Note: Richard J. Daley is sometimes referred to as RJD. Richard M. Daley is sometimes referred to as RMD. Page numbers in italics indicate an illustration.
Abbott Laboratories, 97
Abbott, Robert Sengstacke, 62, 79, 84; and black capitalism, 64, 66–67, 78–79, 90; and BSCP union, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83. See also Chicago Defender
Aberdeens (Irish gang), 44
ABLA (public housing), 310, 311, 372n109
ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union): and drug testing of subsidized housing residents, 312; and political surveillance by Chicago, 197, 212; and South Deering, 132–133
ACORN (Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now), 292
Action Now Institute, 329
ACT organization, 182, 183, 184–185, 186, 195, 197
Addams, Jane (Hull House), 16, 18–19, 24, 29, 31, 33
Adler, Jeffrey, 17
Adler Planetarium, 285
advertising industry, 204, 228
affirmative action, 236, 275, 288, 363n45
AFL (American Federation of Labor), 56–57, 83, 96
African American community of Chicago: black-Latino dissimilarity index (segregation), 313–314; black-Latino social distance, 336–337; Jane Byrne and, 250–251; cabinet of RMD including, 288; as center of national black life, 117, 137; clubwomen and black liberal politics, 87; clubwomen and mobilization for the BSCP, 80, 84–85; credit card debt and, 289; early 20th century locations throughout the city, 24; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27; fatalism/pessimism/nihilism of, 74–75, 154, 276–277, 293–294, 333; in labor force, 63; map of ethnic Chicago (2000), 316; median income, 117, 266; mental health clinic closures and, 325–326; mortality rate of, 75; mural movement and, 219–220, 220; school closures and, 271, 326–327; school reforms as leaving behind, 270–271, 272–273; school suspensions and expulsions and, 270–271; service economy and, 286–287; strikebreaking laborers from, 25–26, 27–28, 29, 110; support for R.M. Daley, 7; support for R.J. Daley, 135, 136–137; support for R.M. Daley, 273, 278, 280–281, 287–289; support for Rahm Emanuel, 334–335; unemployment among, 266, 270, 331; veterans returning from wars, 38, 106, 109, 112; Harold Washington mobilization by, 243–244, 249. See also black capitalism; black church; black cultural expression; black gangs; black ghettos; black middle class; black power movement; black press; black resistance to racial oppression; black submachine politics; civil rights movement; culturalization of politics; migration of African Americans from the South; police (CPD)—violence against African Americans; violence/racial violence
African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, 80, 81. See also Carey, Archibald
Afro-American Student Association, 197
Airport Homes (public housing), 156
Albany Park, 315
Albert, Derrion, 268–269, 270, 282
Alford, Alfonso, 196
Algren, Nelson, City on the Make, 140–141, 294
Alinsky, Saul: Archdiocese of Chicago as major donor of, 159–160, 161–162; background of, 160; Back of the Yards Neighborhood Council (BYNC), 158–159; Harrison-Halsted organization and tradition of, 157; Industrial Areas Foundation, 159; and intergroup relations, 58; Organization for a Southwest Community (OSC), 160; and organized labor, limitations of, 160–161; Reveille for Radicals, 158–159; and state-sponsored countersubversion, 12; and Temporary Woodlawn Organization (TWO), 162–164, 179, 180; and University of Chicago, 211; UNO claim to be modeled on, 301–302
Alliance to End Repression, 212
All-Negro radio show, 71
Alpha Suffrage Club, 80
alterity, strategies of, 175
Altgeld Gardens (public housing), 257–258, 268
Alvarez, Anita, 337
Alvarez, David, 261
Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen (AMCBW), 25
Amalgamated Transit Union, 325
American Civil Liberties Union. See ACLU
American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME), 293
Americanization, 27, 40, 42, 43, 44–45
American Protective Association, 43
Ameritech, 283
Amoco Building, 362n25
Anderson, Louis B., 77
Andersonville neighborhood, 320
Anglo-Saxonism, 29, 51, 114. See also whiteness and white identity
Ann Arbor, MI, 204
antilynching movement, 80, 89–90
antiwar movement, 204, 205, 207
Aon Center, 362n25
Arab and Assyrian community, 317, 318, 373n123
architecture, 6; Beaux Arts, 23; Chicago School, 6, 21–22; International Style, 232; Mies van der Rohe, 137, 228, 232; Prairie School, 47; sense of place, and tourism, 297–298. See also Burnham, Daniel; skyscrapers
Area 2 police torture of black suspects, 7, 279, 335
Arendt, Hannah, On Violence, 218, 219
Argyle (aka New Chinatown, Little Vietnam), 315, 319
Armour, 20
Armour, Philip, 31
Armour Square: antiblack violence, 111–112; Chinese community in, 315
Armstrong, Frank H., 30
Armstrong, Louis, 65, 66, 89, 90, 91, 91, 92; “(What Did I Do to Be So) Black and Blue,” 92, 351n70; “Big Butter and Egg Man,” 92; “Heebie Jeebies,” 92; “S.O.L. Blues,” 92; “Struttin’ with Some Barbecue,” 92; “Sunset Café Stomp,” 92
arson and bombings: against African Americans, 38, 46, 78, 112, 124; against Puerto Ricans, 175; “shoot to kill” order of RJD, 138, 203, 208, 210; by white gangs, and ethnoracial hierarchy, 45
art: community mural movement, 219–220, 220, 302, 314, 362n18; public art, skyscrapers and, 232, 363n38. See also music
Art Institute of Chicago, 31, 329
Arvey, Jacob “Jack,” 55, 113–114
Asian community: cabinet of RMD including, 288; ethnoracial enclaves of, 314–315, 317, 318–319; Latino-Asian dissimilarity (segregation), 314; nationwide, 172
Associated Business Club (ABC) of Chicago, 64, 67, 69
Associated Negro Press (newswire), 67, 79, 117
Assyrian and Arab community, 317, 318, 373n123
AT&T, 233
Atlanta, GA, 249
Atlantic Era, 16
Auditorium Theater, 31
Austin (neighborhood), 47
Austin High School, 284
Austin, Junius C., 59–60, 64, 82, 84, 88
Avondale, 317–318
Ayers, Thomas G., 234
Bach, Ira, 146–147
backlash. See white backlash
Back of the Yards: Canaryville hostility to, 41; heterogeneity of, 24; mental health clinic closures, 326; Mexican community and, 313
Back of the Yards Neighborhood Council (BYNC), 158–159
Baker, Houston, 90
Baldwin, James, 109; urban renewal as “Negro removal,” 142, 143, 310
Baltimore, 266, 345n19, 366n14
Bangladesh, immigrants from, 319
barbecue, right to, 299
Barksdale, David, 196
Barrett, James, 27
basketball, 285, 289–290, 331–332
Bates, Beth Tompkins, 84
Bates, David H., 26
Bauler, Matthias “Paddy,” 55
Baxter Laboratories, 97
beautification: R.M. Daley and, 266, 285, 289, 305, 308; and Plan of Chicago (1909), 33; and uplift of the laboring classes, 33
Begin, Menachem, 253
Bell, Lamar, 196
Benito Juárez High School, 297
Benito Pablo Juárez García (mural), 314
Benson, Al, 116
Berkeley, CA, 204
Bernhardt, Sarah, 1
Bernstein, David, 239
Berry, Chuck: “Johnny B. Goode,” 119; “Maybellene,” 119; “Rock and Roll Music,” 119; “Roll Over Beethoven,” 119
Best, Wallace, 64
Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, 82
Bevel, James, 190
Big Star (restaurant), 304–305
Bilandic, Michael, 242, 250, 261
Billboard magazine, coining “rhythm & blues,” 118
Bill Haley and the Comets, 119, 166
binary racial order, development of, 45–46, 47, 58, 173
Bindman, Aaron, 123–124
Binga, Jesse, 60, 70–71, 80, 86; and black capitalism, 62, 64, 67, 69, 75–76, 82, 90
Binga State Bank, 67
Black Belt: location of, 24, 38; map of, 39; and 1919 race riot, 38, 40; and WWII housing shortage, 104, 108–109, 112. See also Black Metropolis
Blackboard Jungle, The (1955), 166
black capitalism: antiunionism of, 79–85; banks, 62, 67; black church alliance with, 64, 81–82; corruption and embezzlement in, 60; and culturalization of politics, 69, 78–79, 85, 87; and economization of the Black Metropolis, 75–76, 79–80, 81–82, 85, 349n32; and entrepreneurial spirit, 62–63, 78; and individualism vs. collective strategies of racial struggle, 61–62, 75; insurance business, 71, 74–75; lack of progress in white business world, 60–61; and linked fate, 75, 349n31; Negro Business Exposition (1938), 59–60, 62, 64, 88; and public assistance, lack of, 78; and race men/race heroes, black businessmen as, 60, 61, 66–67, 67, 69, 71, 74–75, 78, 80; Southern migrants and, 116–117; types of businesses in, 61, 63, 348nn1,10; as uplifting the race, 59, 61, 64–65, 67, 69, 75, 81, 86; and white-owned businesses patronized by black community, 62. See also Black Metropolis; Bronzeville; minority-owned businesses; real estate market
black church: alliances with black businesses, 64, 81–82; as critical of civil rights movement, 178, 189; and National Negro Congress (1936), 88; openness to Randolph and working-class solidarity, 82; opposition to Randolph and the BSCP union, 80–82; social justice movement and, 82; storefront churches, 63–64, 115, 222
black cultural expression: black middle-class disapproval of, 65–67, 69, 72, 90–91; Chicago as fountain of, 65, 117; policy wheel revenues as funding, 71; white stereotyping of, 69. See also music
Black Disciples. See Disciples (gang)
black gangs: ACT organization and, 186; antimachine activities of, 197; Black Panthers and, 197, 214–215; and black power movement, 182–183, 185–186, 187, 190, 192, 192, 194–195, 197, 199–200; federal funding for youth services and projects, 196–197, 198–199, 210; female branches of, 187; First Annual Gangs Convention (1966), 190; junior/midget divisions of, 187, 188; Martin Luther King and Chicago Freedom Movement attempt to enlist help of, 187–188, 189–195, 200; and labor protests, 236, 364n46; leadership talents in, 187, 195–196; LSD alliance, 236, 364n69; membership numbers and recruitment, 186–187, 188; nation added to names of, 187; and nonviolence vs. militancy as philosophy, 185; police brutality and, 186–187; police/government sabotage of youth/community service programs of, 197–199; police Red Squad warnings to stay away from Democratic Convention, 213; and political organizations, transformation into, 277–278; and youth services and projects, 196–200. See also gangs; white gangs and athletic clubs
Black Gangster Disciples. See Gangster Disciples (gang)
black ghettos: businesses remaining in, 153; and defiance, posture of, 108; and heat wave (1995), 261–262; hyperghettos contrasted to, 354n52; middle-class housing as barrier to encroachment of, 149–150, 154, 228, 234–235, 301; 1919 race riot and centrality of, 45; postwar geographical and demographic growth of, 101–102; white identify formation and, 47. See also hyperghettos; public housing
Black Lives Matter movement, 334, 336–337
Black Metropolis: economization of, 75–76, 79–80, 81–82, 85, 349n32; as inspiration during Great Depression, 64–65; insurance business, 71, 74–75; location of, 61; map of, 68; and migrants, 66; and “old settler” vs. “new settler” ideologies, 66; policy wheels (illicit lotteries), 70–74, 75, 105, 130; population growth and, 61. See also black capitalism; music; Stroll, the
black middle class: as critical of the civil rights movement, 178; disapproval of black cultural expression, 65–67, 69, 72, 90–91; gentrification by, 13–14, 288–289, 298–299, 301; homeownership, 13–14, 85–86, 288–289, 361n71; incorporating via neoliberal policies, 288–289. See also black capitalism
black nationalism: and Black Metropolis, 61; in local positions of authority, 297; and multiethnic coalition of Howard Washington, 253. See also black power movement
Black Panther Party: assassination of Fred Hampton, 12, 184, 215–217; and black gangs, 197, 214–215; breakfast programs of, 217; Fred Hampton as chairman of, 214–215; perceived as threat by RJD and police, 217; “rainbow coalition” of, 12, 214–215, 217, 221, 250; reading lists of, 215; susceptibility to FBI infiltration, 215, 217; viewed as derailing civil-rights movement, 169
black power movement: and black gangs in Chicago, 182–183, 185–186, 187, 190, 192, 192, 194–195, 197, 199–200; black nationalism, 61, 253; context of, 203; and failure of integrationist approaches, 180; Martin Luther King as opposing use of term, 190, 192; and nonviolence vs. militancy as philosophy, 180, 182–183, 185; police and FBI countersubversion of, 213–214, 215–218; and racial divide as increasing, 204; viewed as derailing civil-rights movement, 169, 180. See also black nationalism; Black Panther Party; countersubversion, state-sponsored
black press: development of, 117; and Emmett Till murder, 137. See also Associated Negro Press (newswire); Chicago Defender
Black P-Stones (gang), 122. See also Blackstone Rangers
black resistance to racial oppression: bebop jazz and, 121; and election of Barack Obama, 293–294; as structure of feeling, 109; WWII and development of, 107–108, 109, 111–112. See also black power movement; civil rights movement
Black’s Blue Book, 63, 85, 348n10
Blackstone Rangers (gang): Martin Luther King’s attempt to enlist in nonviolence movement, 190–195, 200; leadership of, 187–188, 195–196; Main 21 governing body, 195, 214–215; membership of, 186, 187, 188; nation added to name of, 187; and police/government investigations, 197–199, 210; and protests for minority union membership, 236; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214–215; and youth services/community improvement projects, 196–200. See also Black P-Stones (gang)
black submachine politics: and bread-and-butter political style, reproduction of, 77–78, 131; Anton Cermak as establishing patronage distribution to, 52; and Daley’s actions during MLK assassination riots, 208–209; William Dawson as boss of, 188–189; death of Benjamin Lewis and, 189; Oscar DePriest as boss of, 76–77, 349n35; integration/civil rights as threat to power of, 130–131, 189; Martin Luther King opposed by, 188–189; “silent six” aldermen (Dawson), 188–189; Big Bill Thompson support, 40–41, 47–48, 71, 112–113; and Harold Washington replacement election, 256–257. See also Dawson, William; machine politics
Black Youth Project 100 (BYP100), 335
Blagojevich, Rod, 291
Blighted Areas Redevelopment Act (1947), 143
blight, redefined as “proper and productive economic use,” 148
Blocks Together, 328
blues and jazz: blues as white tourist attraction/niche market, 118, 119, 120; Chicago blues sound, 117–119; Chicago “melting pot” of, 65–66; classical black musicians forced into jazz, 120; Delta blues, 117; dress code of respectability and, 90–91, 91; entrepreneurial ethos and, 118–121; as floating signifier, 118; Harlem and bebop jazz, 120–121; lack of anticapitalist critique in, 92–93; lyrical content of, 89–90, 91–93; Maxwell Street flea market, as venue, 301; as morphing into other black music forms, 118–120; oppositional power of, 88–90, 92, 351n70; Southern migrants and, 116, 117–118. See also music
Board of Education (CBOE): the Art Institute and, 31; Jane Byrne appointments to, 250–251; closure of schools rubber stamped by, 333; minority appointees as president of (RMD), 288; and the politics of identity, institutionalization of, 221–222; and privatization of custodial and building maintenance services, 330; TWO lawsuit charging segregation, 180–181; TWO movement protests, 163. See also schools (Chicago Public Schools, CPS)
Bobo, Lawrence, 236
Boeing, 283
Bontemps, Arna, 88
Boystown neighborhood, 295, 296, 320, 370n80
Brach’s Confections, Inc., 283–284, 369n56
Bradley, Tom, 249
Bradley, Wallace “Gator,” 277–278, 280–281
Brazier, Arthur, 163, 164, 197
Breaking the Chains (mural), 220, 362n18
Bretton Woods agreement (1945), 224, 240
Bridgeport neighborhood: and black support for “Big Bill” Thompson, 40–41; Chinese community and, 315; and R.J. Daley, 134, 151; and Dan Ryan Expressway route, 151; Irish community and, 40, 41–44, 112, 134; and Edward J. Kelly, 112; Martin H. Kennelly and, 114; Mexican community and, 315; and packinghouse workers, 41; and Harold Washington election, 245
Bridgeview (suburb), 317
Brighton Park Neighborhood Council, 329
Bronzeman magazine, 71
Bronzeville: R.M. Daley and exploitation of cultural heritage, 295; mayor of (honorary), 114–115; mural movement and, 219–220, 220; name of, 115; Harold Washington and, 241–242. See also Black Metropolis
Brooks, Deton, 209
Brooks, Gwendolyn, 187; “The Blackstone Rangers,” 187; “We Real Cool,” 154
Broonzy, Bill Bill, 118
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP), 79–85, 87–88
Brotherhood of Teamsters, 25–26, 28, 293
Brown, Oscar, 198
Brown, Wendy, 11, 148, 344n12, 349n32
Bryce, James, 1
Bucktown neighborhood, 299
Buddy Guy’s Legends (club), 118
Bungalow Belt: R.J. Daley and management of reactions from, 200, 201, 208; development in the 1920s, 47; and housing segregation, 47, 201, 208; and middle-class backlash against New Deal, 57; and school segregation, 181; and white backlash politics, 134, 201; and white identity formation, 47
