Aber, Mark, 20
accordance. See neighborhood: aspects or dimensions of
Accordino, John, 268
affordable housing as a right, 265
agent-based models, 160
Albright, Len, 246
Allport, Gordon, 169
amenities, willingness to pay for as cause of segregation, 162
American Community Survey, 287
American Institute of Certified Planners, 210
anchoring, 117
Atlanta, 147
Austin, 143
Baltimore, 123, 141, 146, 203, 242, 246
Baltimore Housing Mobility program, 284
Bates, Timothy, 168
Been, Vicki, 141
behavioral economics, lessons from, 117–118
Bischoff, Kendra, 151
Bleakly, Kenneth, 268
Booza, Jason, 151
Boxall, Patrick, 269
Briggs, Xavier de Souza, 191
Bruch, Elizabeth, 160
Brueckner, Jan, 161
California, 297
Card, David, 140
Case, Anne, 189
cellular automata, 160
chain of moves, 96
Chase-Lansdale, Lindsay, 137–138
Chaskin, Robert, 21
Chicago, viii, 104, 120–123, 136, 140, 147, 190–191, 202–203, 216, 244
child development. See neighborhood, effects on individuals of
circular causation, x, 4, 14–17, 74, 160, 167–169, 180, 219, 250–253
Clampet-Lundquist, Susan, 205
Clark, Kenneth, 169
Cohen, Deborah, 204
collective irrationality. See self-fulfilling prophecies
Columbus, OH, 142
community development block grants, impact of, 265, 268–269
Community Reinvestment Act, 274
congruence. See neighborhood: aspects or dimensions of
contact hypothesis, 238
Copenhagen, Denmark, 206
Couper, Mick, 123
crime: assisted housing effect on, 145–148; as cause of neighborhood change, 120–121; neighborhood poverty effect on, 142–143; residential abandonment connection, 97
Cromwell, Brian, 290
Crowder, Kyle, 135
cumulative causation. See circular causation
Cutsinger, Jackie, 138, 143, 151, 233
Damm, Anna Piil, 206
data, housing market and neighborhood. See information, about housing and neighborhoods
DeLuca, Stefanie, 116, 284, 288
Denver Housing Authority, 291
Detroit, 93–101, 104–105, 123, 141, 216, 292
discrimination. See housing market: discrimination
displacement: cultural, 249; residential, 248–250
Divringi, Eileen, 249
Downs, Anthony, 21
downward trend aversion, 117
Duncan, Greg, 137–138
Dunham, Jan, 122, 136, 216–217, 239
Dustmann, Christian, 206
efficiency, social: definition, 209–210; externality cause, 211, 214–216; related to households’ mobility behaviors, 218–238; related to poverty concentration, 233; related to property owners’ investment behaviors, 212–218; related to racial segregation, 235–238; strategic gaming cause, 211–212, 216–217
Ellen, Ingrid, 121, 124, 135, 141, 145, 154–156, 237, 239
Elwert, Felix, 202
employment: endogeneity with neighborhood changes and segregation, 168; inequalities in access to, 244–245; proximity to as cause of segregation, 161, 167; racial differences in as a cause of segregation, 164
environmental mechanisms of neighborhood effects, 184
equal-status residential contact. See homophily preferences: malleability of
equity, social: definition, 210; evidence related to neighborhood segregation and investment patterns, 239–253
expectations, 6, 10, 14, 106–125, 216–217
experienced vs. prospective utility, 117
externalities, xi; definition, 211; evidence related to mortgage lending, 215–216; evidence related to owner-occupants, 277; evidence related to property owners’ investment behaviors, 214–216; illustration and implications, 212–213; related to residential mobility and neighborhood population composition, 218–239
externality space. See neighborhood: externality space formulation of
Fair Housing Act, 286
Farley, Reynolds, 123
federal and state policies to support neighborhoods, 264–266, 268–269; affordable housing or income supports as a right, 265; community development block grants, 265; evidence of public investments exceeding private reinvestment thresholds, 268–269; fair housing law revisions and enforcement, 279, 285–286; reforms to site- and tenant-based assisted housing programs, 279–283; regional governance structures, 265, 279; revenue sharing, 265
filtering model of neighborhood change, 103–104
Fischel, William, 169
Flippen, Chenoa, 246–248
