4. Rogers, The Bitter Years, 265.
5. James, Years of MacArthur, 2: 645–46; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 247.
6. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:650; for the difficulties and advisability of using an air drop against Corregidor, see Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 335–39, 344.
7. Egeberg, The General, 144–51.
8. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 250; James, Years of MacArthur, 2: 651–52; MacArthur to Pershing, February 6, 1945, Pershing papers, box 121.
9. H. G. Nicholas, ed., Washington Despatches, 1941–1945, Weekly Political Reports from the British Embassy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 511–12 (February 11, 1945).
10. MacArthur to Marshall, December 17, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
11. Marshall to MacArthur, December 19, 1944, Larry I. Bland and Sharon Ritenour Stevens, eds., The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 4, “Aggressive and Determined Leadership,” June 1, 1943–December 31, 1944 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), 701; MacArthur to Marshall, December 22, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
12. Draft of MacArthur to Marshall, December 22, 1944, marked “NOTE: This has not been used” in type and initialed “Dick [presumably Sutherland, but possibly Marshall]—Hold for future use, MacA.” RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
13. MacArthur to Marshall, December 22, 1944, RG 4, box 17, folder 2.
14. Stimson diary, December 27, 1944.
15. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 684–85, 688–92.
16. Leahy to MacArthur, December 11, 1944, RG 10, VIP file; Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York: Viking, 1951), 31 (February 28 and March 10, 1945); Forrestal had a habit of calling at Leahy’s residence to discuss important matters; see Leahy, I Was There, 338.
17. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 692–93. The exhaustive back-and-forth between army and navy planners that preceded this decision can be found in the George C. Marshall Papers, George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia, reel 119, item 2931, “Command in the Pacific, December 29, 1944, to September 1945.”
18. MacArthur to Marshall, April 5, 1945, and Marshall to MacArthur, April 6, 1945, RG 15, box 13, folder 6.
19. Fellers to Kimmel, March 6, 1967, RG 44a, box 5, folder 28, “Pearl Harbor.” Fellers related this in an “anti-Roosevelt” letter about prior knowledge of the attack on Pearl Harbor. MacArthur made no reference to Roosevelt’s passing in Reminiscences.
20. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:726; Potter, Nimitz, 378–79.
21. Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 537.
22. Nimitz to King, quoted in Millis, Forrestal Diaries, 45–46.
23. Draft of Marshall to MacArthur, marked “message was not sent,” April 15, 1945, RG 15, box 13, folder 6.
24. Marshall to MacArthur, May 4, 1945, RG 15, box 13, folder 6.
25. Nimitz to King, et al., May 19, 1945, reporting “agreements reached in conference between CinCAFPac and CinCPac at Manila on May 16, 1945,” George C. Marshall Papers, reel 119, item 2926; Potter, Nimitz, 380.
26. Marshall to MacArthur, June 6, 1945, and MacArthur to Marshall, June 19, 1945, RG 15, box 13, folder 6.
27. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 693.
28. See, for example, James, Years of MacArthur, 2:738–41. As the US Army’s official history put it: “The remaining islands—including Mindanao east of the Zamboanga Peninsula—had no strategic importance in the campaign for the recapture of the Philippines and the East Indies, but pressing political considerations demanded their immediate recapture as well.… They were designed for the purpose of liberating Filipinos, re-establishing lawful government, and destroying Japanese forces.” Smith, Triumph in the Philippines, 584–85.
29. Eichelberger used “Grand Tour” as a chapter title in Our Jungle Road, describing these events; schedule from MacArthur’s office diary in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:803; for two accounts of these travels, see Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 240–42, and Kenney, General Kenney Reports, 550–51.
30. Canberra Times, January 10, 1945; Robertson, Australia at War, 174.
31. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 696–97; Horner, Inside the War Cabinet, 179–83.
32. Chifley to MacArthur, May 9, 1945, and MacArthur to Chifley, May 10, 1945, and Chifley’s statement to the Australian Parliament, May 10, 1945, RG 4, box 8, folder “Australian Government, Apr–Aug, 1945.”
33. Chifley to MacArthur, May 18, 1945, and MacArthur to Chifley, May 20, 1945, quoted in Long, Final Campaigns, 389; Dean, Architect of Victory, 294.