Burge, Jon, 279
Burnham, Daniel: in Chicago School (architecture), 21–22; in City Beautiful movement, 33; First Regiment Armory, 18; Baron Haussmann/Paris as influence on, 16, 32; and Plan of Chicago, 32–36
Bush, Earl, 188
Bush, George W., 133, 269, 311
business community: antiunionist/antilabor, 26, 28–29, 30–31; and cultural institutions, 31; and progressivism, spirit of, 29–30, 31; progrowth agenda prior to RJD, 9–10, 53–58, 143–146; race-baiting by, 26, 29. See also deindustrialization; downtown agenda; global cities/global-city agenda; neoliberalization/neoliberalism
Byrne, Jane: and black community, 250–251; defeated by Washington in primaries, 242–244, 256; election of 1977, 243–244; redrawing of ward map, 255
Cabrini-Green Homes (public housing), 228, 251, 280, 308, 309, 310
Café Lura, 318
Calder, Alexander, Flamingo, 232
California, TIF funds, 368n49
Calloway, Cab, 66, 90; “Minnie the Moocher,” 92
Calumet Community Religious Conference (CCRC), 257
Calumet Park riot (1957), 168, 176, 358n21
Cambodia, immigrants from, 315
Campbell, William, 189
Canaryville neighborhood, 41–44
Canaryville School of Gunmen, 41
capitalism: disaster capitalism, 327; spectacle of protest and, 227. See also black capitalism; downtown agenda; neoliberalization/neoliberalism
Capone, Al, and gang, 53, 128, 130
CAPS (Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy), 263, 289, 305
Carby, Hazel, 90
Carey, Archibald, 77, 80, 81, 82
Carey, Archibald Jr., 144–145, 149
Carl Sandburg Village (housing development), 227–228, 229
Carmichael, Stokely, 169, 180, 195, 220
Carney, Frank, 165–166, 170, 172
Castells, Manuel, 171
Castle, Barton and Associates, 358n16
Catholic Church: anti-Catholicism, 41, 43, 52; as integrationist, 159, 161–162; and Irish control of political machine, 122; as major donor to Saul Alinsky, 159–160, 161–162; nomination of Al Smith, 52; Polish community and, 317; and production of white identity, 46; as pro-union, 121–122; as segregationist, 124, 159–160
Cayton, Horace, 3, 60–66, 70–71, 73, 102
CBOE. See Board of Education
CCAC (Chicago Central Area Committee), 146–147, 149–150, 234–235
CCCO. See Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO)
Cermak, Anton: assassination of, 53; and Great Depression, 53–54; and multiethnic political machine, 52–53, 55, 57; and Pilsen, 52; policy wheel shutdown campaign (1931), 72; progrowth, antilabor agenda of, 9–10, 53–55; victory over Thompson, 52–53
CHA. See Chicago Housing Authority
Chagall, Marc, Four Seasons mosaic, 363n38
charter schools: crisis induced to validate privatization, 327; definition of, 367n26; Latino charter schools, 330–331; Renaissance 2010 plan for, 50, 271, 305, 328; scandals and, 330; school closures and establishment of, 271, 326–328, 330, 333; teachers union and fight against, 293, 326, 327, 331
Chase corporation, 13
Checkerboard Lounge, 118
Cheetah Gym, 304
Chess, Leonard and Phil, 119–120
Chess, Marshall, 120
Cheung, George, 318
Chicago: as center of national black life, 117, 137; civic pride, maintenance of, 226–227; as quintessentially American town, 1–3, 5; working-class identity of, 1–2, 13, 232. See also civil service, municipal; downtown agenda; gentrification; infrastructure; urban renewal; urban services provision
—NICKNAMES FOR: Beirut on the Lake, 253, 264; City of Neighborhoods, 3, 294–295, 318–319; City of the Big Shoulders, 2, 22, 204, 225, 294; City on the Make, 140–141, 294; City that Works, 2, 231, 294; Hog Butcher for the World, 2, 20, 140, 225; the known city, 117; Second City, 294; White City, 23; Windy City, 2, 294
—PLANS: Chicago Central Area Plan (2002), 286; Chicago Plan (1970), 236; Chicago 21 Plan (1973), 234–235; Development Plan for the Central Area of Chicago (1958), 147, 148, 154, 227; Plan of Chicago (1909), 32–36
Chicago Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression, 335
Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS), 263, 289, 305
Chicago American Giants (black baseball team), 46, 71
Chicago Association of Commerce and Industry, 49, 50
Chicago Bee, 62
Chicago B.L.U.E.S. Bar, 118
Chicago Board of Education. See Board of Education (CBOE)
Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), 239, 240. See also commodities exchanges of Chicago
Chicago Board Options Exchange, 271
Chicago Building Trades Council: loyalty to RMD, 293; and 1921 labor dispute, 49; protests for black union admission, 236, 364n46
Chicago Butter and Egg Board, 364n48
Chicago Central Area Committee (CCAC), 146–147, 149–150, 234–235
Chicago Children’s Choir, 324
Chicago Chinatown Chamber of Commerce, 318
Chicago City Club, 271
Chicago Civic Center (Richard J. Daley Center), 232
Chicago Commission on Human Relations (CCHR), 175
Chicago Commission on Race Relations (CCRR), 38, 40, 42
Chicago Crime Commission, 42, 268
Chicago Daily Journal, 40–41
Chicago Daily News, 29, 30, 49, 167, 177, 181
Chicago Defender: advertising in, 86; and black capitalism, 67, 75–76, 81; and the Black Metropolis, 65, 66, 69–70, 78–79; on black music and musicians, 90–91; and black real estate investment, 85, 86; and Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 79, 80, 83, 84; on civil rights movement, 178; R.J. Daley endorsement by, 134; and Double-V campaign, 206; and emancipatory promise of black capitalism, 81; Rahm Emanuel endorsed by, 334; and Emanuel reelection, 334; ignoring cooperative black businesses, 82; location of offices, 67; and mayor of Bronzeville election, 114–115; on National Negro Congress, 88; nationwide influence of, 117; opposition to BSCP, 81; on policy wheel shutdown campaign, 72; on private accountability, 235–236; Pullman Company as donor to, 80; on segregation, 178, 235; on South Deering, 133; support for BSCP, 83; on youth violence, 167; and zoot suit dances, 108
Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs and Special Events, 370n79
Chicago Federation of Labor (CFL): opposition to RMD, 293; and race-baiting tactics of RMD, 292; and school board, 48–49
ChicagoFest boycott (1982), 251
Chicago Forward (super-PAC), 333
Chicago Freedom Movement (CFM, alliance of SCLC and CCCO): and gangs, 189–195, 200; open-housing campaign of, 193–195, 200, 208; shadow programs created by RJD, 200–201; West Side riot blamed on, 192–193
Chicago Giants (black baseball team), 46
Chicago Housing Authority (CHA): Admissions and Continued Occupancy Policy, 311–312; bypassed by CLCC, 144; Jane Byrne appointments to, 250–251; citing statistics on population density of South Side, 104; formation of (1937), 112; and hyperghettoization, 127; integration as policy of, 126–127, 132, 149; Plan for Transformation (2000), 309–311; policing of low-income residents of mixed-income housing, 311–312; in receivership by order of federal court, 310; ruled guilty of racial discrimination, 237; transformed to redevelopment facilitator, 148–149; Elizabeth Wood as first executive director, 113, 126–127, 132, 149. See also public housing
Chicago Land Clearance Commission (CLCC), 144, 146
Chicago Lawn neighborhood, 47, 193, 317
Chicago Mercantile Exchange (Merc, CME), 239–241, 329–330, 336, 364n48
Chicago Merchants Club, 32
Chicago Mural Group, 220, 362n18
Chicago Neighborhood Tours program, 295
Chicago People’s Church, 218
Chicago Plan (1970), 236
Chicago Plan Commission, 32, 34–35, 145, 147
Chicago Police Department. See police (CPD)
Chicago Public Library, 308, 326, 372n104
Chicago Public Schools. See schools (Chicago Public Schools, CPS)
Chicago Reader, 282
Chicago Real Estate Board, 46, 202
Chicago Record-Herald, 29
Chicago Review (UC literary magazine), 211–212
Chicago River, 23
Chicago Sanitary District, 17, 55
Chicago School architecture, 6, 21–22
Chicago School of sociology, 3, 19, 69, 113, 153, 211, 274, 294, 343n4
Chicago School of urbanism, 4–5, 6
Chicago Seed, The, 205
Chicago Skyway tolls, privatization of, 291
Chicago Spire, 323
Chicago Sun-Times, 180, 256, 279, 300
Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 31
Chicago Teachers Federation (CTF), 48, 50, 53, 54
Chicago Teachers Union (CTU): Caucus of Rank-and-File Educators (CORE), 293, 328–329; charter school teachers as barred from, 271; and R.M. Daley school closings, 328–329; William Dever and, 50; and Rahm Emanuel’s austerity program, 326, 327–329, 332, 333; fight against charter schools, 293, 326, 327, 331; and Grassroots Collaborative, 329; strike (2012), 326, 332, 333, 336; United Progressive Caucus of, 328
Chicago Title and Trust, 143–144
Chicago Transit Authority (CTA): antimachine sentiments and Byrne election, 250; R.M. Daley austerity measures and, 325; elevated municipal railway (“L”), 22, 222, 280; Rahm Emanuel austerity measures and, 325; municipal ownership of mass transit, 15; privatized fare collection system, 331; state bailout of, 291
Chicago Tribune: as antilabor, 29, 30, 56; on black strikebreakers, 26, 29; on Cermak’s patronage reform, 54; crusade against Larry Hoover, 278; on education, 50; on Emanuel inauguration, 324; investigation into misappropriation of funds, 237; on juvenile delinquency, 167; on juvenile delinquency during WWII, 98–99; on murder rate, 17; Obama interview (2003), 265; on race riots, 37–38; on “rainbow cabinet” of RMD, 288; on strikes, 25–26; on Washington election (1983), 241, 245; white backlash and, 209; on zoning process, 307
Chicago 21 Corporation, 234–235
Chicago 21 Plan, 234–235
Chicago Women’s Club, 31
Chicago Workers’ Committee on Unemployment, 53
Chicago Youth Development Project, 165–166
Chinese-American Civic Council, 318
Chinese community, 314–315, 318; map (2000), 316
Choose Chicago, 370n79
Cicero (Illinois) riot, 128–129, 129
CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations), 56–58, 83, 104–105
Citizens’ Committee to Enforce the Landis Award, 49–50
Citizens for a Democratic and Diverse Albany Park, 319
City Beautiful movement, 33
city council: R.M. Daley and living wage ordinance, 292–293; R.M. Daley appointments to, and lack of opposition from, 281, 301; R.J. Daley reducing to rubber-stamp advisory board, 141–142; R.J. Daley severing from the planning process, 8–9, 146–147; and early urban renewal opposition, 146; and Rahm Emanuel, 332–333; gang member running for (Wallace “Gator” Bradley), 277–278; Gray Wolves, 15, 34; Progressive Reform Caucus, 332; and segregation of public housing, 126; and Harold Washington “council wars,” 252–253, 254–256, 344n11; zoning changes controlled by individual aldermen, 305
City Homes Association, Tenement Conditions in Chicago, 19
Civic Music Association, 31
Civil Rights Act (1964), 188
civil rights movement: black veterans returning from WWII and, 106, 107, 109; and gangs, 185; guerilla tactics and, 182–183; March on Washington (1963), 180; “militants/extremists”, defined, 182; and nonviolence vs. militancy as philosophy, 179–180, 182–183, 185; policy brutality protests, 183–185, 296–297; school protests, 179–180, 181–182, 184, 187, 221–222, 250, 271–272, 297, 359n29; southern movement in consciousness of Chicago, 177–178; as threat to black submachine politics, 130–131, 189; as threat to machine politics, 131–132; Emmett Till murder as “moment of simultaneity” for, 137; top-down historical perspectives on, 168–169; and TWO movement of Woodlawn, 162–163; UAW Local 600 in Detroit and, 106; white backlash as counterforce to, 131–132; zoot suiters and, 106–108
civil service, municipal: black participation in, 77, 287; Cermak and reform of, 54; Latino participation in, 287; public pension funds, gap in, 323–324; Shakman case ruling preventing firing for political affiliations, 237; under RJD, 139–140; under RMD, 280, 282–283
Civil Service Commission, 77
Civil Works Administration (CWA), 57
Clark, Mark, 215
Clark, Terry Nichols, 321
class. See middle class; working class
CLCC (Chicago Land Clearance Commission), 144, 146
Cleveland, OH, 181
Clinton, Bill, 263, 269, 273–275
Cloud Gate sculpture, 285
Club DeLisa, 118
CME (Chicago Mercantile Exchange), 13, 239–241, 329–330, 336, 364n48
Coalition for Youth Action, 198
Coalition of United Community Action (CUCA), 236, 364n46
Cobraettes (gang), 187
Cobras. See Egyptian Cobras (gang)
COGLI (Mayor’s Committee on Gay and Lesbian Issues), 255
Cohen, Adam, 151
Collins, John, 29
Collins, Richard, 54
color line, 173
Commercial Club of Chicago, 30–32, 48, 54, 271; and Plan of Chicago, 32–36
commercial sex industry, 111
Commission on Latino Affairs, 252
Committee for Patriotic Action, 100
commodities exchanges of Chicago, 13, 239–241, 328, 329–330, 336, 364n48
Commonwealth Edison Company, 234, 261
Communist Party: anticommunism and, 79, 83, 212, 213; black presidential candidates of, 88; concerns about black capitalism, 61; membership numbers, 87; and National Negro Congress, 83, 88; social justice actions led by, 53, 76, 78, 79, 87
Communities United for Affordable Housing (CUFAH), 302
Community Action Program (CAP), 196, 209
“community areas” as term, becoming “neighborhoods,” 294
community mural movement, 219–220, 220, 302, 314, 362n18
condominium development, 301, 304, 305, 308, 309
Condon, Eddie, 65
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 144, 179, 182, 183
Connolly, N.D.B., 86
Conservative Vice Lords. See Vice Lords (gang)
construction industry: affirmative action, 236, 275, 288, 363n45; Chicago Plan (1970) integrating, 236, 364n46; R.J. Daley and, 140; Rahm Emanuel and, 332; Great Depression and halt on, 104; minority-owned contractors, exclusion of, 235, 236–237, 279, 363n45; skyscrapers, 21–22, 147. See also Chicago Building Trades Council
consumerism: advertising industry, 204, 228; credit card debt as masking inequalities, 289; of professional sports, as diversion from inequalities, 289–290
Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust, 234
Cook, William Decatur, 82, 83–84
Cook County, 233. See also Democratic Party (Cook County); machine politics of Cook County Democratic Party; suburbanization
Cook County Hospital, 172
Cooperative Business League, 82
Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO), 179, 181–182, 184, 188, 189. See also Chicago Freedom Movement
corporate headquarters, 22, 143; suburbanization and, 232–234
corruption. See scandals and corruption
countersubversion, state-sponsored: overview, 12; ACLU lawsuit and destruction of files, 212; FBI (COINTELPRO), 213–214, 215, 217; frame-ups, 217–218; and gang member candidate (Bradley) for city council, 278, 280–281; Fred Hampton assassination, 12, 184, 215–217; racial tensions stirred up by, 213; Red Squad division of Police Department, 12, 212–214, 345n19; sabotage of gangs, 197, 199; as stunting development of the left, 212, 216–218
CPD. See police (CPD)
CPS. See schools (Chicago Public Schools, CPS)
crack cocaine, 267–268
Crane High School student demonstration, 169–170
Crate and Barrel, 205
creative class, 320–321
credit card debt, 289
crime and criminality: early 20th century and, 16–17, 18–19; rehabilitation model for, 19; Bill Thompson and gangsters, 53. See also crime rates; gangs; organized crime; scandals and corruption; underground economy
crime rates: Englewood neighborhood and, 122; gang activity and, 268; gang participation in lowering, 198; and heat wave of 1995, 262; lowering of in 2000s, generally, 366n14. See also homicide rates
crime syndicates. See organized crime
Crown Fountain, 285
CTA. See Chicago Transit Authority
CTF. See Chicago Teachers Federation
CTU. See Chicago Teachers Union
Cuban community, 302
culturalization of politics: overview, 246–247; antiwelfare rhetoric as, 273–274; black capitalism and, 69, 78–79, 85, 87; black intellectuals and perpetuation of, 274–275; and blaming the victims (heat wave 1995), 263–264; conservatives as tending toward, 122, 364n54; defined as attributing issues to cultural vs. political causes, 11; and Rahm Emanuel election (2015), 336; Great Depression and, 54–55; “liberal” intellectuals and basis for, 274–275, 364n64; and military schools and programs, 272; Million Man March rhetoric of, 275–276; nihilism and, 276–277; racist ideology justifying police violence, 218; shattered dreams of basketball glory and, 290
cultural sensitivity training programs, 243
culture-of-poverty arguments. See culturalization of politics
“culture wars,” 246
Cupid (Vice Lord member), 191
Czech community: in Back of the Yards, 158; and Bungalow Belt, 47; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 40, 45, 114; in heterogeneous neighborhoods, 24; and 1919 race riot, 40, 45; Pilsen neighborhood, 24, 52; size of, 23; and white flight, 153; and whiteness/white identity, 114