flows, of households and financial resources, 16–17, 25, 50–53, 74
foreclosed dwellings: as cause of neighborhood change, 121, 154; as potential source of assisted housing, 280, 291; as source of negative externalities, 213–214; as wealth stripping, 246
Forman, Tyrone, 123
Fox, Lindsay, 241
Gautreaux public housing desegregation program, 190, 203–204, 244, 284
generality. See neighborhood: aspects or dimensions of
geographical mechanisms of neighborhood effects, 184–185
geographic selection bias: attempts to minimize, via econometric techniques, 197–199; attempts to minimize, via natural experiments, 199–200; attempts to minimize, via random assignment experiments, 200–201; definition, 197
Gibb, Kenneth, 117
Glasgow, Scotland, 205
Glendale, AZ, 121
Graham, Bryan, 240
Grannis, Richard, 39
Granovetter, Mark, 130
Greenbaum, Robert, 121
Hallman, Howard, 21
Han, Hye-Sung, 141
Hannon, Lance, 142–143
Harris, David, 124
Hedberg, E. C., 121
Hendey, Leah, 147
Hendren, Nathaniel, 203–205, 240
Hess, Karl, 21
Hesser, Garry, 119, 121, 136, 216–217, 274–275
Hipp, John, 120, 121, 142–143, 237
homophily preferences: as cause of segregation, 162, 164, 166; as consequence of segregation, 168–169, 288; malleability of, 238, 283–284, 288–289; related to social efficiency of neighborhood population mixes, 218
Horn, Keren, 155–156
households, 4–10, 16–17; consumption of neighborhood, 23; contributions to neighborhood change, 4–10, 83–87, 89–92 (see also housing market); demand for housing, 57–60; evaluations of dwelling and neighborhood, 6. See also residential mobility; tenure choice
housing: abandonment of, 65, 84, 88, 94, 97, 213–214; age of, as cause of segregation, 161–162; code enforcement, 276; conversion of existing structures, 64–65, 83–87, 89–92, 280; filtering, 82–83, 87, 96, 99–100 (see also neighborhood: downgrading; neighborhood: upgrading of); homogeneity of quality in neighborhoods, 70–71, 163; new construction of, 64, 83–84, 89, 94–96, 215; passive conversion of, 56, 66, 84, 88, 249; price changes in Detroit and Los Angeles, 94–96; prices (see housing prices); quality, 54–55; submarkets (see housing market; Submarket Model); tenure choice, 9–10; vacant, 62, 94, 97. See also housing market; investment, residential; owner-occupants
Housing Choice Voucher program, 279–284, 290–291
housing market: discrimination, 164–166, 168, 246, 252, 280, 286, 288; as driver of neighborhood change, 3–4, 16–17, 71–79, 82–101; general equilibrium, 66–68; inter-submarket transmission of disequilibrium, 69–70; market-period demand, 57–60; market-period equilibrium, 62–63; market-period supply, 60–61; medium-run supply, 63–68; reservation prices, 60–61; submarket model of, 50–79, 82–102 (see also Submarket Model); submarkets, concept of, 54–57; supply elasticity, 68, 84, 94, 96
housing prices: abandonment effect on, 214–215; appreciation differentials, 245–248; appreciation recapture policy, 298; assisted housing effect on, 145–147, 291; community Development Block Grant effect on, 268–269; foreclosure effect on, 214; new construction effect on, 215; owner-occupancy rate effect on, 215; poverty concentration effect on, 143–145, 233, 296; renovation effect on, 215; revitalization program effect on, 215; Stable Integrative Process effect on, 290; tax delinquency effect on, 214
Hunter, Albert, 39
Hwang, Jackelyn, 120, 140, 249
Hwang, Seok-Joon, 277
Imai, Susumu, 277
inequality of income, 151, 163–164
inequality of opportunity, xi, 167–168, 241–253; due to access to employment, 244–245; due to inferior public services, schools and institutions, 242–243; due to involuntary mobility through residential displacement, 248–250; due to reduced wealth accumulation and higher prices, 242; due to subcultural adaptations, 241; due to unhealthy exposures to pollution and violence, 243–244; due to wealth disparities from differential homeownership and housing appreciation rates, 245–248; holistic model of, 250–253. See also spatial opportunity structure
