advertising, 4, 5, 18, 22, 32–34, 188–222; criticism of radio advertising, 188, 195, 200, 208, 214–217; hard sell, 190, 192, 214–221; integration into radio programming, 18, 32–34, 190–192, 193–222; soft sell, 191–214, 218–222; success in radio, 4, 22, 196, 203, 205–206, 208–209, 218. See also advertising agencies; Jack Benny radio program; sponsors
advertising agencies. See Ayer, N.W; Jack Benny radio program; Young & Rubicam
African-Americans, 17–18, 91, 120–187; played by white actors on radio, 120; as radio audiences, 17–18, 91, 181; radio representations of, 17–18, 120–187; television representations of, 184–185, 289–290, 294–296, 298–299, 303. See also Anderson, Eddie; Critics
Allen, Fred, xi, 10, 22, 25, 38, 48, 49, 69, 91–94, 97, 140, 145–146, 147, 148, 160, 210–212, 226, 241–242, 246–249, 259–260, 261, 265, 267, 269, 271, 276, 277, 278, 284, 285, 291–292, 293, 298, 313; “Allen’s Alley” radio skit, 92, 97, 99, 102, 145, 146; appearances on Jack Benny program, 92–94; Benny’s “feud” with, xi, 17, 91–94, 210–212
Allen, Gracie 22, 31, 48, 53, 57, 69–72, 102, 111–118, 271, 284. See also Burns and Allen Program; Burns, George
Amos ‘n’ Andy (radio program) and Charles Correll and Freeman Gosden, 22, 31, 37, 44, 68, 71, 120, 127, 128–129, 135–136, 172, 173, 177, 179, 184, 196, 269, 271–272, 287, 289, 315
Anderson, Eddie, 4, 5, 8, 14, 17–18, 118–119, 120–153, 151, 154–187, 158, 182, 289, 294, 309; African American critics disapproval of, 142, 160–161, 165, 170–173, 180–183, 185, 187; African American critics praise of, 133–134, 145, 147, 148–153, 165, 171–172, 174; in Brewster’s Millions (film), 174–175; in Buck Benny Rides Again, (film), 145–150; in Cabin in the Sky (film), 155, 164–167; childhood, 123–124; film appearances, 6, 126, 133, 143–145, 239–242; first appearance on Jack Benny radio program, 120; in Man About Town (film), 143–145; in proposed radio program, 178–179; in relationship with Rochester character, 120–123, 133, 145–146, 160, 172–173, 185–186; stardom of, 120, 133, 145, 154–155, 156–157, 160, 177, 183, 239; in Tales of Manhattan (film), 155, 160–163; vaudeville career, 125–127; voice of, 124–125, 130–131, 134, 337n12. See also Jack Benny radio program; Jack Benny TV program; Rochester Van Jones character
Armstrong, Louis, 126, 128, 148
Artists and Models Abroad (film), 100, 228, 238
Artists and Models (film), 228, 238
Audiences (radio) and imagination, 1–2, 5, 8, 19, 30, 87, 88–89, 97–118, 120, 281–294, 310; small town, 232, 261; Southern, 120, 128, 140–141, 146–147, 166–167, 174–175; studio, 1, 9, 223, 302; surveys of, 238, 244, 246
Aural humor in radio, 1, 5, 6, 7–12, 19, 98, 284, 307–308. See also audiences
Ayer, N. W. & Son advertising agency, 21, 38–39, 192, 193
Baker, Kenny, 3, 47, 50, 53, 74, 82, 89, 133, 134, 213, 238
Baldwin, Harry, 32, 59, 254–255
Baraka, Amiri and JELLO (play), 90, 187
Barnes, Howard, 105, 145, 148, 245
Beloin, Ed, 45, 49–52, 74, 129–130, 167, 211, 228, 241, 242, 254, 256
Benny, Jack: as advertising creator, 5, 29, 188–223, 313; and childhood as Benjamin Kubelsky, 2–3; comic timing, 1–2, 5, 8, 29, 50, 74–75, 82, 91, 262, 301–302, 308, 311–314; death of, 7; as “Fall Guy” character, 1, 11, 13, 16, 23, 41, 52, 74, 85, 86, 94, 108–109, 221, 249, 258, 262, 292, 309, 312, 313; as intermedia star, 5, 15, 18–19, 223–249, 281–303, 309; and Jewish identity, 2, 16, 24, 86, 94–97; marriage to Sadye Marks, 57; Midwestern characteristics of, 8, 16, 24, 95, 281; post-television series career, 7, 311, 312, 313–314; and smuggling scandal in, 1939 6, 96, 208; relationship with radio critics, 268–280; relationship with sponsors, 5, 6, 21–23, 29, 38–39, 188–223, 283–303; relationship with TV critics, 297–308; as script editor, 10, 13, 16, 45–52; service in World War I, 3; as showrunner/producer, 5, 40, 45, 188–223, 281–303; television career, 289–303; in USO tours during World War II, 6, 92, 167, 175, 253, 312; vaudeville career, 3, 5, 15–16, 21, 23–27, 29, 31, 57, 92–94, 95, 221, 290, 312. See also Jack Benny radio program; Jack Benny television program; Livingstone, Mary; Masculine gender and Jack Benny character