Daley, Richard J., 229; background and education of, 41, 43, 134, 138; bungled phrases of, 138, 177; as chair of Cook County Democratic Party, 11–12, 133–134, 141; and city council, 8–9, 141–142, 146–147; death of, 231, 237; and Democratic National Convention (1968), 138, 208; “good government is good politics,” 138; in Hamburg Athletic Club (gang), 41–42, 134, 150, 151; and Irish Bridgeport, 134, 151; litter anecdote, 141; and neighborhoods, claims to support, 294; and New Deal liberalism, 137–138; nomination for Mayor, 133; and police expansion, 167; as “proto-neoliberal,” 8–9, 147–149; as “quasi-Keynesian,” 149; rhetorical talents of, 134–135, 150; and segregated racial order, preservation of, 150–151; “shoot to kill” order, during riots following MLK assassination, 138, 203, 208, 210; as “the builder,” 229, 233; as white backlash mayor, 135–136, 209–211, 238. See also global cities/global-city agenda; machine politics—R.J. Daley; patronage—of R.J. Daley machine; public housing—R.J. Daley and; urban renewal
Daley, Richard M., 296; accounting tricks to veil financial straits of city, 281–282; advisors on culture-of-poverty arguments, 274–275; on background of RJD, 138; and beautification, 266, 285, 289, 305, 308; budget deficits and, 290–291; bungled phrases of, 260–261; and “City of Neighborhoods,” 294–295; entrepreneurial state of, 8, 13, 262–263; influence on Obama administration, 264–265; and LGBT community, 295, 321, 370n80; and Carol Moseley Braun, 277; national influence of, 264–265; Olympic Games bid, 291–292; primary loss to Harold Washington (1983), 242, 244, 251; privatization program of, 290–291; “rainbow cabinet”/minority appointments by, 287–288; and school reform, 50, 271, 286–287, 305, 328. See also gentrification; global cities/global-city agenda; political machine—R.M. Daley; TIF funds; tourism, R.M. Daley and development of
Daley, William, 265
Dan Ryan Expressway, as barrier, 150–151, 152
Davis, Angela, 90
Davis, James “Gloves,” 184
Davis, Mike, 343n5
Davis, Rennie, 205–206
Dawson, Michael, 349n31
Dawson, William: civil rights/integration as threat to, 130–131; and R.J. Daley election, 136; Kelly as kingmaker of, 105; and Kennelly’s reform zeal, 129–130, 133; lack of resistance to displacement of black working class, 149; Ralph Metcalfe as successor to, 238; policy wheels and jitney cabs underground economy, 129–130. See also black submachine politics
“Days of Rage” riot (1969), 231
Deacons of Defense, 197
Dean, James, 167
Dearborn, MI, 226
Dearborn Park project (mixed income development), 234–236
Dear, Michael, 3–4
death sentences, George Ryan commuting, 279
de Blasio, Bill, 333
Debord, Guy, The Society of the Spectacle, 204, 226
defensive localism. See white backlash
deindustrialization: black Chicago as hardest hit by, 223; downtown development and, 147; economy of the 1970s and, 223, 224–225; and gentrification as source of new revenues, 298; number of jobs lost, 147, 172, 222, 223, 225, 286; and subsidies via TIF funds, 283–284, 369n56; suburbanization and, 222–223; as threat to patronage, 140–141; tourism as replacing industry, 286
DeKoven Bowen, Louise, 49
De La Salle High School, 41, 43
Dellinger, Dave, 205–206
De Luxe Café, 67
Democratic National Convention protests (1968): overview, 12, 203–205; awarding of convention to Chicago, 208; and backlash context of political violence, 218; R.J. Daley and, 138, 208; demonstrations and marches, 206, 207–208; “Festival of Life” concert, 206–207; media and, 206, 207–208, 210–211; organizing of, 205–206; and Police Red Squad countersubversion, 213; police violence and, 207–208, 210–211, 218; as spectacle, 226; turnout as disappointing, 205–206, 207
Democratic Party (Cook County): and Jacob “Jack” Arvey, 113; and black civil rights agitation vs. white backlash, 131–132; and Anton Cermak, 52; R.J. Daley as chair of, 11–12, 133–134, 141; and William Dawson, 131; and William Dever, 47–48; Irish domination, resentment of, 51, 52; and Kennelly, 133. See also machine politics of Cook County Democratic Party
Democratic Party (national): first Catholic presidential candidate, 52; postwar strategy as defender of the disadvantaged, 101, 137–138; turn of African Americans to, 131; Vietnam War, support for, 205; welfare reform and crime bills of 1990s, 273–274. See also Democratic National Convention protests (1968)
demographics. See population
Deneen, Charles, 37
Department of City Planning, 146–147
DePaul University basketball arena, 331–332
DePriest, Oscar, 76–77, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 105, 349n35
DePriest and DePriest, 85
Despres, Leon, 200
Detroit: black mayors and, 249; and black poverty, 266; and CIO programs for interracial recreational activities, 105; hate strikes by white auto workers, 104; homicide rates, 366n14; labor disputes, 96, 212; median black income, 117; as “Motor City,” 226; and music, 121; police “red squad,” 345n19; race riots in WWII, 100, 101, 103; riots in 1967, 209; and spectacle of rioting, 226; wildcat strikes by black workers, 105–106; and WWII, 96, 212; zoot suit riots, 101, 102, 103
Detroit Free Press, 103
Dever, William, 47–48, 49–51, 54–55
Devil’s Disciples, 196. See also Disciples (gang)
Diddley, Bo, 301
Dies Committee, 83
DiMaggio, Paul, 31
Dirksen Federal Building, 232
Disciples (gang), 122, 186, 190, 194, 196, 364n46; and youth services/community improvement projects, 196–200
dissimilarity index, 78, 313–314, 350n37
Division Street riot (1966), 219, 250, 296–297
Dodge-Chicago, 97
Dolphy, Eric, 120
domestic workers, Puerto Ricans recruited as, 358n16
Donnelley, Thomas, 49
Don’t Spend Your Money Where You Can’t Work boycott (1930), 62, 87
Dorenzo, Nick, 196
Double-V campaign, 106
Douglas Aircraft, 97
Douglass League of Women Voters, 84
Douglass National Bank, 62, 67
Dowell, Pat, 332
downtown agenda, 229; CAC plan for, 146–147; city government reconfigured to support, 8–9, 146–147, 148–149; deindustrialization via, 147; infrastructure and funding for, 231–232; investment in, 147; lifestyle and, 229, 231; maps of development, 152, 230; neoliberal turn and, 147–148; profits from, 147. See also Chicago—plans; global cities/global-city agenda; skyscrapers; urban renewal—downtown development projects as beneficiary under RJD
Doyle, Tommy, 41–42
Drake, St. Clair, 3, 60–66, 70–71, 73
drugs: crack cocaine distribution, 267–268; testing of subsidized housing residents, 312; War on Drugs, 218, 337
Duff, James M., 279
Duffy, Terrence, 329–330
Dukies (gang), 40
Duncan, Arne, 264–265, 271, 326
Dunn, “Sonny,” 42
DuPage County, 223, 232–233. See also suburbanization
Dwight D. Eisenhower Expressway, 153, 217
Earwax (café), 304
East Garfield Park Community Organization, 194
East Garfield Park neighborhood: anti-Mexican violence in, 175–176; original plan for University of Illinois campus in, 156, 262; Puerto Rican community and, 174; as thriving middle-class neighborhood, 153
East Garfield Union to End Slums (EGUES), 194
East Pilsen, 301
East Saint Louis, IL, 37–38
Ebony magazine, 117
Economic Research and Action Project (ERAP), 204
economization of Black Metropolis by black capitalism, 75–76, 79–80, 81–82, 85, 349n32
economy: of the 1970s, 223, 224–226; credit card debt and, 289; as diversion from structural inequalities, 290; globalized, 225; Great Recession, 323–324; monetarism, 240; power index of, Chicago and, 374n1. See also Great Depression; neoliberalization/neoliberalism; service economy; service industries (global city); underground economy
Edgewater neighborhood, 214, 317, 320
education policy of President Obama, 273
Education-to-Career Academies (ETCs), 286–287
Egyptian Cobras (gang), 186, 190
Eighth Regiment Armory, 88
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 150–151
elite social inclusivity, 287–289
Ellison, Ralph, 89
Emanuel, Rahm: as advisor to RMD, 265, 324, 325; and austerity, 325–328; budget deficits and, 323–324; and crises, use of, 327; election of 2011, 325, 329; election of 2015 challenge by Jesús “Chuy” García, 333–336; inauguration of (2011), 323–325; as Obama’s White House chief of staff, 265, 327; Office of Tourism and Culture eliminated by, 370n79; opposition to, 328–330, 331–336; pinstripe patronage and, 325; and the politics of identity, 330–331, 337; scandals of, 330, 331; school privatization and austerity program of, 325, 326–328, 330–331, 333; and TIF funds, 328, 329–330, 331–332
emergency services, outsourcing of, 263
employers: exploiting racially motivated violence, 26, 28–29; race-baiting by, 26, 29; racism as tool of, 110; union breaking by, 26. See also business community; labor force; labor unions and unionization
Employers Association of Chicago, 26, 28–29
Englewood neighborhood: black population of, 127; and Catholic Church, 121–122; gangs and, 122, 277–278; and labor unions, 121–122, 123–124; of 1920s and 1930s, 121–122; and Peoria Street riot (1949), 123–124; school protests in, 179; and urban crisis, 122–124
Enright, “Moss,” 42
entrepreneurialism: black capitalism and, 62–63, 78; blues music and, 118–121
entrepreneurial state, 8, 262–263. See also neoliberalization/neoliberalism
Epton, Bernard, 241, 245–246, 247, 248–249
Equal Rights Amendment, 242
Erdmans, Mary Patrice, 318
ethnoracial enclaves (post 1970): immigrants and growth/creation of, 313–318, 316, 373nn121,123; reluctance of City Hall to embrace, 318–319. See also neighborhoods
eugenics, 45
European immigrants. See immigrants and immigration; southern and eastern European immigrants; whiteness and white identity; specific communities
Evans, Timothy, 256, 324, 366n1
eviction, antieviction riot (August 1931), 76, 78, 79
Ewald, François, 75
Executive Order No. 11246 (affirmative action), 236
Exelon Corporation, 271
Fanon, Frantz, 215
Fansteel Metallurgical Corp, 56
Farber, David, 207
Farley Candy Company, 369n56
Far North Side, 214
Farrakhan, Louis, 275–276
Far South Side, 331
Far Southwest Side, 114
Farwell, John V. Jr., 30
Farwell & Company, 30
FBI: and black power, 213–218; COINTELPRO (Counterintelligence Program) of, 213–214, 215, 217; fear of Black Panther–gang coalition, 215; Operation Silver Shovel (investigation of RMD corruption), 278–279, 284; state-sponsored repression by, 216–218. See also countersubversion, state-sponsored
Fearless Leading by the Youth (FLY), 335
federal courts: Byrne’s redrawing of ward map declared illegal, 255; Gautreaux order mandating any new public housing to be located outside of ghetto, 237, 309–310; Housing Authority antiblack discrimination, 237
Federal Emergency Relief Administration, 57
Federal Employment Practices Commission, 104
federal funding: affirmative action requirements for, 236, 363n45; antipoverty programs, 209, 237; blighted land bought by government and sold to private developers, 143–144; Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS), 263; Community Development block grants, 255; credits for urban renewal, 157; and Daley patronage expansion, 149; directed into downtown projects, 142; as drying up, 236, 238, 274, 368n34; and gang involvement in youth services (OEO), 196–197, 198–199, 210; for government building complex, 232; Great Depression and, 53, 57; homeownership housing subsidies, 127, 140, 222–223; for law enforcement initiatives, 218, 274; No Child Left Behind program, 269; in the Sun Belt, 4; for transportation and infrastructure upgrades, 231–232; World War II and, 97. See also federal funding for public housing
federal funding for public housing: conditioned on building outside black ghettos, 310; conditioned on maintaining racial composition of neighborhoods, 112; cuts to, and maintenance backlog, 309–310; and high-rise architecture, 138; and mixed-income approach, 310; New Deal and, 112; in postwar years, 126
Federal Furnace Company, 21
Federal Plaza office complex, 232
Federal Steel. See Illinois Steel
Ferguson, Missouri, police violence, 334, 335
Fernwood Park Homes (public housing), 124
“Festival of Life” (Lincoln Park, 1968), 206–207
Field, Marshall, 28, 31–32, 146, 158
Field Museum of Natural History, 285
Fiesta del Sol (street festival), 302
fighting gangs. See gangs
Figueroa, Raymond, 256
Filipino community, 319
films: Great Depression films, 54–55; and Los Angeles, 1; and Wicker Park neighborhood, 374n130; WWII films, 95
financial sector: futures exchanges and, 239–241, 329–330, 364n48. See also service industries (global city)
financial transaction tax (FTT), 328, 336
fire department: and heat wave of 1995, 261, 263–264; and police brutality protests, 185
First Annual Gangs Convention (1966), 190
First National Bank Building (Chase Tower), 223, 233
First National Bank Building (old), 363n38
First Presbyterian Church of Woodlawn, 195
First Regiment Armory, 18
Fisher, Walter L., 15
Fish, John Hall, 197–198
Fitzpatrick, John, 48–49
Five Soul Stirrers Cleaners, 116
Flanagan, Maureen, 29
Flores, Manuel, 305
Florida, Richard, 320–321, 374n1
food deserts, 283
Ford, James W., 88
Ford company, 106
Forest Preserve District of Cook County, 35
Fort Dearborn project, 146
Foxx, Kim, 337
Frances Cabrini Homes (public housing), 112
Frears, Stephen, High Fidelity, 374n130
Freedom Riders, 162
“Freedom Schools,” 181
Frost, Wilson, 256–257
Fry, John, 195
FTT (financial transaction tax), 328, 336
Fuerzas Armadas para la Liberacion Nacional (FALN), 254, 372n98
funeral services, insurance for, 71, 74–75
futures markets, 239–241, 329–330, 364n48
Gamson, William, 74
gangs: Daley’s machine threatened by, 196–199; Daley’s membership in Hamburg gang, 41–42, 134, 150, 151; Daley’s offensive against, 184, 186–187; Daley’s “war on gangs” (1969), 198–199, 218; and drug trafficking in the 1990s, 267–268; early 20th century formation of, 24–25; and Englewood, 122, 277–278; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27, 43; ethnoracial identity as focus of, 170–171, 296; fighting gangs, emergence of, 170; gentrification and, 302, 303; infiltration and harassment by FBI, 12, 215; labor union violence, 24; map of (ca. 1919), 39; and masculinity, 25, 43–44; nihilism of, 168; number of, 268; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 12, 214–215, 250; Reagan administration and criminalization of youth, 218; respect and honor as factor in, 172; school closures and violence between, 271; segregation reinforced by violence of, 46; space as produced via, 170–171; supergangs, 197, 215, 364n46; turf as focus of, 170; violence against Puerto Ricans, 175; violent crime and homicide rates and, 268–269; World War II and, 108. See also black gangs; white gangs and athletic clubs
Gangster Disciples (gang), 122, 215, 236, 267, 277–278, 280
García, Jesús “Chuy,” 256, 333–336
garment making, 22
Garvey, Marcus, and Garveyism, 61–62, 82
Gary Works, 21
gay community. See LGBT community
Geary, Eugene, 42
Geary, J.V., 54
Gellman, Erik, 88
gender, blues singers and challenges to, 90. See also women
Genet, Jean, 207
Gentleman brothers, 42
gentrification: overview, 10–11, 308; bohemians/hipsters and entrepreneurs and, 302–305, 320–321; bricolage and, 304–305; City Hall policies fueling, 298, 305, 307–308, 312, 371n84; and desirability of Chicago’s urban lifestyle, 320; “disorder” as commodity in, 321; “edge” as commodity in, 303–304; ethnoracial identity and, 300, 302–303; at expense of working-class and low-income residents, 298–302, 311–312, 317, 371n94; global third wave of, 298, 299, 301; map of, 306; middle-class minority homeowners and, 13–14, 288–289, 298–299, 301; middle-class white displacement of residents, 298, 300–301, 302, 303, 304–305, 311–312, 320; New York City and, 307
George Cleveland Hall Library, 61
German community: and Bungalow Belt, 47; and Englewood, 121–122; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27, 114; Kelly-Nash machine and, 55; location of, 24; size of, 23; and whiteness/white identity, 114
Gillespie, Dizz, 121
Gilroy, Paul, 219
Gingrich, Newt, 274
Gitlin, Todd, 216
Giuliani, Rudolph, 283
global cities/global-city agenda: overview, 13, 225–226; accounting “gimmicks” used to maintain appearance of, 239; and centralization of business district, 225; Chicago as business traveler destination, 286; “City of Neighborhoods” under RMD and, 295, 318–319; and commodities markets, 13, 239–241, 329–330; definition of, 225; and donations to campaigns of RMD, 281; local context and development of, 4; “multiplier effects” of, 283; neighborhoods excluded from recognition, 318–319; subsidies via TIF funds for, 282–284, 331–332, 369n56; successes of RMD with, 264, 284–286; tax revenues and, 225; tourism and, 285–286; and “two Chicagos,” 7; white-collar employment rates and, 225. See also service industries (global city)