information, about housing and neighborhoods, 106–125; asymmetric power of, 118–119; behavioral economics, lessons from, 117–118; as a cause of segregation, 165; means of acquiring and processing, 110–113, 115; relationship to human cognition, 109–110; spatial biases in, 115–116, 163; types and dimensions of, 113–115
institutional mechanisms of neighborhood effects, 185
insurance, property, 242
invasion-succession model of neighborhood change, 103
investment, residential: determinants, 10–14; nonlinear responses of, 136–137; patterns in Detroit and Los Angeles, 93–97; relationship to search process, 109–113; social efficiency of, xi, 100, 209–239, 250–253; social equity of, xi, 100, 209–210, 239–253. See also residential property owners
invisible hand, Adam Smith’s, 210
Ioannides, Yannis, 135
Jacobs, Jane, 39
Jargowsky, Paul, 152
Johnson, Jennifer, 269
Kahneman, Daniel, 109
Kain, John, 167
Katz, Bruce, 279
Katz, Charles, 121
Keller, Suzanne, 21
King, Jeffrey, 204
Kline, Patrick, 240
Kramer, Rory, 37–38
Krivo, Lauren, 142
Krysan, Maria, 123
Lacoe, Johanna, 121
Lancaster, Kelvin, 21
life-cycle model of neighborhood change, 103
Lim, Up, 130
Livingston, Mark, 205
local public sector: housing appreciation recapture policy, 298; inadequate resources for implementing neighborhood policy, 297–298; inappropriate scale for policymaking, 296–297; inequalities in quality of, 242–243; relationship with neighborhood change, vii, 12, 23, 50–53, 73–75, 87–88, 92–93; relationship with segregation, 163, 165–167, 252; tax increment financing policy, 297. See also neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods; taxes
Logan, John, 241
Los Angeles, 93–101, 105, 153, 204, 292
Low Income Housing Tax Credit program, 279–281
Lynch, Kevin, 39
Marsh, Alex, 117
Mas, Alexandre, 140
Massey, Douglas, 165, 205, 246
Mecklenburg County, NC, 206, 265
Meen, Geoffrey, 144
Minneapolis, 121, 216, 265, 272, 274
mobility. See residential mobility
Montgomery County, MD, 265
Morris, David, 21
mortgage lenders, vii, 102, 141, 215–216, 242, 246, 274, 288
mortgages, 9, 120, 141, 215, 274
Moving to Opportunity demonstration, 191, 193, 200–201, 203–206, 284
multidisciplinary approach, viii–ix, 3
multilevel units of analysis, ix–x, 16–17
mutual causation. See circular causation
myopia of prior scholarship, vii–x
neighborhood: alternative models of changes in, 103–105; aspects or dimensions of, 25–46; asymmetric informational power in changing, 118–119; attributes of, 22; behavioral economics lessons for changes in, 117–119; blight, 97; boundaries of, 24–26, 34–35; causes of change, 3–4, 16–17, 71–79, 120–124; class transitions, 152–154, 157–160; definition, meaning and measurement, 20–46; displacement of residents from, 92–93; distinction between neighborhood and submarket, 70–71; downgrading, 72, 74–75, 82–88, 93–101; dual thresholds of decline related to poverty concentration, 144, 293–296; effects on individuals of (see neighborhood, effects on individuals of); externality space formulation of, 20–46; externally generated change, 80–81; filtering (see neighborhood: downgrading; neighborhood: upgrading of); gentrification, 92–93, 140, 154, 156, 192, 248–250; homogeneity of housing in, 70–71, 163; importance of, vii; indicators of change, 119–124, 267, 271; inductive vs. deductive approaches to, 26; local political influences on, 101; nonlinear and threshold effects associated with, 126–149, 293–296; nonprofit institutions’ influence on, 102; passive conversion of, 56, 66, 75, 88, 249; pollution in, 243–244; poverty in (see poverty, neighborhood); predicting changes in, 41–42; public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods (see neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods); racial transitions, 155–160; reinforcing changes in local retail and public sectors, 73–75, 88, 98–99; relationship to information acquisition and search process, 109–113; search (see search, housing market and neighborhood); social efficiency of, xi, 100; social equity of, xi, 100, 239–253; succession, 72, 87–88, 96–97, 100 (see also neighborhood: downgrading; neighborhood: upgrading of); typologies of, 40, 267–268; upgrading of, 72, 89–101; violence in, 243–244; Willingness to Pay Model of race and class transitions, 157–160