34. SPWA communiqué no. 1162, June 12, 1945, RG 4, box 48, folder 3.
35. Frank, MacArthur, 123–25.
36. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 244.
37. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:756, 761.
38. Long, Final Campaigns, 547.
39. Egeberg, The General, 178.
40. Barbey, MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy, 319–20; Egeberg, The General, 178.
41. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:745, and generally, see, for example, D. Clayton James, “MacArthur’s Lapses from an Envelopment Strategy in 1945,” in William M. Leary, ed., MacArthur and the American Century: A Reader (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 173–79.
1. SWPA communiqué no. 1185, July 5, 1945, quoted in MacArthur Reports, 1:357; Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 706.
2. Drea, MacArthur’s ULTRA, 200.
3. Edward J. Drea, “Military Intelligence and MacArthur,” in Leary, MacArthur and the American Century, 195.
4. Eddleman interview, RG 49. “General MacArthur,” the Washington Post and Times-Herald noted ten years after the war, at the time of Willoughby’s gushing biography, “always has managed to collect a certain number of sycophants around him, some of whom with his help have sought to embellish his reputation beyond what the historical records have established.” Washington Post and Times-Herald, August 14, 1955.
5. Richard B. Frank, Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire (New York: Random House, 1999), 147, 212.
6. Marshall to MacArthur, August 7, 1945, and MacArthur to Marshall, August 9, 1945, RG 9, box 160, folder “War Dept 3 Aug–4 Sept 45”; Drea, “Military Intelligence and MacArthur,” 195–96; Frank, Downfall, 274–75.
7. Frank, Downfall, 276, 419–20n.
8. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:772–73; Frank, Downfall, 232–35.
9. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 722; Brower, Defeating Japan, 140–45.
10. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:775–76, 898n; Frank, MacArthur, 120; MacArthur, Reminiscences, 262. Marshall told King about the atomic program in 1943; King told Nimitz in February of 1945. Marshall did not tell MacArthur any earlier, perhaps in part because the necessary air bases for B-29s delivering the bombs were in Nimitz’s area and Marshall was well aware of MacArthur’s frequent indiscretion in handling sensitive information.
11. Halsema to James, November 16, 1970, quoted in James, Years of MacArthur, 2:773–74. Halsema’s father, E. J. Halsema, had long been an American official in Baguio. Detained but allowed to live outside an internment camp because of his age, the senior Halsema was killed during an American air attack on Baguio on March 15, 1945. According to Halsema family lore, E. J. Halsema introduced MacArthur to Jean Faircloth en route to Manila in 1935.
12. Hayes, Joint Chiefs, 668, 682–84; Leahy, I Was There, 318.
13. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:763–64; Millis, Forrestal Diaries, 31 (February 28, 1945); MacArthur, Reminiscences, 261–62. At the height of the Cold War, longtime MacArthur aide Bonner Fellers acknowledged to historian Harry Elmer Barnes that “for some time I have known of a report going the rounds that in January 1945 General MacArthur sent a long cablegram to Washington urging that Russia not be brought into the war in the Pacific.” Fellers nonetheless noted that he had been with MacArthur almost “night and day throughout this time” and that he had “no knowledge of such a study and I believe I would have known it had it been written at this time.” Fellers to Barnes, March 2, 1960, RG 44a, box 1, folder 4.
14. Frank, Downfall, 322–24.
15. Ray S. Cline, Washington Command Post: The Operations Division, vol. 2 of The United States Army in World War II: The War Department (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1990), 348–49.
16. AFPAC press release, August 9, 1945, RG 4, box 49, folder 4.
17. Nicholas, Washington Despatches, 603, August 18, 1945.
18. Frank, Downfall, 302.
19. Directive to SCAP, August 15, 1945, RG 15, box 13, folder 6; Marshall to MacArthur, August 15, 1945, RG 9, box 160, folder “War Dept 3 Aug–4 Sept 45.”
20. MacArthur to Truman, August 15, 1945, RG 5, box 2, folder 2.
21. Marshall to MacArthur, August 15, 1945, RG 10, VIP files.
22. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:778. The Japanese delegation flew from Tokyo to Ie Shima, near Okinawa, in two Betty bombers specially painted white and marked with green crosses. There they boarded an American C-54 for the flight to Manila.
23. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:778–79. For MacArthur’s postwar administration of Japan, see D. Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur, vol. 3, Triumph and Disaster, 1945–1964 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), and Seymour Morris Jr., Supreme Commander: MacArthur’s Triumph in Japan (New York: HarperCollins, 2014).
24. White, Theodore H. In Search of History: A Personal Adventure (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), 224.
25. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 259.
26. James, Years of MacArthur, 2:780, 784.
27. MacArthur, Reminiscences, 270; Whitney, MacArthur, 214.
28. Rhoades, Flying MacArthur, 356, 441, 443–44. Sutherland had been in the States when news of the Japanese surrender came, and MacArthur insisted that he return to take part in the surrender ceremony. Sutherland had flown east on the original Bataan, and the B-17 was by then undergoing a major overhaul at Wright Field, in Ohio, so Sutherland commandeered another B-17 for his return.
29. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 262.
30. Ibid., 263.
31. Willoughby, MacArthur, 295. Churchill reportedly made this remark to Winthrop Aldrich, the American ambassador to Great Britain from 1953 to 1957.
32. Egeberg, The General, 206, 209; James, Years of MacArthur, 2:788–89; United News newsreel, “Japanese Sign Final Surrender,” at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcnH_kF1zXc, accessed December 24, 2014. Later, Nimitz sent MacArthur the general’s flag as a gift.
33. “Japanese Sign Final Surrender” newsreel.
34. Kenney, The MacArthur I Know, 187–88.
35. White, In Search of History, 228.
36. “Japanese Sign Final Surrender” newsreel.
1. Sir Charles Gairdner to Hastings Ismay, May 30, 1945, quoted in Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 650; Robert E. Sherwood, The White House Papers of Harry Hopkins (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1949), 867.
2. George H. Johnston, “How Good Was MacArthur,” Australasian (Melbourne), February 16, 1946, 13. Johnston was a veteran Australian war correspondent who reported on MacArthur from Australia through New Guinea, Manila, and Tokyo. Writing in Melbourne’s weekly Australasian six months after the Japanese surrender, Johnston asked “How Good Was MacArthur?” in an article he penned as if looking back from the vantage point of two centuries.
In 1946, Johnston acknowledged in a preface, “the figure of MacArthur is shrouded in mystery, entangled in diametrically opposed opinions.” But what would people think in 2146? “During a four-year period millions of words were written about MacArthur,” Johnston purported to report from 2146, “although no two writers seemed to agree upon the real character of the man. To some he was the greatest soldier of history; to others he was a sinister, megalomaniac insatiable for power and praise.”
Two centuries had not cleared the view, Johnston wrote, but he repeated a theme recognized in 1946 and he deemed it ever clearer as the years had passed: “MacArthur was deliberately and artificially molded into a world figure and a national hero (even though, at the time, he was a defeated general), because he was the opiate the United Nations needed to distract their minds from the catastrophe of Pearl Harbour.” Afterward, Johnston claimed MacArthur remained “an heroic and legendary figure, partly because of his later brilliant conquests, but largely because of the indefatigable efforts of his publicity men.…”
3. Contrasting MacArthur with Patton, Williamson Murray and Allan Millett’s landmark study of World War II notes: “[MacArthur’s] emotional balance was precarious. These personal foibles, which made George Patton look normal, diverted attention from what should have been the real issue: MacArthur’s professional military competence. His erratic performance in the Philippines should have led to his relief and retirement, but, instead, the Medal of Honor and a flood of media attention, encouraged by Roosevelt, diverted attention from America’s military disasters. Then, having created a monster, FDR and the Joint Chiefs had to live with MacArthur and his powerful friends.” Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett, A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000), 205.
4. Herald (Melbourne), March 18, 1942, quoted in David Horner, “An Australian Perspective,” in Leary, MacArthur and the American Century, 110.
5. John McCarten, “General MacArthur: Fact and Legend,” The American Mercury 58, no. 241 (January 1944), 8.
6. Cantril, Public Opinion, 263–64.