Goins, Irene, 84
Gold Coast neighborhood, 153, 228, 229, 231, 280
Goldwater, Barry, 361n6
Gore, Bobby, 196, 199, 217–218
Grace Abbott Homes (public housing), 154. See also ABLA (public housing)
Graham, Donald M., 234
Granger, Lester, 88
Grant, Madison, 45
Grant Park, 35, 206, 291, 293, 324
Grassroots Collaborative, 329
Grassroots Illinois Action (GIA), 333
grassroots organizations, citywide coalition of: difficulty of sustaining, 333, 336–337; and election of 2015, 333; mayoral forum held by (2010), 329; and opposition to school closures, 328–329; TIFs and pinstripe patronage opposed by, 328, 329–330, 331–332. See also multiethnic coalitions
Great Depression: antieviction riot (August 1931), 76, 78, 79; black capitalism and, 59–60, 62, 63–64; demonstrations, 53; and need for WWII jobs, 98; and strikes, 56; unemployment rate and, 53, 78. See also New Deal
Greater Grand Crossing, 102
Great Fire (1871), 22–23
Great Railroad Strike (1877), 28
Great Recession, 323–324
Great Society project, 196, 209–210
Greek community, 18, 23, 114, 295, 345n13
“Greek Delta/Greektown,” 24
Green, Adam, 117, 118–119, 137
Green, Dwight, 57
Gregory School (Garfield Park), 179
Grimshaw, William, 244
Group of Eight (G8) meeting, 330
Habitat Company, 310
Hairston, Eugene, 196
Haley, Bill, “Rock Around the Clock,” 119, 166
Half-Century Magazine, 85
Hall, Stuart, 177
Hamburg Athletic Club (gang), 41–42, 134, 150, 151
Hamburg neighborhood, 40, 41–42, 43–44
Hampton, Fred: assassination by police, 12, 184, 215–217; as “Chairman Fred,” 214; and FBI informants/infiltrators, 215, 217; as leader of Illinois Black Panther Party, 214–215; “rainbow coalition” work of, 12, 214–215, 217, 221
Hanrahan, Edward, 215, 216, 218
Harlem Renaissance, 61
Harris, “Duck” James, 194
Harrison, Carter II, 15
Harrison-Halsted Community Group, 155–157
Harrison High School, 221–222, 297
Harris, R.H., 116
Harvey, David, 8, 148, 225, 226
Harvey, IL, 310
Harvey, William, 189
Haussmann, Baron, 16
Hawkins, Coleman, 121
Haymarket bombing (1886), 18, 28, 30
health department, and growth of tenements, 19
Heath, Monroe, 28
heat wave (1995), 260–264, 366n4
Hebdige, Dick, 304
Heimoski, Frank J., 212
high schools: college prep magnet schools, 270; corporate-style reforms of RMD, 269–273; Mexican community pressuring for, 297; military high schools and programs, 272, 368n32; national rankings, 269–270; school protests, 169–170, 221–222, 250; vocational, for tourist services sector, 286–287; white resistance to integration and, 124. See also schools (Chicago Public Schools, CPS)
highways. See streets/highways/expressways
Hill, T. Arnold, 79
Hines, Earl “Fatha,” 66
hippie scene, 205
Hired Truck Program scandal, 279–280, 281, 284
Hirsch, Arnold, 40, 45, 52, 128; Making the Second Ghetto, 173
Hispanic Democratic Organization (HDO), 280
Hodes, Barnet, 55
Hoffman, Nicholas von, 161, 162, 164
Holliday, Billie, 89–90; “Strange Fruit,” 89–90
Holman, Claude, 189
Holman, Lucien, 177
Holy Family Church, 165
homeowners and homeownership: cheap credit for rehabilitation of homes, 159; minority homeowners, 13–14, 85–86, 288–289, 361n71; mortgage rip-offs, 361n71; neoliberalism and transformation to financial investment, 86–87, 307–308; and political power, 311; suburbanization following federal subsidies for, 127, 140, 222–223; white homeowner associations, 46, 78; and white identity, formation of, 46; white ownership and fear of black invasion, 87. See also gentrification; restrictive covenants
homicide rates: early-20th century, 16–17, 25; in early 2000s, 265, 279, 366n14; of Englewood, 122; gang-motivated, 268; immigrants blamed for, 29; in 2016, 337. See also crime rates
homophobia, 275–276
Honeywell, 233
Hoover, Herbert, 53
Hoover, J. Edgar, 98, 213–214, 215. See also countersubversion, state-sponsored; FBI
Hoover, Larry, 277–278
Hope IV program, 310
Horner, Henry, 55
Hot Doug’s, 304
Hotel Grand, 61
House of Blues, 118
housing: affordable housing movement, 301, 302; Section 8 vouchers, 310, 372n110; shortage of, WWII and, 104, 108–109, 112. See also Chicago Housing Authority (CHA); housing developments (middle class); housing segregation; public housing; renters and rent increases
Housing Act (1949), 126, 139, 142
Housing Act (1954), 142
housing developments (middle class): overview, 227–229; as barrier to encroaching ghetto, 149–150, 154, 228, 234–235, 301; and civic pride, 227; Dearborn Park, 234–236; federal funding and, 227; “mixed income,” 234–236, 309, 310–312; urban renewal and creation of, 144–146, 227–228. See also gentrification; public housing
housing segregation: blockbusting tactics, 76, 87, 110, 160; block-by-block implementation of (1917), 46; catering to middle class as de facto, 154; dissimilarity index of, 78, 313–314, 350n37; gang violence reinforcing, 46; gentrification and, 311–312; “kitchenette” apartments resulting from, 76; open-housing marches to protest, 12, 47, 161, 193–195, 200–202, 208; public housing, 124–127, 125; Puerto Ricans and, 174; restrictive covenants and homeowners associations, 46, 51, 78, 131; white identity and whiteness and, 47, 58; and WWII housing shortage, 104, 108–109, 112
Houston, service industries and, 225
Howard, Betty, 132
Howlin’ Wolf, 118
HUD (Department of Housing and Development), 309, 310
Hull House settlement, 16, 18, 19, 24, 31
Humboldt Park neighborhood: African American population in, 300, 371n90; Division Street riot (1966), 219, 250, 296–297; gentrification and, 300–301, 302, 303; Mexican population in, 300, 313–314, 371n90; mural movement and, 220, 362n18; physical landmarks built to identify “Paseo Boricua,” 294–295, 303; police brutality in, 297; Puerto Rican community and, 174, 214, 219, 252, 254, 296, 297, 300–301, 302, 303, 372n98; rainbow coalition and, 214
Humphrey, Hubert, 207
Hungarian community, and whiteness/white identity, 114
Hunter, Alberta, 89
Hunter, Robert, 18
Hyde Park: racial tensions during WWII, 102–103; urban renewal resistance in, 155, 161
Hyde Park Neighborhood House, 102–103
hyperghettos: Chicago Housing Authority contributing to, 127; commercial activity of, 222; R.J. Daley and, 137; definition of, 354n52; deindustrialization and, 222; recession of 1970s and, 223; white flight and, 222–223. See also black ghettos
Ice Cube, 276
Ida B. Wells Homes (public housing), 112
identity. See politics of identity
Igoe, Michael, 48
Illinois (state): Arab and Assyrian immigration to, 373n123; bailout of Chicago Transit Authority, 291; charter school funding by, 330; charter school rules, 367n26; Chicago schools handed to RMD, 269; death penalty halt in, 279; defense contract losses (1960s-70s), 224–225; eminent domain powers granted by, 143; Great Depression and, 53; John F. Kennedy election, 158; minimum wage of, 292; no state funds to be used to subsidize public housing, 144; and Plan of Chicago funding, 34; and privatization of schools, 326; urban renewal subsidy funds, 143
Illinois Bankers Association, 75–76
Illinois Central Railroad, 147
Illinois Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs (IFCWC), 84
Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), 144
immigrants and immigration: anti-immigrant rhetoric of restrictionists and Prohibitionists, 45, 51, 52; and binary racial order, development of, 45–46, 173; and ethnoracial community growth and formation (post-1970), 313–318, 316, 373nn121,123; ethnoracial enclaves (post-1970), and lack of political power, 318–320; foreign-born population, 23, 313, 320; percentage of population as, 313; physical markings of population of, 313, 315, 317; Thompson’s anti-immigrant stance, 52; and urban crisis, RMD and avoidance of, 290; and WWII, 95. See also southern and eastern European immigrants; specific communities
Immigration and Nationality Act (1965), 172, 313
income: median (2000 census), 266; median black income, 117, 266; per capita, the 1970s and, 223; for service jobs vs. industrial jobs, 287
income inequality: census of 1980 and poorest neighborhoods, 223; census of 2000 and white/black disparities, 286–287; and spatial proximity of extremes, 222
Industrial Areas Foundation (Alinsky), 159
industrial sector: defense contracts and, 97–98, 224–225; as key driver of growth in early 20th century, 19–21; nostalgia for, 2; and “the city that works” as nickname, 2. See also deindustrialization
infrastructure: funding for Plan of Chicago (1909), 34–35; gentrification and, 305, 308; Great Fire of 1871 and destruction of, 22–23; and patronage rewards via TIF funds, 282, 287, 289; upgrade by end of 1970s, 231–232. See also streets/highways/expressways
Inland Steel, 283
insurance: burial/funeral in black community, 71, 74–75; as sector of service industries, 225–226; white-owned companies, 74, 75
integration: of construction industry, 236, 364n46; Edward J. Kelly and, 113–114; Martin Luther King and open-housing marches, 12, 47, 161, 193–195, 200–202, 208; of leisure activities for workers in WWII, 104–105; as threat to machine politics, 130–132; of war industries in WWII, 104–105. See also housing segregation; school desegregation
International Amphitheater, 207
International Harvester, 21, 55, 97, 262
International Longshoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union, 123
International Style, 232
Interstate and Defense Highway Act (1956), 150–151
Interstate Iron and Steel Company, 21
Investigative Committee of the City Homes Association, 18–19
Invisible Institute, 335
Iraqi immigrants, 317, 373n123
Irish community: and Americanization, 27, 40, 42, 43, 44–45; and anti-Catholicism, 41, 43; as “aristocracy of gangland,” 27; and Bungalow Belt, 47; domination of Democratic Party by, resentment of, 51, 52; and Englewood, 121–122; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27, 40, 43, 114, 173; in heterogeneous neighborhoods, 24; and 1919 race riot, 38, 40, 43, 45; size of, 23; and Harold Washington election, 245; white-collar work, movement toward, 43. See also white gangs and athletic clubs; whiteness and white identity
Iroquois Steel, 21
Italian community: antiblack violence and, 111–112; and Bungalow Belt, 47; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27, 40, 45, 114, 173; gangs, 175; and Near West Side, 176; and 1919 race riot, 40; and Puerto Ricans, 175; relative segregation of, 24, 155; settlement house movement and, 18; size of, 23; and urban renewal, 154–155; and Harold Washington, 245; and whiteness/white identity, 114, 173
Jackowo neighborhood, 317–318
Jackson, Jesse, 190, 200–201, 236, 251, 253, 334
Jackson, Maynard, 249
Jackson Park, 23
Jackson, Robert, 77
Jane Addams Homes (public housing), 154. See also ABLA (public housing)
Janitors International Union, 228
Japanese community, 228
Jarrett, Valerie, 265
Jet magazine, 137
Jewish community: anti-Semitism, 208, 275–276; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27, 40, 45, 55; Jesse Jackson and, 253; Kelly-Nash machine and, 55, 113–114; and labor organizing, 123–124; location of, 24; and Logan Square neighborhood, 302; and 1919 race riot, 40; settlement house movement and, 18; size of, 23, 345n13; and West Devon Avenue, 315, 319; and white flight, 153; and whiteness/white identity, 114
“Jew Town,” 24
Jimenez, Jose “Cha-Cha,” 214, 218, 252
jitney cabs, 129–130
Joe’s DeLuxe, 118
John F. Kennedy Expressway (Northwest Expressway), 231–232
John Hancock Center, 9, 223, 225–226, 286
John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company, 13, 226
Johnson, Bruce and Eugenia, 218
Johnson, Charles S., 88
Johnson, Eddie, 337
Johnson, Eudora, 71
Johnson, Jack (boxer), 46, 245
Johnson, James Weldon, 88
Johnson, John Jr., 117
Johnson, John “Mushmouth,” 71
Johnson, Lyndon B., 196; affirmative action requirements by, 236, 363n45; ties of RJD to, 138; War on Poverty, 201, 209, 263
Jones Act (1917), 358n16
Jones brothers (syndicate kingpins), 60
Joravsky, Ben, 282
Jordan, Louis, 120
Jordan, Michael, 289
Jordanian immigrants, 317, 373n123
Jordon, Lewis, 312
Judd, Dennis, 286
juvenile court, 19
juvenile delinquency: cultural fascination with, 166; CYDP prevention and research program, 165–166; World War II and issues of, 98–99
Kahan, Paul, 304–305
Kansas City, MO, 181
Kelly, Edward J.: background of, 112–113; and black policy wheel (illicit lotteries), 105; and black submachine, 105; and federal work relief funds, 57; and fisticuffs, 17; and labor relations, 56–58, 96, 106; and multiethnic political machine (Kelly-Nash machine), 55, 57–58, 112–114; and organized crime, tolerance of, 96, 105; and patronage, 57; progrowth, antilabor agenda of, 9–10, 56–58; and race relations, 102, 103–104, 105–106, 111–114; and Roosevelt 1936 election, 57, 113; scandals and, 56, 113; and WWII black veterans, 106, 112; and WWII contracts/labor, 95–96, 97, 99; and WWII mobilization, 96–97, 99, 105
Kennedy, John F.: and civil rights, 131; ties of RJD to, 138, 158
Kennedy, Robert, 209
Kennelly, Martin H.: anticorruption campaigns of, 140; and Dawson, 129–130, 133; and the Democratic machine, 133, 134; independent mayoral bid against RJD, 134; Kelly replaced by, 114; progrowth, antilabor agenda of, 9–10; reform crusade of black underground economy, 129–130, 133; and segregation of public housing, 126; and urban renewal, 145, 146
Kenwood neighborhood: gangs and, 190; mural movement and, 219–220
Kenwood-Oakland Community Organization (KOCO), 328
Kerner Commission, 122
Kerouac, Jack, 212
Keynesianism, 149, 225, 226, 240
Kimpton, Lawrence, 211–212
King, Martin Luther Jr.: assassination of, riots following, 138, 198, 208–209; black opposition to, 188–189, 201; CCCO and, 184, 188; and gangs, attempt to enlist help of, 188, 189–195, 200; and March on Washington, 180; open-housing marches in Chicago, 12, 47, 161, 193–195, 200–202, 208; residence in Chicago, 190; and state-sponsored countersubversion, 12; and summit with RJD, 200, 201–202, 208; and trust for RJD machine, 188; viewed as center of civil-rights story, 169; Wall of Respect as not including, 220; and white violence, 193
“kitchenette” apartments, 73, 73, 76, 84–85, 87
Klein, Naomi, The Shock Doctrine, 327, 328
Kluczynski Federal Building, 232
Kohl, Helmut, 264
“Korea Town” (Seoul Drive), 315, 317, 318, 319, 373n126
Kramer, Ferd, 144, 145, 146, 149
“L” (elevated municipal railway), 22, 222, 280
labor force: black population statistics, 63; heavy industries, 21; job losses between 1955 and 1963, 172; job losses due to deindustrialization, 147, 172, 222, 223, 225, 286; job losses in Great Recession, 323; manufacturing, 20–21; meatpacking sector, 20; skyscraper construction, 22; steel workers, 21. See also deindustrialization; economy; labor unions and unionization; service economy; service industries (global city); unemployment
labor strikes: Chicago Teachers Union (2012), 326, 332, 333, 336; hate strikes by white workers, 104, 110; Memorial Day massacre (1937), 56–57, 94, 96, 212; Pinkerton thugs hired to attack, 18; strikebreakers and antiblack violence, 25–26, 27–28, 29, 110; violence and, 18; wildcat strikes to protest racial discrimination, 105–106; World War II and, 96, 212
labor unions and unionization: Alinsky and limitations of, 160–161; Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP), 79–85, 87–88; Catholic Church support for, 121–122; company unions, 80, 83; R.M. Daley austerity measures and, 325; deindustrialization and difficulty of joining, 172; Landis Award limiting, 49–50; living wage ordinance activism, 292–293; opposition to RMD, 292–293; Bill Thompson and, 48–49; work stoppages to demand more black participation in, 236, 364n46. See also labor strikes; specific unions
—ANTIUNIONISM: black capitalism and, 79–83; black church and, 80–82; William Dever and, 49–50; Employers Association of Chicago and, 26, 28–29; Edward J. Kelly and, 56–57; Landis Award contractors, 49–50; Taft-Hartley Act (1947), 161
lakefront: beautification and tourism infrastructure improvements, 266, 285–286; filling and landscaping, 35; as reserved for the public, 34, 36
Lakefront neighborhoods and Harold Washington, 249, 256
Lake Meadows (housing complex), 144–145, 146
Lake Point Tower, 223, 228–229
Lakeview neighborhood, 153, 173, 280, 295, 320, 370n80
Landesco, John, 42
Landis, Kennesaw Mountain, 49
Landry, Lawrence, 181, 182, 183, 184–185
Laos, immigrants from, 315
latchkey children, WWII and, 98–99