neighborhood, effects on individuals of, 3, 10, 16, 116, 173–208; causal mechanisms of, 182–185; challenges in measuring, 185–187; conceptual model of, 175–182; evidence related to magnitude of, 201–207; evidence related to mechanisms, 189–196; methods for measuring magnitude of, 197–201; methods for measuring mechanisms of, 187–189. See also spatial opportunity structure
neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, 263–299; caveats, constrained local public financial resources, 297–298; caveats, constraints and potential pitfalls in policies, 291–299; caveats, inappropriate geographic scale of governance, 296–297; caveats, lack of supportive federal and state policies, 297; caveats, limited efficacy of intervention, 291–292; caveats, perils of partial deconcentration of poverty, 293–296; caveats, potential for zero-sum policy impact, 292–293; caveats, unrealistic hopes for panacea for poverty and inequality, 298–299; dwelling investment policies (see neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, dwelling investment policies); economic diversification policies (see neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, economic diversification policies); enhancement of property tax revenues, 298; governments appropriate to pursue neighborhood supportive policies, 264–266; housing appreciation recapture policy, 298; overarching goals and means of attaining neighborhood supportive policies, 264; racial diversification policies (see neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, racial diversification policies); rationale for intervention, 263, 278; strategic targeting principle (see neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, strategic targeting principle); supportive federal policies, 264–266, 279–283; synergisms among neighborhood supportive policies, 290–291; tax increment financing policy, 297; triage, 269–272
neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, dwelling investment policies, 272–278; building neighborhood confidence and social cohesion, 273; evidence of public investments exceeding private reinvestment thresholds, 268–269; expanding homeownership in target neighborhoods, 276–277; housing code enforcement, 276, 291; improving neighborhood context, 272–274; incentivizing incumbent upgrading, 274–276, 291; infrastructure investments, 272–273; land use zoning, 272; people-in-place-oriented strategy, 278
neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, economic diversification policies, 278–284; low-income households’ preferences for diverse neighborhoods, 283–284; overarching reforms, 279–281; overarching reforms, diversity incentives built into AFFH, 281; overarching reforms, encouraging rehabilitation for assisted housing, 280–281; overarching reforms, fair housing law revisions, 279–280; overarching reforms, impaction standards, 280; overarching reforms, regional assisted housing institution building, 279; reforms for site-based assistance programs, 281–282; reforms for site-based assistance programs, diversification/preservation incentives for private assisted housing, 281; reforms for site-based assistance programs, preserving public housing in revitalizing neighborhoods, 281–282; reforms for site-based assistance programs, repeal and replace qualified census tract bonus, 281; reforms for tenant-based assistance programs, 282–283; reforms for tenant-based assistance programs, adopt small area fair market rents, 282; reforms for tenant-based assistance programs, change diversification incentives for PHAs, 282; reforms for tenant-based assistance programs, provide ancillary family supports postmove, 282; reforms for tenant-based assistance programs, reduce barriers to leasing, 282–283; reforms for tenant-based assistance programs, require premove and postmove mobility counseling, 282
neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, racial diversification policies, 284–290; encouraging stable integrative process, 285–287; encouraging stable integrative process, affirmative marketing, 286; encouraging stable integrative process, ancillary activities, 287; encouraging stable integrative process, enhanced fair housing enforcement, 285–286; encouraging stable integrative process, financial incentives, 287; encouraging stable integrative process, households’ preferences for racially homogeneous neighborhoods, 287–289; encouraging stable integrative process, real estate counseling services, 286–287; encouraging stable integrative process, successful racial diversification program, 289–290
neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods, strategic targeting principle, 266–272; composition and typologies of neighborhood, 267–268; concentration, 268–269; context, 266–267; definition, 266; evidence of public investments exceeding private reinvestment thresholds, 268–269; relationship to triage, 269–272
Neighborhoods in Bloom, Richmond, VA, 268, 298
Nieto, Martin, 20
nonlinear and threshold effects: collective socialization mechanism of, 129–130; contagion mechanism of, 132; crime and assisted housing, 145–148; crime and neighborhood poverty, 142–143; diminishing returns mechanism of, 132–133; dual thresholds of decline related to poverty concentration, 144, 293–296; dwelling owners’ investment decisions, 136–137; employment, education, fertility, cognitive outcomes, 137–139; gaming mechanism of, 130–131; gentrification, 140; heterogeneity across individuals, 133–134; household mobility, 134–136; illustrations of, 126–127, 293–296; importance of for policymakers, 127, 293–296; perils of partially deconcentrating poverty, 293–296; property values and assisted housing, 145–148; property values and neighborhood poverty, 143–145, 296; racial tipping, 139–140, 288–290; tolerance mechanism of, 131–132
North Carolina, 189
Oak Park, IL, 287
Ohio, 287
O’Regan, Katherine, 155–156
Oregon, 265
owner-occupants: collective socialization forces upon, 129; differences from absentee owners and renters, 101, 277; evidence related to the positive externalities they generate, 277; expectations of, 122, 216–217; inequalities in rates of, 245–246; inside information about their neighborhoods, 108; investment behavior, 12–14; policies for increasing the number of, 277. See also residential property owners
Pagano, Michael, 21
Pager, Devah, 123
Panel Study of Income Dynamics, 202
paradigms, competing social scientific, ix
path dependency in life choices, 180
people vs. place debate in housing and community development, 300
Peterson, Ruth, 142
Pettigrew, Thomas, 169
Philadelphia, 269
Pooley, Jennifer, 269
Popkin, Susan, 147
poverty, neighborhood: interracial differences in exposure to, 241; nonlinear changes in, 141; nonlinear responses to, 137–139, 143–145, 296; relationship with crime rates, 142–143; relationship with property values, 143–145
property values. See housing prices
proposition of asymmetric informational power, 118–119
proposition of externally generated change, 80–81
proposition of inefficiency, 253
proposition of inequity, 253
proposition of linked threshold effects, 148
proposition of multifaceted neighborhood effects, 208
proposition of racially encoded signals, 124
proposition of unequal opportunity, 253
public policy. See neighborhood, public policies for supporting quality, diverse neighborhoods
public services. See local public sector
Putnam, Robert, 237
Raleigh, Erica, 97
Raudenbush, Stephen, 123, 202, 239
Reagan, Patricia, 137
residential investment. See investment, residential
residential mobility: evidence on causes, 119; as generator of externalities for residents, 218–239; involuntary mobility through residential displacement, 248–250; nonlinear responses, 134–136; relationship to search process, 109–113; social inefficiency of, 218–239; theories of, 7–9