Latin American Defense Organization (LADO), 362n18
Latin Kings (gang), 267–268, 302, 303
Latino community: black-Latino dissimilarity index (segregation), 313–314; black-Latino social distance, 336–337; cabinet of RMD including, 288; charter schools for, 330–331; immigrants, percentage of total immigration, 313; lack of support for Black Lives Matter, 336–337; and Lakeview, 320; Latinismo, 254; Latino-Asian dissimilarity (segregation), 314; and Logan Square neighborhood, 302–304, 305, 372n97; median income (2000 census), 266; Mexican-Puerto Rican dissimilarity index (segregation), 314; migration to Chicago, 172–173; nationwide, 172; school protests and, 221–222; school reforms as leaving behind, 272–273; service economy and, 286–287; support for R.M. Daley, 7, 273, 278, 280–281, 287–289; and Harold Washington, 252–254. See also Mexican community; minority-owned businesses; Puerto Rican community
Latino United Community Housing Association (LUCHA), 302
Lawndale neighborhood: and gangs, 188, 198; Martin Luther King residence in, 190
Lawrence Avenue Korean Business Association, 318
Lebanese immigrants, 317
Lefebvre, Henri, 170, 295–296, 297–298
Lesbian/Gay Voter Impact, 370n80
Levi, Julian, 157
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 118
Lewis, Benjamin, 189
Lewis, Earl, 350n51
Lewis, Karen, 326, 328–329, 334
Lewis, Robert, 35
LGBT community: R.M. Daley and, 295, 321, 370n80; gentrification and, 320–321; incorporation vs. resistance to state power, 296; physical landmarks built to identify neighborhood, 295; voter registration campaign of, 370n80; Harold Washington and, 255, 370n80
Life magazine, 96
Lincoln Park neighborhood, 280, 320; Puerto Rican community and, 173, 214, 218; and rainbow coalition, 214; urban renewal in, 218
Lincoln Square, 317
Lincolnwood, IL, 315
Lithuanian community: in Back of the Yards, 41, 44–45, 158; and Bungalow Belt, 47; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 40, 44–45; in heterogeneous neighborhoods, 24; and 1919 race riot, 40, 45; and white identity, 45
Little Hell District, 112
Little Italy, 24, 154–155, 165, 169–170
“Little Sicily,” 24
Little Tokyo neighborhood, 228
Little Vietnam, 319
Little Village neighborhood, 290, 330
Little Zion Baptist Church, 111–112
living wage ordinance, 292–293
Lloyd, Richard, 303–304
Lloyd, Willie, 277
Loab, Jacob, 48
Local School Councils (LSCs), 269, 271
Locke, Alain, 31
loft conversions, 147
Logan Square neighborhood, 302–305, 307, 326, 372n97
Logan Square Neighborhood Association, 329
Loop business district: black presence in, deemed a problem, 227; retailers, 22; size of, 225. See also downtown agenda; global cities/global-city agenda; skyscrapers; suburbanization; TIF funds (tax increment financing)
Lopez, José E., 300
Los Angeles: black-Latino dissimilarity index of, 313–314; black mayors and, 249; and black musicians forced into jazz, 120; foreign-born population of, 320; homicide rates, 366n14; migration to, 320; police “red squad,” 345n19; population of, 223; service industries and, 225; skyscrapers of, 362n26; Watts rebellion (1965), 123, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 196; Zoot Suit Riots (1943), 101, 102
Los Angeles School of urbanism, 3–4, 343n5
Louis, Joe, 59
LSD (gang alliance), 364n46
Lucas, Robert, 200
Lula Cafe, 302–303
Lyne, Sheila, 261
McAndrew, William, 48, 50, 50–51, 54
McBain, Hughston, 146
McCaffrey, Bill, 330
McCarthy, Eugene, 207
McCarthy, Garry, 337
McClellan, John, 198
McCormick Blaine, Anita, 18–19, 29
McCormick, Cyrus, 31
McCormick, Cyrus Jr., 18
McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, 18, 21
McCormick Place convention center, 143, 232, 285, 286
McCormick Place West building, 286
McCormick, Ruth Hanna, 84
McDonald, Laquan, 334–335, 336
McDonald’s Corporation, 232–233, 271
McDonough, Joe, 42
McFetridge, William, 228
McGovern, George, 208
machine politics of Big Bill Thompson (Republican), 71
machine politics of Cook County Democratic Party: “automatic eleven” wards, 136; and biracial political order, 58; and black power, rise of, 180–181; Anton Cermak and, 52–53, 55, 57; Daley dynasty, interregnum between administrations, 344n11; Daley dynasty, length of, 6–7; integration/civil rights as threat to, 131–132; Edward J. Kelly and, 55, 57–58, 112–114; vs. national reform of, generally, 11, 53, 134; and neoliberalization, advance of, 7–8; opposition to, Red Squad neutralization of, 212–214; Harold Washington’s antimachine activism, 10, 243–244, 246, 255, 259, 364n55; white gangs and, 41–42, 43; World War II mobilization eased by structure of, 96–97. See also black submachine politics; multiethnic machine
—R. J. DALEY: “accounting gimmicks” used to hide mounting deficits, 239; black power organizations as threat to, 213–214, 216–217; city services vs. social justice, provision of, 149; coded language of, 136, 150; divide and rule logic of, 213; as dynasty, 6–7; election of 1955, 134–137, 136; election of 1961, 157–158; election of 1963, 201; election of 1967, 197, 208; federal antipoverty programs hijacked by, 209, 237; gang services to youth as threat to, 196–199; Martin Luther King’s misunderstanding of, 188; middle-class housing developments and, 227, 228; private development as shield from political fallout, 235–237; rise of, 133–134; scandals of, 136, 237–238; and white backlash, 212. See also patronage—of R.J. Daley machine
—R. M. DALEY: city-council appointments by, and lack of opposition to, 281; compared to machine of RJD, 281, 284; donations to campaigns, 281; as dynasty, 6–7; election of 1989, 366n1; election of 1999, 266; election of 2007, 7; and general prosperity of U.S. economy, 290; lack of opposition among African Americans and Latinos, 7, 273, 278, 280–281, 287–289; “management of marginalization” by, 288–289; Mexican immigration as benefit to, 290; opposition to, development of, 292–293, 328–329; pinstripe patronage of, 281, 282; the politics of identity and, 10–11, 287–289, 297–298, 301, 312; scandals of, 7, 278–281, 284. See also TIF funds (tax increment financing)
McKinley Park neighborhood, 245
MacNeal, A.C., 87
Macomba Lounge, 119
Madden, Martin B., 349n35
Madison, WI, 204
Magnificent Mile, 153, 227–228
Majerczyk, Aloysius, 245
Malcolm X (Malcolm Little), 106–107, 169, 180, 182, 183, 220; “The Ballot or the Bullet,” 180
Mamdani, Mahmood, 11
Maniac Latin Disciples, 302
manufacturing: early 20th century expansion of, 20–21; ethnoracial hierarchy in, 27; interests favoring rehabilitation of neighborhoods vs. downtown agenda, 145–146, 147; salaries for, 287. See also deindustrialization
March on Washington (1963), 180
March on Washington movement (1941), 83
Marina City (housing development), 228, 229
Maritain, Jacques, 158–159
Marquette Park neighborhood, 193–194, 203
Marshall Field and Company, 22, 26, 143, 143–144, 146, 147
Marshall High School, 284
Marx, Karl, 215
masculinity, gangs and, 25, 43–44
mass incarceration of African Americans, 337
mass transit. See Chicago Transit Authority (CTA)
Maxwell Street flea market, 301
Mayor’s Commission on Human Relations, 108, 130
Mayor’s Committee on Gay and Lesbian Issues (COGLI), 255
Mayor’s Committee on Race Relations (1943), 103, 108
MC5 (band), 206
meatpacking sector, 20–21, 20, 159. See also packinghouses
media. See press/media coverage
Medill McCormick, Joseph, 29–30
Meeker, Arthur, 30
Melamed, Leo, 240
Memorial Day massacre (1937), 56–57, 94, 96, 212
Mencken, H.L., 1
Mendell, David, 265
mental health clinics, 325–326
The Messenger magazine, 81
Metcalfe, Ralph, 189, 238, 246
Metropolitan Community Center, 81
Metropolitan Community Church, 82, 83–84
Metropolitan Funeral Parlors, 71
Metropolitan Funeral System Association (MFSA), 71, 74–75
Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council (MHPC), 143–144, 145
Mexican community: in Back of the Yards, 158; and black-Latino dissimilarity index (segregation), 313–314; and black-Latino social distance, 337; in Bridgeport, 315; as buffer between white and black, 175; cultural nationalism and, 254; gangs, 175; and Humboldt Park neighborhood, 300, 313–314, 371n90; immigration to Chicago, 173, 176, 290; in Jackowo neighborhood, 318; La Raza as term used by, 176, 297; and Little Village neighborhood, 290; and Logan Square neighborhood, 302; map of ethnic Chicago (2000), 316; mural movement and, 219, 220, 314; and Pilsen neighborhood, 176, 296, 297, 300, 301–302, 313–314, 314, 371nn88,94; population of, 313; and Puerto Rican community, 176, 254, 314; and race riots, 102, 175, 176, 358n21; reracialization of, 176; and school protests, 297; and Seoul Drive, 315; strikebreaking laborers, 176; urban renewal and, 176; violence against, 175–176; and Harold Washington, 249–250, 251–252; and whiteness, 175, 176. See also Latino community
MHPC (Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council), 143–144, 145
Michael Reese Hospital, 144
middle class: catering to, as de facto segregation, 154; R.M. Daley and retention of, 266; as euphemism for “white,” 150, 227; needs of, as focus of downtown agenda, 227; neighborhoods created for aspirations of, 46–47; New Deal backlash by, 57; school reforms favoring, 270; support for Rahm Emanuel by, 336. See also black middle class; gentrification; global cities/global-city agenda; housing developments (middle-class)
Middle Eastern community, 315, 317, 373n123
Midwest Generation, 371n94
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 137, 228, 232
migration: of Latinos, 172–173; of middle-class professionals and creative class, 320–321; working-class whites from the South, and Young Patriots (gang), 214
migration of African Americans from the South: between 1890 and 1910, 23; in the 1930s, and settling in existing black neighborhoods, 51–52; and black middle-class ambivalence toward black cultural expression, 66, 115–117; during the 1920s, 46; economic influence of, 116–117; fear of competition from, 41; foodways of, 115–116; population numbers and, 46, 51, 61, 101, 117, 173; and whiteness/white identity, 114; WWI and, 38, 41; WWII and (Second Great Migration), 100, 101, 104, 109, 114
Millennium Park, 153, 265, 285, 286, 291, 321, 324
Miller, Robert, 189
“Millionaire’s Row,” 18
Million Man March on Washington (1995), 275–276
Milwaukee, WI, 181
minimum wage/living wage, 292–293, 369n56
Minnie, Memphis, 118
minority-owned businesses: affirmative action meant to support, 236, 279, 363n45; exclusion from patronage, 235, 236–237, 252–253, 279; patronage of RMD and, 287; patronage of Harold Washington and, 287. See also black capitalism
Minton’s Playhouse (NYC), 121
Mitchell, Arthur, 105
Model Cities (federal program), 237
Mondale, Walter, 248
Monk, Thelonious, 121
Monroe’s Uptown (club), 121
Montgomery Bus boycott, 119, 136
Moody’s bond rating of Chicago, 225, 258, 332
Morales, Jorge, 252
Morgan, J.P., 21
Morgan Park neighborhood, 102
Morgan Stanley, 291
Morris, 20
mortality rates of black vs. white Chicagoans, 75
Mortenson, Peter, 49
Morton, Jelly Roll, 66
Moseley Braun, Carol, 277, 325
Motley, Archibald, 65
Motorola, 233
Motts Pekin Theater, 67
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 364n54
Muhammad, Elijah, 189
multiethnic coalitions: difficulty of sustaining, 333, 336–337; Harrison High School protests and hope for, 221; the politics of identity as inhibiting, 220–221; POWER organization, 251–252; of Harold Washington, 249–250, 251–254, 255–257, 334. See also grassroots organizations, citywide coalition of
—RAINBOW COALITIONS: of Black Panthers, 12, 214–215, 217, 221, 250; as first tried in Chicago, 176–177; Jesse Jackson and, 253; Harold Washington and, 254, 255
multiethnic machine: of Anton Cermak, 52–53, 55, 57; Kelly-Nash, 55, 57–58, 112–114
Mumford, Milton C., 143–144, 145
Mundelein, Archbishop George Cardinal, 46
Municipal Voter’s League (MVL), 15, 34
mural movement, community, 219–220, 220, 302, 314, 362n18
Murderers (Polish gang), 44, 45
murder rate. See homicide rates
music: blues as morphing into other forms of, 118–120; classical, exclusion of African Americans from, 120; middle-class black civic leaders disapproving of, 65–66, 90–91; race records industry, 89, 118; rap, 255, 276; rhythm & blues, 118, 119; rock íní roll, 119–120, 166; and the Stroll, 65–66, 89. See also blues and jazz
MVL (Municipal Voter’s League), 15, 34
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): clubwomen activist support for, 87; and concerns about black capitalism, 61; Daley addressing national convention (1963), 177–178; derision of black critics of civil rights movement, 178; Hyde Park chapter and resistance to urban renewal, 155; Operation Transfer campaign, 179; pro-machine leadership of, 155; Youth Council, 169, 214
National Guard troops, 128, 192, 207–208
National League of Cities, 264
National Mobilization Committee to End the War (MOBE), 205–206
National Negro Congress (NNC), 83, 88
Nation of Islam (NOI), 179–180, 189, 275–276
Native Americans, 175–176
Navy Pier renovation, 285
Near North Side: hippie scene and, 205; race riots and, 37; and rainbow coalition, 214; settlement house movement and, 18; Swedish community and, 24; urban renewal and, 146, 227–228, 309
Near Northwest Neighborhood Network (NNNN), 302
Near Northwest Side, gangs and, 171
Near West Side: black population of, 154; early 20th century ethnic neighborhood formation, 24; ethnoracial diversity of, 24, 165–166; gentrification of, 320; Italian community and, 176; juvenile delinquency program of, 165–166; Mexican community and, 176; Puerto Rican community and, 173–174; race riots and, 37, 102–103; settlement house movement and, 18; urban renewal of, 154–155, 172, 176; urban renewal resistance and, 155–157
Near West Side Planning Board, 146
Negro Business Exposition (1938), 59–60, 62, 64, 88
Negro Business League, 64
neighborhood effects, 4
neighborhoods: “community areas” as term for, 294; diversity lost to gentrification, 298, 300–301, 302, 303, 304–305, 311–312, 320; diversity of, and tourism, 297–298, 300; division of city into, 294; early 20th century development of, 24; effects of, Chicago Schools and, 4; heterogeneity of ethnic neighborhoods, 24, 315, 319; map of communities and gangs (ca. 1919), 39; and nickname “City of Neighborhoods,” 3, 294–295, 318–319; physical landmarks built to identify, 294–295, 303, 315, 318; “right to the city,” 297; and space, production of, 170–171, 295–296, 297–298, 312, 319. See also ethnoracial enclaves (post-1970); housing developments (middle-class); housing segregation; specific neighborhoods
“Neighborhoods Alive!” program, 295
neoliberalization/neoliberalism: advancement in Chicago as rapid, aggressive, and early, 7–8; black capitalism and economization of the Black Metropolis, 75–76, 79–80, 81–82, 85, 349n32; and blight redefined as “proper and productive economic use,” 148; classical liberalism distinguished from, 371n84; conventional view of turn to, 147–148; R.M. Daley and, 264, 371n84; R.J. Daley as proto-neoliberal, 147–148; definition of, 8, 344n12, 371n84; democratic governance diminished under, 13, 148; Rahm Emanuel and, 325, 327–328, 330–331, 332–333, 337; and heat wave of 1995, 263–264; and home ownership as financial investment, 86–87, 307–308; Plan of Chicago (1909) and, 33–34; the politics of identity incorporated into, 9–10, 288–289; populism and, 10; and primary role of city government as a mechanism to unleash private enterprise, 34, 148–149, 371n84; and public interest realigned with downtown agenda, 148, 238–239; public unaccountability bestowed by, 235–237, 330; Reagan administration and, 8, 264; restructuring of city government to favor downtown agenda, 148, 238–239; school reform and logic of, 271–272, 289; and the state in direct service to the economy, 148–149; structural inequalities reinforced by, 236; of the underground drug economy, 267–268. See also downtown agenda; gentrification; global cities/global-city agenda; privatization; tourism, R.M. Daley and development of
Newark, black unemployment rate, 266
New Breed, 221
New Chicago 2011 (mayoral candidate forum), 4, 329
New Chicago School of urbanism, 4–5, 6, 344n10
New Deal: blight defined as unsafe and unhealthy living conditions, 148; and Chicago patronage, 57; and immigrants, 95; middle-class backlash against, 57; municipal swimming pools built, 111; public housing, 112; Republican hostility to, 144. See also Great Depression
New Friendship Baptist Church, 193
New Haven, riots in, 209
Newhouse, Richard, 364n55
New Left: and backlash context, exposing, 218; extremist politics, move toward, 216; fractures dividing, 206; Old Left workerist vision vs., 204
New Negro ideology, 61
New Negro spirit, 81
New Orleans, 261, 266, 311, 327
Newport Jazz Festival (1960), 120
New York (state), Al Smith, governor, 52
New York City: bailout of mid-1970s, neoliberalism viewed as beginning with, 148; bankruptcy difficulties, 224; and bebop jazz, 120–121; black-Latino dissimilarity index of, 313–314; black leadership in, 188; and Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 79; and counterculture, 204; de Blasio election, 333; and “edge” of Lower East Side, 303; fighting-gang subcultures in, 170; foreign-born population of, 320; and gentrification, 307; Giuliani subsidies to NYSE, 283; as “great” American city, 1; high schools, 270, 367n23; homicide rates, 16, 366n14; insurance industry and, 225; numbers game in, 71–72; police “red squad,” 345n19; Puerto Rican migration to, 173, 358n16; race riots in WWII, 101, 107–108; school boycotts, 181; tenement conditions, 19; West Side Story, 166
New York Life Insurance Company, 145
New York Stock Exchange, 283
nihilism, 276–277
Nixon, Richard M., 133, 361n6; white backlash/”silent majority” and, 123, 133, 209, 210
No Child Left Behind program, 269
NOI (Nation of Islam), 179–180, 189, 275–276
Noise Abatement Commission, 99
nonviolence: Martin Luther King’s attempt to enlist gangs into, 190–195, 200; as philosophy, vs. militancy, 179–180, 182–183, 185; Bayard Rustin’s “intensified nonviolence,” 180. See also civil rights movement
North Halsted. See Boystown
North Kenwood–Oakland neighborhood, 265, 288–289, 298–299
North Lawndale neighborhood: crime rate in, 262; deindustrialization and, 262; and heat wave (1995), 262; population of, 262; white flight and transformation of, 153
Northrup Defense Systems, 233
North Shore suburbs, 223
North Side: gentrification and, 320; Puerto Rican community and, 173–174, 358n16; South Asian Indian community and, 315; Harold Washington election and, 245
Northwest Expressway (John F. Kennedy Expressway), 231–232
Northwest Side, 317
NWA (Niggas With Attitude), 276
Oak Lawn (suburb), 317
Obama, Barack: on Chicago, 1; as community organizer, 253, 257–258; in congregation of Jeremiah Wright, 276; education policy of, 273; Rahm Emanuel endorsed for Chicago mayor by, 334; links between Daley’s City Hall and White House of, 264–265, 273, 365n76; and loss to Bobby Rush, 214, 266; meeting Michelle, 281; and “Obama effect,” 293–294; and Olympic bid of Chicago, support for, 292; reelection as president, 249; and relocation of Group of Eight (G8) meeting, 330; state senate seat, Blagojevich scandal of, 291; as state senator, 265; victory speech at Grant Park, 293; on Harold Washington’s impact, 257, 258–259
Obama, Michelle, 265, 276, 281, 292
Occupy Wall Street, 329
O’Connor, Patrick, 291
Office of Civilian Defense (Chicago), 94, 96–97, 99
Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), grants to youth projects, 196, 197, 198, 199
Office of Tourism and Culture, 295, 370n79
O’Hare International Airport, improvements to, 143, 231–232, 252–253, 285–286
Okey Records, 89
Old Town neighborhood, 153, 205
Old Town School of Folk Music, 213
Oliver, Joe “King,” 66, 89, 90
Olivet Baptist Church, 80, 178
Olympic Games, unsuccessful bid for, 291–292
O’Neal, William, 217
open housing. See integration
Open Society Foundation, 335
Operation Bootstrap, 196
Operation Breadbasket, 200–201, 236
Operation Lite, 200–201
Operation PUSH, 253
Operation Silver Shovel (FBI), 278–279, 284
Operation Transfer campaign of NAACP, 179
Opportunity Please Knock, 198
Orange, James, 191
Organization for a Southwest Community (OSC), 160
organized crime: Canaryville and ties to, 42; and corruption of RMD machine, 279; Edward J. Kelly tolerance for, 96; white gangs as manpower for, 42, 43; white takeover bid of black syndicates, 130. See also crime and criminality; underground economy
Organizing Neighborhoods for Equality: Northside (ONE Northside), 329
Orsi, Robert, 175
Our Lady of Nativity Parish School, 41
outsourcing of city services, 8, 13, 262–263. See also privatization
Overton, Anthony, 70, 74, 80, 85, 86; and black capitalism, 62, 67, 90; and Bronzeville, naming of, 115
Overton Hygienic Building, 67, 69
Overton Hygienic Company, 62
Owen, Chandler, 81
packinghouses: ethnoracial hierarchy in, 27, 43; size of labor force, 20; street violence and, 17; strikes and strikebreakers, 25; Taylorism and, 42–43; white fear of black migrant competition, 41. See also stockyards
Packinghouse Workers Organizing Committee (PWOC), 57
Packingtown. See Back of the Yards
Pacyga, Dominic and Ellen Skerrett, Chicago: City of Neighborhoods, 294
Pacyga, Dominic, Chicago: A Biography, 233n10
Palestinian immigrants, 317, 373n123
Palmer, Alvin, 167–168
Palmer, Lu, 251
Palmolive Building, 231
Parents Council for Integrated Schools and the Chicago Area Friends of SNCC (CAFSNCC), 179–180, 181, 182
Paris (France), 263; as influence, 16, 32, 285
Park, Paul, 318
Parker, Charlie, 121
parking garages, 143; privatization of income from, 291, 323
parking meters, privatization of, 291, 323, 324
Parks, Rosa, 119
Parkway Community House, 61
Patel, Amisha, 329
patronage: Anton Cermak’s multiethnic machine and, 52, 55; R.M. Daley and pinstripe patronage, 281, 282; disaster capitalism as source of, 327; Rahm Emanuel and pinstripe patronage, 325, 327; national reform of, 140; and New Deal, 57; A. Philip Randolph critique of, 81, 84; Big Bill Thompson and, 53–54, 76–77, 349n35
—OF R. J. DALEY MACHINE: as chair of Cook County Democratic Party, 11–12, 141; and minority-owned businesses, exclusion of, 235–237; private development as shelter from political fallout of, 235; public housing as source of, 138–140; and quasi-Keynesian side of Daley machine, 149; and reduction of city council to rubber-stamp advisory board, 141–142; shares of pie, as substance of politics, 213; suburbanization and deindustrialization as threat to, 140–141; and urban renewal focus on property value increases, 150
Pattillo, Mary, 288–289, 298–299
Peck, Ferdinand, 31
Pekin, 70
People Organized for Welfare and Employment Rights (POWER), 251–252
People’s Church, 81
People’s Movement Club, 82
Peoria Street riot (1949), 123–124, 127
Pepper, Claude, 100
Perlstein, Rick, 271
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996), 263, 273–274
Pettibone, Holman, 143–144, 145, 146
Peyton, Dave, 90–91
Pfizer, 233
Philadelphia, 188, 270, 327, 345n19, 367n23
Phillips, Kevin, 361n6
Picasso, Pablo, 232
Pilgrim Baptist Church, 59–60, 82, 84, 89
Pilsen neighborhood: charter schools, 330–331; coal plant pollution and, 301, 371n94; Czech community and, 24, 52; gentrification of, 300, 301–302, 303; Mexican community and, 176, 296, 297, 300, 301–302, 313–314, 314, 371nn88,94; Polish community and, 24; population of, 372n97; as tourist destination, 300, 301
Pistilli, Anthony, 146
Pittsburgh, PA, 82
place, sense of, 297–298
planning, placed under mayor’s control, 8–9, 146–147. See also Chicago—plans
Plan of Chicago (1909), 32–36
“plantation politics,” 189
Playboy Magazine and offices, 231
police (CPD): black officer recruitment, 184; Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS), 263, 289, 305; countersubversion at Democratic National Convention (1968), 213; expansion under RJD, 167; frame-ups of black leadership, 199–200, 217–218; Gang Intelligence Unit (GIU), 184, 193, 197, 199; Gang Intelligence Unit sabotage of gang-led youth services projects, 197, 199; Fred Hampton murder/assassination by, 215–217; harassment of gang-supported city council campaign, 278; and King marches, 201; lack of protection for black victims of white violence, 38, 126, 130; Memorial Day massacre (1937), 56–57, 94, 96, 212; public housing projects and new stations for, 151; racist ideology and, 218; Red Squad and countersubversion by, 12, 212–214, 345n19; stop-and-frisk policy, 183–184; tavern shakedowns by, 238; violence against protesters at Democratic National Convention (1968), 207–208, 210–211, 218; violence against Puerto Ricans, 296–297; and World War II violence, monitoring for, 108. See also countersubversion, state-sponsored
—VIOLENCE AGAINST AFRICAN AMERICANS: Area 2 torture of black suspects, 7, 279, 335; black police officers and, 184; complicity with white mob violence, 38, 126, 130; and Rahm Emanuel election (2015), 334–335; federal investigation and indictment (late 1950s), 183; gangs and, 186–187; national awareness of, 334–335; pattern of physical and verbal abuse against black population, 238; police brutality protests, 183–185, 297, 335; racist ideology as justification of, 218; stop-and-frisk policy and, 183–184; and World War II, 102
policy wheels (illicit lotteries), 70–74, 75, 105, 130
Polish community (Chicago Polonia): in Back of the Yards, 41, 44–45, 158; and Bungalow Belt, 47; ethnic enclaves of (post 1970), 317–318; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 27, 40, 44–45, 114; gang violence and, 44; gentrification and, 317–318; in heterogeneous neighborhoods, 24, 318; and Logan Square neighborhood, 302, 305; map of ethnic Chicago (2000), 316; and 1919 race riot, 40, 45; and Pilsen, 24; and Puerto Ricans, 175; settlement house movement and, 18; size of, 23; suburbanization and, 318; and Harold Washington candidacy, 245; and white flight, 153; and whiteness/white identity, 45, 114, 317
Polish Downtown, 24
Polish Museum of America and Library, 317–318
political correctness, 247
political surveillance. See countersubversion, state-sponsored
politics of identity: antimachine activism and, 10; cultural envy and, 247; R.M. Daley policies and, 10–11, 287–289, 297–298; and difficulty of uniting for social justice, 176–177; as distraction from structural inequalities, 298; ebb and flow during 1930s, 51–52; Rahm Emanuel policies and, 330–331, 337; and failure of working-class resistance in 1920s, 51; and fracturing of the left, 216, 219; institutionalization/mainstreaming of, 221–222; the machine as not affected by, 297; and neoliberal policies, incorporation into, 9–10, 288–289; power of collective identities, 219–220; as reinforcing a logic of ethnoracial difference, 220–221, 253–254; and resentment, politics of, 247; Harold Washington and, 253–254. See also ethnoracial enclaves (post-1970); whiteness and white identity
population: changes in ethnic group proportions, 23; current Chicago area, 1; decrease in (2000s), 323; gentrification and displacement of, 298, 300–301, 302, 303, 304–305, 311–312, 320; immigrants, 23, 313; Korean community, 317; living below the poverty line, 266–267; numbers of Second Great Migration, 101; urban renewal and displacement of, 146–147, 309, 310
population growth: 1990s and overall, 320; African American community, 27–28, 46, 51, 61, 117, 127, 143, 173, 178; early 20th century, 23; last quarter of the 19th century, 19; Mexican community, 173, 290; Puerto Rican community, 173
populism: antistatism, 201; neoliberalism and, 10; Bill Thompson and, 51; and urban renewal opposition, 156–157; white identity and, 10. See also white backlash (defensive localism/reactionary populism)
Potter, Jackson, 328
poverty: black/white disparity in, 266–267; blaming the victims of, 263–264; decline of (2000 census), 266; percentage of public school students in, 270; uplift of the poor, mixed-income housing developments and rhetoric of, 310–311. See also black ghettos; culturalization of politics; migration of African Americans from the South; neoliberalization/neoliberalism; public housing; renters and rent increases
Powell, Adam Clayton Jr., 88
“power to the people,” 214
Prairie School Architecture, 47
Prairie Shores (housing complex), 144
Preckwinkle, Toni, 337
President’s Council on Youth Opportunity, 196
press/media coverage: antilabor, and antiblack violence, 28–29; and the Black Metropolis, 78–79; on civil rights movement, 177; on crime, 17; and Democratic National Convention protests (1968), 206, 207–208, 210–211; Rahm Emanuel and investigative journalism, 332–333, 375n15; and gangmember candidate for city council, 278; and gangs, 198–199; and heat wave (1995), 260–261; hippie scene press (Chicago Seed), 205; on labor strikes and demonstrations, 25–26; on patronage reform, 140; race-baiting, 26; on race riots, 37–38, 40, 103; on scandals of RJD, 237–238; Lincoln Steffens, 15–16; and “the city that works,” 231; and white backlash politics, 209, 210; and WWII, 98–99, 100. See also black press; Chicago Defender; Chicago Tribune
Printing House Row, 147
printing sector, destruction of, 147
Pritzker Pavilion, 323, 324, 325
private accountability, neoliberalism and lack of, 235–237, 330
privatization: overview, 13, 290–291; Chicago Skyway tolls, 291; Chicago Transit Authority fare collection system, 331; disaster capitalism and, 327; Rahm Emanuel budgetary problems and, 323, 324; Rahm Emanuel scandals of, 330, 331; and entrepreneurial state, 8, 13; of New Orleans’ school system, 327; outsourcing of urban services, 8, 13, 262–263; parking garage fees, 291, 323; parking meters, 291, 323, 324; of public school custodial and building maintenance services, 330, 331; public unaccountability and, 325–327, 330; of tourism development, 370n79. See also charter schools
producer services. See service industries (global city)
Progressive Party, 29–30
Prohibition/Prohibitionism, 48, 51, 52, 53
Property Conservation and Human Rights Committee of Chicago, 144
property taxes: downtown agenda and increases in revenues from, 150, 235; global-city agenda and, 225; increases in, to offset suburbanization, 233; as proportion of city budget, 233; rejection of RJD bond issue, 238. See also TIF funds
Prudential Building, 140
“psychological wage” granted to whiteness, 110
Public Enemy, 276
Public Enemy (1931 film), 55
public housing: and federal requirement not to disrupt racial composition of neighborhoods, 112; integration as Housing Authority policy for, 126–127, 132, 149; Kennelly and segregation of, 126; mismanagement and maintenance problems of, 309–310; mixed-income housing developments taking the place of, 234–236, 309, 310–312; temporary housing and riot against (1946), 114; white mob rule and segregation of, 124–127, 125
—R. J. DALEY AND: barriers created to isolate from downtown, 151; evasive rhetoric and, 135; federal funding as essential to, 138, 139, 140; high-rise architecture of, 137, 138–139; map of, 152; as patronage source, 138–140. See also urban renewal
public interest: Carter Harrison II and, 15; neoliberal realignment of, with downtown agenda, 148, 238–239; Plan of Chicago (1909) and expansive notions of, 34, 36; redefined to favor private interests, 144, 148; TIF program subsidies and disconnect from, 284
public participation, Plan of Chicago (1909) and, 34–36
public unaccountability, 325–327, 330
Pucinski, Roman, 247
Puerto Rican Agenda (activist group), 301
Puerto Rican community: African American identification and, 174; alterity, strategies of, 175; barrio along Division Street, 174, 300; black-Latino dissimilarity index (segregation), 313–314; as buffer between white and black, 174; Division Street barrio riot (1966), 219, 250, 296–297, 303; housing discrimination and, 174; independence movement for Puerto Rico and, 253–254, 372n98; lack of racial antagonism in Puerto Rico, 165; and Logan Square neighborhood, 302; map of ethnic Chicago (2000), 316; Mexican community and, 176, 254, 314; migration to Chicago, 173–174, 358n16; mural movement and, 219, 220, 362n18; police violence against, 296–297; the politics of identity and, 253–254; racialization of and discrimination against, and consolidation into neighborhoods by, 173–175; urban renewal and displacement of, 174, 228; violence and arson against, 175; and Harold Washington, 249–250, 251–252, 253–254. See also Latino community; Young Lords (gang)
Puerto Rican Cultural Center, 300, 302, 371n91
Pullman, George, 28, 31–32, 80
Pullman Company, 21, 79–80, 83, 97
Pullman neighborhood, 21
Pullman porter job, 63, 79; union of (BSCP), 79–85, 87–88
Pullman Porters’ Benefit Association of America, 80
Quinn Chapel, 80
Raby, Albert, 184, 188, 189–190, 244
race-baiting: by antiunion employers, 26, 29; by R.M. Daley, 292; and housing segregation, 47–48; by the press, 26. See also racism
race politics. See politics of identity
race riots: East Saint Louis, IL (1917), 37; of 1919, 27, 36–38, 37, 40, 43, 45, 79; Peoria Street riot (1949), 123–124, 127; as spectacle, 226; temporary housing for African Americans (1946), 114; Trumbull Park Homes (1954), 132, 156; during World War II, 101, 102–103, 107–108; Zoot Suit Riots (1943 Los Angeles), 101, 102