residential property owners, vii, 10–14, 23; contributions to neighborhood change, 10–17, 83–87, 89–92, 96–98 (see also housing market: medium-run supply); conversion of existing structures, 64–65, 96–98; market-period supply, 60–61; medium-run supply, 63–68; new construction activity, 64, 93–94, 96, 98, 215; nonlinear responses of, 136–137; passive conversion activity, 56, 66, 75, 249; reservation prices of, 60–61; social inefficiency of investment levels, 212–218
retail, local, vii, 12, 23, 50–53, 73–75, 88, 98–99, 242, 249
Rohe, Bill, 101
Rosenbaum, James, 190
Rosenblatt, Peter, 284
Rosenthal, Stuart, 151, 153–154, 161
Rotger, Gabriel Pons, 206
Rothstein, Jesse, 140
Rugh, Jacob, 246
Sampson, Robert, viii, 97, 120, 123, 140, 153, 191, 202, 239
San Francisco, 104
Santiago, Anna, 138, 145–146, 192, 202, 205–206, 234
satisfaction, residential, 5, 7–8, 119, 122, 124, 282–283
Schelling, Thomas, 130
Schoenberg, Sandra, 21
schools. See local public sector
Schuetz, Jenny, 141
Schwartz, Amy, 145
search, housing market and neighborhood, 106–125; definition, 110; Housing Choice Voucher holders’, 282, 290; intergroup differences in as cause of segregation, 167; models of, 110–113; when initiated, 112–113
segregation, residential: causes of, 160–169; by class/economic status, xi, 151–155, 233; by race, xi, 155–156, 235–238; social efficiency of, xi, 233, 235–238, 250–253; social equity of, xi, 239–253; Willingness to Pay Model of neighborhood race and class transitions, 157–160
self-fulfilling prophecies, xi; definition of, 238; evidence on, 238–239; implications of, 238–239, 247
Shaker Heights, OH, 289–290
Sharkey, Patrick, viii, 182, 202, 240–241
Sharygin, Claudia, 121
Skogan, Wesley, 123
Smith, Adam, 210
Smith, Robin, 145–146
social-interactive mechanisms of neighborhood effects, 183–184
spatial mismatch. See employment: inequalities in access to
spatial opportunity structure: consequences for inequality, 251–253; cumulative causation within, 180, 251–253; definition of, 174–175; evolution of, 180–182, 251–253; feedback effects in, 179–180, 251–253; mediating effects of, 176–177; modifying effect of, 177–179; path dependency in life choices, 180
spatial scales, multilevel, 16–17, 174–175
Stack, Lisa, 138
status quo bias, 117, 217, 284
strategic gaming, xi; definition, 211–212; illustration and implications, 213–214
strategic targeting, xi, 266–272; composition and typologies of neighborhood, 267–268; concentration, 268–269; context, 266–267; definition, 266; evidence of public investments exceeding private reinvestment thresholds, 268–269; relationship to triage, 269–272
subcultural adaptations, 169, 241
Submarket Model, 50–79, 82–102 (see also housing; housing market); amendments to model, 101–102; definition of submarket, 54–57; distinction between neighborhood and submarket, 70–71; inter-submarket transmission of disequilibrium, 69–70
Tatian, Peter, 120, 145–146, 268
Taub, Richard, 122, 136, 216–217, 239
tax delinquency, externality effects, 214
taxes, vi, 73–75, 242, 298. See also local public sector
tax increment financing, 297
Taylor, Garth, 122, 136, 216–217, 239
Temkin, Ken, 101
tenure choice, 9–10
threshold effects. See nonlinear and threshold effects
Tiebout, Charles, 163
Tita, George, 121
Townsend, Joseph, 241
Turley, Ruth Lopez, 138
Turner, Margery Austin, 164, 205, 279
uncertainty, of neighborhood change, 106–125
US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 279–283
Vartanian, Thomas, 137
Verma, Nandita, 121
Vigdor, Jacob, 217
vintage model of neighborhood change, 103–104
Voicu, Ioan, 145
Vortuba, Mark, 204
Walker, Chris, 269
Wallace, Danielle, 121
Warren, Donald, 21
Waukegan, IL, 216
wealth accumulation, inequalities in, 242, 245–248
Weinberg, Bruce, 137
Wellman, Barry, 40
Williams, Sonya, 121
Willingness to Pay Model of neighborhood race and class transitions, 157–160
Wilson, William Julius, 129
Wooster, OH, 121, 136, 216, 272
Wurdock, Clarence, 119
Yankow, Jeffrey, 137
Yates, Daniel, 142–143
Yinger, John, 166
Youngstown, OH, 105
Zabel, Jeffrey, 135