racial order: binary racial order, development of, 45–46, 47, 58, 173; ethnoracial hierarchy, 26–27, 40, 43, 44–45, 55, 114, 173; southern and eastern Europeans as third tier within, 45. See also politics of identity; racism; segregated racial order; structural inequalities; whiteness and white identity
racism: culture-of-poverty rhetoric and, 274–275; and election of 1927, 47–48, 51; and fear of class position being undermined, 109–110; general desire to minimize appearance of, 243; laissez-faire, 236; police terror and ideology of, 218; and rumors of robberies and rapes, 110–111; as tool of the ruling class for exploitation of workers, 110; and Harold Washington election, 242–243, 246–248, 364n54. See also culturalization of politics; police (CPD)—violence against African Americans; race-baiting; race riots; racial order; structural inequalities; white backlash
Ragen, Frank, 38
Ragen’s Colts (Irish athletic club), 38, 42, 44
railroad, national, and Chicago as “gateway,” 22
Rainbow Beach, 169
rainbow coalitions. See under multiethnic coalitions
Randolph, A. Philip, 79–82, 83, 88, 104
Rangel, Juan, 330–331
Rangerettes (gang), 187
rape, rumors of interracial, 110–111
Rauner, Bruce, 325
Razaf, Andy, 92
reactionary populism. See white backlash
Reagan, Ronald, and administration: antiwelfare crusade of, 242–243, 250, 263, 273; criminalization of youth, 218, 276; law-and-order focus of, 196, 274, 276; neoliberalism and, 8, 264; rap critiques of, 276; shift of federal funds from social spending to law enforcement, 274; War on Drugs, 218
real estate market: black ownership touted, 85–86; blockbusting tactics, 76, 87, 110, 160; rising values of, as increasing city revenue, 150; World War II and decline of values, 140. See also gentrification; homeowners and homeownership; renters and rent increases; service industries (global city)
Rebels (Polish youth gang), 167
Rebel Without a Cause (1955), 166, 167
Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 53
red-baiting tactics, BSCP union and, 83
Redmond, James, 221–222
Reed, Christopher Robert, 62
Reid, Murdoch & Company, 30
Related Midwest, 323
religious community: opposition to civil rights struggle, 189. See also black church; Catholic Church
Rendell, Edward, 264
renters and rent increases: gentrification and, 299–300; “kitchenette” apartments, 73, 73, 76, 84–85, 87; mixed-income housing developments and, 311–312; urban renewal and, 144; urban renewal and displacement of, 146–147, 309, 310
Republican Party (Illinois): Bernard Epton campaign against Washington, 241, 245–246, 247, 248–249; hostility to state funds used to subsidize public housing, 144; machine politics of, 76–78
Republican Party (national): antiwelfare crusade of, 242–243, 250, 263, 272, 273–274; law enforcement vs. social services and, 274; postwar strategy of, 101; “southern strategy” of, 210, 361n6. See also culturalization of politics; Reagan, Ronald, and administration
resistance to racial oppression. See black resistance to racial oppression
respectability, as Afrian American community concern, 66, 90–91, 91
restaurants, hipster aesthetic and, 302–303, 304–305
Restoration Act (1947), 143
restrictive covenants, 46, 51, 78, 131
retail: department stores, 22; mail-order, 22; national economy of 1970s and loss of, 223; salaries of jobs in, 287. See also service economy
Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM), 182–183, 197
Reyes, Victor, 280
Rhumboogie (club), 118
Ribicoff, Abraham, 208
Richard J. Daley Center (Chicago Civic Center), 232
Ricoeur, Paul, 221
Riis, Jacob, How the Other Half Lives, 19
riots: antieviction (August 1931), 76, 78, 79; police brutality protests and (1965), 185; as spectacle, 226. See also arson and bombings; race riots
Rittenberg, Ivan, 245
Rivera, Diego, 219
Riverview Amusement Park, 49
Robert Brooks Homes (public housing), 154. See also ABLA (public housing)
Roberto Clemente High School, 372n98
Robert Taylor Homes (public housing), 139, 142–143, 151, 277, 310
Robinson, Chester, 200
Rockefeller Foundation, 196
Rock Island and Pacific Railroad, 105
Rockwell, George Lincoln, 203
Rodgers, Daniel T., 16
Roediger, David, 27
Rogers Park neighborhood, 214, 317
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 53, 57, 83, 104, 113, 131. See also Great Depression; New Deal
Roosevelt, Theodore, 29–30
Roosevelt Square (housing development), 311
Root, John Wellborn, 18, 21–22
Rose, Don, 243–244
Rose, George “Watusi,” 198–199
Rosenwald, Julius, 50
Rowe, John W., 271
Royko, Mike, 41, 135, 141, 209, 216
Rubloff, Arthur, 227–228
Rubloff Company, 227–228
Rush, Bobby, 7, 214, 256, 266, 273, 277, 334; mayoral primary run (1999), 266; on “two Chicagos,” 266
Rush, Otis, 119
Rush Street strip, 231
Russian-born immigrants, 345n13
Ryan, George, 279
Ryerson, Joseph, 49
St. Charles reformatory, 185
St. Cyril’s Church, 162
St. Hyacinth Church, 318
St. Jarlath’s Church, 165
St. Louis, MO, 266–267
St. Pascal’s Catholic Church, 248
St. Patrick’s Day parade, 241
Saints (gang), 267–268
St. Stanislaus Kostka parish, 317
sales tax: increases in, 141; tourism revenues, 286
same-sex relations, 90
Sampson, Robert, Great American City, 4, 5
Sam’s Place, 56
Sandburg, Carl, “Chicago,” 2, 20, 294
Sanders, Bernie, 359n29
San Francisco, 204, 270, 307, 320
Sanitary and Ship Canal, 23
sanitation, 16, 17, 19, 23, 55; street cleaning, 137
Sargent, Fred, 54
Sassen, Saskia, 225
Savoy dancehall (NYC), 106
Sawyer, Eugene, 256–257, 366n1
scandals and corruption: Jesse Binga embezzlement, 60; Rod Blagojevich, 291; R.M. Daley, 7; R.J. Daley, 136, 237–238; R.M. Daley, 278–281, 284; Oscar DePriest, 77; Rahm Emanuel, 330, 331; “Gray Wolves” of city council and, 34; Edward J. Kelly, 56, 113; police shakedowns of taverns, 238; Edward Vrdolyak, 242; Harold Washington, 249
Scandinavian community, 114
Scarface (1932 film), 54–55
school desegregation, Supreme Court order for, 119, 132, 133
schools (Chicago Public Schools, CPS): budget deficit of, 323; Anton Cermak and cuts to, 54; closures of, replaced with charter schools, 271, 326–328, 330, 333; college enrollments, 269; college-prep magnet schools, 270, 289; colorblindness ideals of superintendent Benjamin Willis, 178, 179; R.M. Daley corporate-style reform of, 50, 269–273, 286–287, 289, 305, 328; William Dever and business rationale for, 50, 54; Rahm Emanuel austerity program for, 325, 326–328, 330–331, 333; “Freedom Schools,” 181; gang youth dropouts, 187; graduation rates, 269, 367n23; homicide rate in, 268–269; Edward J. Kelly and cuts to, 56; libraries in, closures of, 327; military high schools and programs, 272, 368n32; neoliberal logic of reforms, 271–272, 289; overcrowded black schools, 178–179; Plan of Chicago (1909) assigned to students, 32; protests and boycotts, 179–180, 181–182, 184, 187, 221–222, 250, 271–272, 297, 359n29; segregated, unequal conditions of, 163, 179; segregation lawsuit settlement (1963), 180–181; standardized tests and, 269, 272–273, 326; student transfers to alleviate overcrowding, 178, 180–181; suspensions and expulsions, disparities in, 270–271; vocational schools, 286–287; white reaction to integration of, 181; working-class students of color not benefiting from reforms in, 270, 299; World War II and salvaging drive by, 96. See also Board of Education; charter schools; Chicago Teachers Union (CTU)
SCLC. See Southern Christian Leadership Conference
Scott, Joan, 6
Scott, John W., 30
SDS (Students for a Democratic Society), 204, 205, 216
Sears, Roebuck and Co., 13, 22, 233–234, 262
Sears Tower, 9, 223, 234, 262, 362n25
Second Chicago School of architecture, 6
Section 8 voucher program, 310, 372n110
segregated racial order: R.J. Daley’s urban renewal and preservation of, 149–151; dissimilarity index, 78, 313–314, 350n37; and lakefront beaches, 36, 169; language of RJD obscuring intentions, 150; middle-class white communities as barrier perpetuating, 149–150, 154, 234–235, 301; as “most segregated city,” 6; Real Estate Board campaign for, 46; swimming pools, 111, 113, 191–192; Big Bill Thompson and acceleration of, 78. See also housing segregation; race-baiting; racial order; racism; schools (Chicago Public Schools, CPS); structural inequalities
Sennett, Richard, 321
Seoul Drive “Korea Town,” 315, 317, 318, 319, 373n126
service economy: and early 1960s, 172; salaries in, 287; and tourism replacing industry, 286–287; unemployment ameliorated by, 287
Service Employees International Union (SEIU), 292, 329
service industries (global city): commodities exchanges and futures market, 13, 239–241, 328, 329–330, 336, 364n48; financial transaction tax (FTT) proposed for, 328, 336; FIRE (finance, insurance, and real estate) activities, 225–226, 237, 239–241; globalization and, 225; lack of working-class jobs or benefits in, 237, 240–241, 331; and pinstripe patronage of RMD, 281. See also global cities/global-city agenda
settlement house movement, 16, 18–19, 44, 45
Sharkey, Jesse, 328
Shedd Aquarium, 285
Sheil, Bernard, 158
Shielders (gang), 40
Shiloh Baptist Church, 192
Sidley & Austin, 281
“silent majority,” 123, 133, 210
Silverstein, Debra, 319
Silvio’s (club), 118
Simpson, Rose, 182
Sinatra, Frank, “My Kind of Town (Chicago Is),” 229
Sinclair, Upton, The Jungle, 17, 42–43
Skerrett, Ellen, and Dominic Pacyga, Chicago: City of Neighborhoods, 294
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 224, 225–226, 234
Skokie, IL, 315
skyscrapers: overview, 9, 13; artworks outside of, 232, 363n38; Chicago School of architecture, 21–22; Chicago Spire, excavation for, 323; early 20th century design and construction of, 21–22; and nickname “City of Big Shoulders,” 22; second wave of construction in 1960s and 1970s, 223–224, 224, 232, 233–234, 262, 362–363nn25–26
Skyway Concession Company, 291
Slovak community: in Back of the Yards, 158; ethnoracial hierarchy and, 45, 114; in heterogeneous neighborhoods, 24; and 1919 race riot, 45; and whiteness/white identity, 114
Smith, Al, 52
Smith, Bessie, 66, 90; “Nobody Loves You When You’re Down and Out,” 90, 92; “Poor Man’s Blues,” 89
Smith, Mamie, “Lost Opportunity Blues,” 89
SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), 169–170, 195, 197
Socialist Party, 81
sociology, Chicago School of, 3, 19, 69, 113, 153, 211, 274, 294, 343n4
SodexoMAGIC, 330
Soldier Field, 53, 190, 191, 192, 285
Solis, Danny, 300, 301, 330–331, 371n94
Soliz, Juan, 256
Soros, George, Open Society Foundation, 335
soul food, 115–116
Soul Stirrers, 116
South Asian Indian community, 315, 373n121
South Chicago Mexican Independence Day parade, 296
South Deering, 132–133
southern and eastern European immigrants: ethnoracial hierarchy and, 26–27, 40, 43, 44–45, 55, 114, 173; growing population of, 23; homicide rate blamed on, 29; lack of defending or cooperating with African Americans, 45; reluctance to participate in 1919 race riot, 40, 45; World War II and, 95. See also whiteness and white identity; specific communities
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 169, 188. See also Chicago Freedom Movement
South Lawndale neighborhood, 290, 313, 371n88
South Loop neighborhood, First Regiment Armory, 18
South Side: “kitchenette” apartments, 73, 73, 76, 84–85, 87; map of (ca. 1919), 39; Mexican community and, 176; and Million Man March, context producing, 275–276; Polish community and, 176; school closures, 271; TIF funds and, 331. See also Black Belt
South Side Planning Board, 145–146, 147
Southside Together Organizing for Power (STOP), 335
South Works, 21
Spanish Cobras, 302
Sphinx Real Estate Improvement Corporation, 86
Spielberg, Steven, 325
“sporting culture,” 17
sports: as distraction from structural inequalities, 289–290; segregation and, 46; TIF funds for DePaul arena, 331–332
Sprague, A.A., 49–50
Stamps, Marion Nzinga, 251
Standard Oil Building, 223, 233, 362n25
Standard Oil corporation, 13
Stand Up! Chicago, 329
Stanford, Max, 182–183
Starbucks, 308
Steelworkers Organizing Committee (SWOC), 56, 94
steel works: African Americans in neighborhoods near, 24; decline of, 224; early 20th century, 21; ethnoracial hierarchy in, 27; Puerto Ricans recruited as labor in, 358n16
Steffens, Lincoln, 15–16
Stevenson, Adlai, and Cicero riot (1951), 128
Stewart-Winter, Timothy, 296, 365n76
stockyards, 20; Bungalow Belt and escape from, 47; and futures market, 240–241; post-WWI recession and, 41; shutdown of, 224; size of, 20–21. See also packinghouses
Stone, Bernard, 319
storefront churches, 63–64, 115, 222
Stratton, William, 141
streetcars, 15
streets/highways/expressways: bringing suburban residents downtown, 143, 233; built as barrier shutting out the ghetto, 150–151, 152; built to bypass the ghetto, 102; to O’Hare Airport, 231–232; street cleaning, 137; widening of, under Chicago Plan Commission, 35
Stritch, Samuel, 159
Stroger, John, 256–257
Stroll, the (black entertainment district): overview, 65; black-and-tan cabarets, 65–66; map of, 68; middle-class black civic leaders as disapproving of, 65–67, 69, 72; music and, 65–66, 89; nighttime vs. daytime, 69–70; policy wheels (illicit lotteries), 70–74, 75, 105, 130. See also Black Metropolis; music
structural inequalities: antiwelfare crusade rhetoric ignoring, 273–274; and black gang dropouts, 187; black submachine as not addressing, 77–78; Chicago School of sociology as identifying, 3, 113; credit card debt as masking, 289; Daley’s gang offensive as distraction from, 186–187; federal crime bill, 274; “hoop dreams” as distraction from, 289–290; insurance “game” as distraction from, 75; laissez-faire racism as reinforcing, 236; liberals as tending toward understanding of, 123–124; policy wheels (illicit lotteries) as distraction from, 75; the politics of identity as distraction from, 298; public unaccountability as reinforcing, 235–236, 330. See also culturalization of politics; income inequality
structure of feeling: black resistance to racial oppression as, 109; definition of, 109; white backlash and, 210
student movement: antiwar organizing, 204, 205, 207; context of, 203–204; hippie scene mainstreamed in Chicago, 205; school protests and boycotts, 179–180, 181–182, 184, 187, 221–222, 250, 271–272, 297, 359n29; search for new methods, 204. See also Democratic National Convention protests (1968)
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 169–170, 195, 197
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), 204, 205, 216
Students for Health Equity (SHE), 335
subprime mortgage crisis, 290
suburbanization: corporate headquarters and, 232–234; Detroit and, 122; economically depressed black suburbs, 310; high-tech corridors and, 233; and homeownership, federal subsidies for, 127, 140, 222–223; Polish community and, 318; South Asian Indian community and, 315; as threat to patronage system, 140–141
Sullivan, Frank, 288
Sullivan, Louis, 21–22
Sun Belt, federal funding and development of, 4
Sunset Café, 67
“Super Bowl Shuffle” (Chicago Bears), 255
Supreme Court, U.S.: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 119, 132, 133; Shakman decision, 237, 281; Shelley v. Kraemer, 131
Swearingen, John, 233
“Swede Town,” 24
Swedish community, 24
Swibel, Charles, 228
Swift, 20
swimming pools, public, 111, 113, 191–192
syndicates. See organized crime
Syrian immigrants, 317
Taft-Hartley Act (1947), 161
Take Back Chicago marches, 329
Target, 292
taxes: Rahm Emanuel and increases in, 332; populist backlash against paying, 238; proposed financial transaction tax, 328, 336. See also property taxes; sales tax
tax increment financing program. See TIF funds (tax increment financing)
taxis, 130
Taylor, Elizabeth, 151
Taylor, Koko, 119
Taylor, Robert, 104
Teamsters union, 25–26, 28, 293
telecommunication technologies, 225, 239
Temporary Woodlawn Organization (TWO)/The Woodlawn Organization, 162–164, 179, 180, 196–200
Tenants’ Rights Action Group, 198
tenement conditions (early 20th century), 18–19, 21
Terkel, Studs, Division Street America, 205
terrorism, and Puerto Rico independence movement, 372n98
Thailand, immigrants from, 315
The Woodlawn Organization/Temporary Woodlawn Organization (TWO), 162–164, 179, 180, 196–200
Thompson, E. P, 5
Thompson “Big Bill”: “America First” campaign of, 51; anti-immigration and, 52; black voter support for, 40–41, 47–48, 71, 112–113; and Cermak, loss to, 52–53; and gangsters, 53; and Great Depression, 53; labor and, 48–49; as no friend to African Americans, 78; patronage and, 53–54, 76–77, 349n35
TIF funds (tax increment financing): overview, 13; Chicago Mercantile Exchange renovations and, 329–330; gentrification and, 305; inequalities reinforced by uneven distribution of, 282–283, 331; minority-owned businesses receiving patronage from, 287, 288; opposition to, 328–329, 331–332; original intent of program, 282, 368n49; as pinstripe patronage, 282; proposal to dissolve, 291; public scrutiny avoided in, 282; as “shadow budget,” 281–282; subsidies to downtown agenda via, 282–284, 331–332, 369n56; teachers union call to fill budget gap using, 328
Till, Emmett, 137
Tillman, Dorothy, 256, 277, 278
Touraine, Alain, 162
tourism, R.M. Daley and development of, 264; beautification, 266, 285; and “City of Neighborhoods” campaign of RMD, 294–295; and diversity of neighborhoods, 297–298, 300; Rahm Emanuel and privatization of, 370n79; infrastructure, 285–286; service jobs for, 286–287; “tourist bubble,” 286
Toynbee Hall social settlement (London), 16
Trinity United Church of Christ, 276
Trumbull Park Homes, 126, 132–133, 156
Turner, Damian, 335
Tuthill, Richard, 16–17
21st Century Vote, 277–278
TWO. See Temporary Woodlawn Organization (TWO)/The Woodlawn Organization
UAW Local 600, 106
Ukrainian community, 24
Ukrainian Village neighborhood, 299, 305
underground economy: drug economy, 267–268; jitney cabs, 129–130; policy wheels (illicit lotteries), 70–74, 75, 105, 130; WWII and black market, 100. See also organized crime
unemployment: in 2014, 331; Great Depression and, 53, 78; rate for black males, 266, 270, 331; recessions of 1958 and 1961 and, 172; service economy ameliorating, 287; and subsidies paid to corporations, 283–284, 369n56
unions. See labor unions and unionization
Union Station railroad terminal, 35
United Auto Workers (UAW), 106
United Center, 285
United Garment Workers (UGW), 25–26
United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), 61
United Neighborhood Organization (UNO), 301–302, 330, 371n94
United States Immigration Commission (Dillingham Commission), 29
United States Post Office, 232
United Working Families (UWF), 333
Unity Hall, 82
University of Chicago (UC): and backlash, turn to, 211–212; and Citizens’ Committee to Enforce the Landis Award, 49–50; economics, Chicago School of, 240; expansion of (South Campus), urban renewal and, 149, 155, 157–158, 163–164; Laboratory School (Dewey), 18, 19; sociology, Chicago School of, 3, 19, 69, 113, 153, 211, 274, 294, 343n4
University of Chicago Medical Center (UMMC), trauma center, 335, 375n19
University of Chicago Settlement, 44, 45
University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), 155–156, 172, 176, 262, 301
University Village (middle- to upper-income housing development), 301
UNO (United Neighborhood Organization), 301–302, 330, 371n94
uplift of African Americans: black capitalism as vehicle for, 59, 61, 64–65, 67, 69, 75, 81, 86; white gaze upon, 59
uplift of laboring classes: beautification and, 33; cultural institutions and, 31–32; settlement house movement and, 18, 33
uplift of the poor, mixed-income housing developments and, 310–311
Uptown neighborhood: Asian community and, 315, 317; rainbow coalition and, 214; student movement and, 204. See also Young Lords (gang)
urban crisis: Detroit and, 122; Englewood as poster child for, 121–122; liberal vs. conservative views of causes, 122–123; origins in 1940s and 1950s white fight against integration, 123–127, 125
urbanism: (old) Chicago School of, 4–5, 6; Los Angeles School of, 3–4, 343n5; New Chicago School of, 4–5, 6, 344n10
Urban League, 61, 66, 79, 85, 144, 179
urban renewal: and R.M. Daley, 308; early downtown agenda for, 143–146; as “ethnic cleansing,” 151; Illinois state funding for, 143–144; interests favoring revitalization of neighborhoods vs. downtown agenda, 145–146, 147; Mexican community and, 176; as “Negro removal” (Baldwin), 142, 143, 310; Puerto Rican community and, 174, 228; rent increases following, 144; as warfare, form of, 151; Washington DC decisions on, 142. See also gentrification
—CLEARANCE OF LAND (DEMOLITIONS): depressing emptiness resulting from, 172; displacement of tenants, 146–147, 309, 310; eminent domain authority for, 143; federal housing officials requiring adequate relocation plans, 146–147; and gentrification, 308–309
—DOWNTOWN DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AS BENEFICIARY UNDER RJD: overview, 142–143; barriers to ghetto expansion built into, 150–151, 153–155, 157, 228, 234–235; inequalities of race and class reinforced by, 143; middle-class housing developments, 227–228; “trickle-down” promises of, 142. See also downtown agenda
—OPPOSITION TO: black residents and organizations fearing displacement, 144–145; Harrison-Halsted Community Group and, 155–157; interests favoring rehabilitation of neighborhoods vs. downtown agenda, 145–146; white residents from other neighborhoods fearing dispersal of black population, 145, 161; in Woodlawn, 157–158, 163–164
urban services provision: R.M. Daley and cutbacks to, 282–283, 291, 293; Rahm Emanuel and cutbacks to, 325–326; and “entrepreneurial state” under RMD, 8, 13, 262–264; heat wave of 1995 and, 263–264; outsourcing of, 8, 13, 262–263; sanitation, 16, 17, 19, 23, 55, 137. See also fire department; infrastructure; police (CPD); privatization
Urbis Orbis (café), 304
U.S. Conference of Mayors, 264
U.S. Department of Education, Race to the Top initiative, 326
U.S. Department of Housing and Development (HUD), 309, 310
U.S. Department of Labor, 198
Vallas, Paul, 269
Velasquez, Arturo, 252
Venkatesh, Sudhir, 310
Ventra, 331
Venue 1 (event center), 325
veterans: black veterans returning, 38, 106, 109, 112; homeowner loans to, and suburbanization, 127, 140
Vice Ladies (gang), 187
Vice Lords (gang): Martin Luther King’s attempt to enlist in nonviolence movement, 190–195, 200; leadership of, 187–188, 196, 217–218; membership of, 186, 187, 188; and neoliberal business arrangements of crack cocaine distribution, 267–268; and police/government investigations, 197, 198–199; political aspirations of, 185–186, 188, 277; and protests for minority union membership, 236; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214–215; and youth services/community improvement projects, 196–200
Victory Life Insurance Company, 62, 67
Vietnam, immigrants from, 315, 319
Vietnam War, antiwar protests, 204, 205, 207
violence/racial violence: overview, 38; attributed to the working classes, 17; early-20th century and, 16, 17–18; early-20th century labor organizing and antiblack violence, 25–28, 29; early 1960s escalation of intensity of, 170; lack of protection of African Americans by law enforcement, 38, 126, 130; map of, 125; open-housing marches of MLK and, 193–194; politicians and fisticuffs, 17; postwar years and, 123–126, 125; prior to 1919 race riot, 38; Puerto Ricans as victims of, 175; racist ideology arising as justification of, 218; against Harold Washington’s campaign, 248; World War II and, 110–112. See also arson and bombings; crime rates; culturalization of politics; gangs; homicide rates; police (CPD); race riots
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994), 263, 274
Visitation Parish, 124
vocational training, gang youth programs and, 198
voter registration campaigns: black mobilization for Harold Washington, 243; immigrant working class, rise in 1920s, 51; Lesbian/Gay Voter Impact, 370n80; Million Man March and, 275; 21st Century Vote, 277–278; TWO movement, 163
voter turnout, 7, 277, 280, 334
Voting Rights Act (1965), 188
Vrdolyak, Edward, 242, 245, 252, 254–256, 257, 366n1
Vrdolyak 29 bloc, 254–256, 257
Wacker, Charles, 35
Wacquant, Loïc, 354n52
wade-ins, 169
Wagner, Clarence, 134
Walker, William, 220
Wallace, George, 177, 178, 210, 361n6
Waller, Fats, 92
Wall of Respect (mural), 219–220, 220
Wal-Mart, 292
war: antiwar demonstrations, 204, 205, 207; World War I, 38, 94–95. See also veterans; World War II
War on Poverty (Lyndon B. Johnson), 201, 209, 263
Washington, Booker T., 64, 131
Washington, DC, 345n19, 366n14
Washington, Harold: as African American politician, 241–242; antimachine activism of, 10, 243–244, 246, 255, 259, 364n55; and “City of Neighborhoods,” 294; and community participation in public policy making, 259; “council wars” during term of, 252–253, 254–256, 344n11; death of, 254, 255, 370n80; election of 1987, 256, 365n78; Latinos and, 252–254; LGBT community and, 255, 370n80; multiethnic coalition of, 249–250, 251–254, 255–257, 334; Barack Obama on impact of, 257, 258–259; the politics of identity and, 253–254; replacement for, city council choice of, 256–257; school system and, 50, 269; successes of, 255, 258
—ELECTION OF 1983: antimachine campaigning as factor in, 246; black community mobilization for, 243–244, 249; Latino support for, 249–250, 251–252; primary, 242–244, 244; racism as factor, 245, 248–249, 365n65; and racism, cultural, 242–243, 246–248, 364n54; racist attacks as working to advantage of, 242–243, 249–250; scandals and, 249; white Democrats and machine campaigning for Republican candidate against, 241–243, 244–246; white support, 249
water safety, Sanitary and Ship Canal and, 23
Waters, Muddy, 118, 119, 120; “Hoochie Coochie Man,” 118; “I Can’t Be Satisfied,” 118
Watts rebellion (1965), 123, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 196
Weathermen, 231
Weber, Charlie, 55
Weber, John Pitman, 220, 362n18
Webster, Milton, 84
Welfare Reform Act (1996), 263, 273–274
Wells, Junior, 301
Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 80, 83–84
Wells Club, 83–84
Wells High School, 124
“We Shall Overcome,” 162, 181, 324
West, Cornel, Race Matters, 276
West Devon Avenue, 315, 318, 319
West Garfield Park neighborhood: deindustrialization and, 283–284, 369n56; police brutality protests, 184–185; Puerto Rican community and, 174; schools of, 179
West Ridge neighborhood, 317
West Side: ethnoracial diversity of, 173; food desert problem of, 283; and loss of University of Illinois campus expansion, 262; Mexican community and, 313; Puerto Rican community and, 173–174, 175, 358n16; and rainbow coalition, 214; TIF funds and, 331
West Side Organization (WSO), 192
West Side riot (1966), 191–193, 208–209
West Side rioting after King’s assassination (1968), 138, 198, 208–209
West Side Story (1961), 166
West Town neighborhood: gentrification and, 299–300, 307, 317; Latino community and, 173–175, 300; racial violence in, 175
Wetten, Emil, 55–56
WGES (black radio station), 116
White, Leonard D., 54
white backlash (defensive localism/reactionary populism): antistatism of, 10, 201; and belief in victimization by liberals, 132–133; blaming marchers and protesters for police violence, 200, 210–211; civil rights movement as counterforce to, 131–132; and cultural racism, smear of Harold Washington and, 243, 249; R.J. Daley as mayor of, 135–136, 209–211, 238; machine politics and balance of, with black civil rights, 131–132; national politics of, 210; Nixon and “silent majority,” 123, 133, 209, 210; Republican “southern strategy” of, 210, 361n6; University of Chicago’s turn to, 211–212; women and, 124, 156; and WWII war industries, 104. See also culturalization of politics; racism; whiteness and white identity
white Chicagoans: blaming marchers and protesters for police violence, 200, 210; lack of support for movement against racist police violence, 336–337; median income of (2000), 266; mortality rate of, 75; in “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214; “slumming” in the Black Metropolis, 65–66; support for Rahm Emanuel, 336; unemployment in 2014 and, 331; urban renewal and clearance of, 154–155. See also gentrification; white backlash; white flight; white gangs and athletic clubs; whiteness and white identity
white-collar workers, making the city desirable for. See global cities/global-city agenda; middle-class
white flight: Alinsky efforts to stop, 160; deindustrialization and, 222–223; and ghettos, transformation to, 127, 153–154; and hippie scene, 205; homeownership subsidies and, 127, 222–223; Puerto Ricans swept by, 174. See also suburbanization
white gangs and athletic clubs, 171; as adverse to packinghouse work, 42–43; antiblack terror by, 38, 124, 126; as crime syndicate manpower, 42, 43; and ethnoracial hierarchy, 27, 43, 45; and machine politics, 41–42, 43; and 1919 race riot, 38, 40, 43, 45; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214. See also black gangs; gangs
whiteness and white identity: Catholic Church policies and production of, 46; and centrality of the black ghetto, 47; consolidation of (end of 1950s), 173; ethnic slurs within, 114; housing segregation and, 47, 58; interwar era and weakening of reform organizing, 9–10, 58; Mexican community and, 175, 176; “middle-class” as euphemism for, 150; and middle-class neighborhoods, creation of, 46–47; and nationalist fervor of WWII, 114; progrowth, antilabor agenda enabled by, 9–10; “psychological wage” granted to, 110; and Second Great Migration, 114. See also culturalization of politics; politics of identity; racism; white backlash
White Sox, 285
Whoopee Era, 55
Wicker Park neighborhood: gentrification of, 299, 300–301, 303–305, 307, 321, 374n130; Polish community and, 317
Wigwams (Polish gang), 44
Wilkins, Roy, 88
William, Lacy Kirk, 80
Williams, Eugene, 36–37
Williamson, Sonny Boy, 118
Williams, R.A., 85
Williams, Raymond, 109
Williams, Rufus, 271
Willis, Benjamin, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184
Willis, Carol, 22
Wilson, James Q., Negro Politics, 130–131
Wilson, William Julius, 153, 274, 280, 310–311, 364n54; The Declining Significance of Race, 274–275
Wilson, Willie, 334
Wisconsin steel, 21
women: affirmative action, 363n45; African-American clubwomen, 80, 84–85, 87; blues singer solidarity with black women, 90; Jane Byrne election, 242; as Chicago Housing Authority’s first director, 113; gang branches of, 187; jobs for black women, 63; jobs for Puerto Rican women, 358n16; roles in WWII, 96, 97–99, 100; urban renewal opposition by, 155–157; and white resistance to integration, 124, 156
Wonder, Stevie, 251
Wong, Jimmy, 315
Wood, Elizabeth, 113, 126–127, 132, 149
Woodlawn neighborhood: and Catholic Church, 161–162; and gangs, 187, 188, 195; and ghetto, transformation to, 153–154, 262; mental health clinic closures, 326; police monitoring during WWII, 108; Puerto Rican community and, 173, 358n16; and school conditions, 163; TWO movement/The Woodlawn Organization, 162–164, 179, 180, 196–200; urban renewal opposition in, 157–158, 163–164
Woodstock, 206
Woolworth’s Five and Ten, 62
working class: and antiblack aggression by Irish, 40–41; austerity cutbacks as most affecting, 325–326; Chicago identity as, 1–2, 13, 232; and election of 1927, 48–51; gentrification as displacing, 298–302, 311–312, 317, 371n94; military high schools and programs, 272, 368n32; school reforms as leaving behind, 270, 299; street violence attributed to, 17; uplift of, movement for, 18, 31–33. See also black cultural expression; Chicago Teachers Union (CTU); deindustrialization; gangs; labor force; labor unions and unionization; music; service economy; unemployment
Works Progress Administration (WPA), 57
World’s Columbian Exposition (1893), 23, 157
World War II: class tensions and, 99–100; consensus of support for, 94–95; defense contracts for Chicago, 95–96, 97; Detroit and, 96, 212; Flag Day (1942), 94; housing shortage in, 104, 108–109, 112; and juvenile delinquency issues, 98–99; labor unions of Chicago quiescent during, 212; mobilization by Chicago, 96–97, 99; and morale drop in Chicago, 99–100; race riots during, 101, 102–103, 107–108; racial discrimination in the war industries, 83; and whiteness/white identity, 114; and white racism, 110–112; women in the labor force, 96, 97–99, 100; zoot suiters and, 106–108
WPA, 57
Wright, Edward H., 76–77, 80, 84, 87
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 47
Wright, Jeremiah, 276
Wright, Richard, 73, 88, 117; Black Boy, 89
X-Chan, 276
Yerkes, Charles Tyson, 15
YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association), 30–31, 80, 167
Young, Andrew, 192
Young, Coleman, 249
Young, “Policy” Sam, 70
Young Lords (gang), 218, 253–254; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 12, 214, 250
Young Patriots (gang), 214
Your Cab Company, 70
Youth International Party (Yippies), 204, 206, 226
youth services and projects, black gang involvement in, 196–200
Žižek, Slavoj, 248
zoning laws: first zoning ordinance (1923), 35; gentrification facilitated via rezoning, 305, 307–308; New York City community input into rezoning, 307; revised code of 2004, 307; and the Stroll, 69