Batton, Barton, Durstine and Osborne advertising agency, 210, 291
Bergen, Edgar, and Charlie McCarthy, 51, 99, 100, 238, 252, 269, 271, 277, 278, 284, 287, 315
Berle, Milton, 19, 114, 117, 271, 282, 290, 294, 301, 305, 313
Bernie, Ben, 3, 24, 95, 193, 195
Bestor, Don, 41, 68, 199, 231, 311
Big Show (radio program), 293
Blanc, Mel, 5, 8, 91, 178, 251, 256–257, 281, 292, 294, 296, 312
Brainard, Bertha, 21, 27, 39–40, 102, 193, 198, 199, 213, 215
Buck Benny Rides Again (film), 145–150, 214–245, 252
Burns, George, 17, 22, 31, 48, 57, 69, 95, 111–118, 284, 313. See also Allen, Gracie; Burns and Allen program
Burns and Allen (radio program), 32, 69–70, 256, 264, 271, 284, 315
Canada Dry Ginger Ale Company, 18, 21–23, 38–40
California, radio’s move to, 198–199, 222, 223, 233–236; tourism, 18–19, 223–225, 231–235
Cantor, Eddie, 7, 22, 31, 37, 48, 77, 78, 95, 97, 99, 102, 114, 160, 200, 202, 223, 226, 229, 271, 278, 284, 285, 298, 301, 313
Carmichael the polar bear character, 133, 139, 146, 233, 242, 257, 305
Carson, Johnny, 312–313
CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System), 2, 38–39, 83, 115, 230–231, 236, 279, 287–303
Censorship (radio), 14, 99–102, 110, 208
Charley’s Aunt (film), 17, 88, 102–106
Chevrolet Company, 40, 197–198
Colbert, Claudette, 231, 249, 300
Colman, Ronald and Benita, 1, 5, 53, 231, 249, 251, 252, 257–258, 260, 281, 292, 296
Comedy in radio, principles of, 1–13
Conn, Harry W., 8, 14, 16, 22–23, 31–52, 45, 58–61, 64, 129, 189, 193, 194, 221, 227–228, 229, 254, 256, 309, 317; creative partnership with Benny, 8, 16, 22–23, 32–44, 189, 193–200; experimentation, 8, 32, 35–38; later career, 16, 50–51; tensions over authorship with Benny, 16, 23, 32, 44–50; use ethnic voices, 8, 37, 47, 50, 129; vaudeville career, 32
Contests, radio, 35, 59, 258–261
Continuity Acceptance. See censorship
Corwin, Norman, 171
critics: African-American, 14, 18, 90, 128, 133–134, 142, 145, 147, 148–153, 160–161, 165, 170–173, 174, 180–183, 185, 187; film, 19, 103–106, 144–145, 148–150, 241, 244–248; radio, 6, 19, 30, 38, 41, 43–44, 46–47, 65, 250–251, 255, 259–261, 263–280, 294; television, 114–118, 282–303. See also Crosby, John; Gould, Jack; Gross, Ben; Hellman, Jack; Seldes, Gilbert; Van Horne, Harriet
Crosby, Bing, 27, 210, 223, 226, 244, 246, 249, 313
Crosby, John, 19, 94, 110, 136, 250, 266, 267–280, 282, 298
Devine, Andy, 134, 140, 146, 231, 241
Daniels, Draper, 190–192, 193, 194
Day, Dennis, 3, 4, 89, 98, 106–107, 109, 139, 145, 178, 213, 241, 255, 262, 281, 288, 311
dialects on Jack Benny radio program; black, 90, 122, 127–129, 136–142, 169–173, 179–183, 185, 292–293; ethnic, 8, 37, 47, 50, 127–128, 129–130, 176–177; Jewish, 96–98, 127, 176–177, 178, 255, 262
Douglas, Susan J., xii, 5, 15, 77, 89
Duffy’s Tavern (radio program), 71, 160, 271, 277, 315, 337n16
Edmerson, Estelle, 185–186
Fein, Irving, 15, 46, 48, 115, 182, 218
Feud, Benny-Allen, xi, 17, 91–94, 210–212
Fibber McGee and Molly (radio program), and Jim and Marian Jordan, 44, 72, 73, 268, 271, 284, 315
film industry: tensions with radio industry, 18–19, 22, 227–228, 230–231, 235–237, 242, 244–248
Garbo, Greta, 37, 59, 63, 81, 142, 227, 228, 229
gender. See masculine gender construction; women
General Foods Corporation (Jell-O), 3, 16, 18, 139, 210–214, 240, 243–244, 247, 252, 253, 258
Gould, Jack, 19, 115, 250, 255–256, 264, 266, 278, 297
Great Depression, 3, 17, 22, 191, 196, 199, 202, 231
Gross, Ben, 115, 250, 264, 285
Harrington, Tom, 49, 209, 213, 235, 254
Harris, Phil, 3, 8, 51, 82, 88, 89, 94, 98, 100, 108–109, 133, 134, 139, 143, 145, 178, 231, 239, 252, 253, 267, 287, 288, 304, 305
Hays, Will, 236–237
Hellman, Jack, 114, 218, 258, 259, 260, 261, 271, 276, 287, 288, 289, 306
Hill, George Washington, 192, 214–218
Hilmes, Michele, xii, 15, 97, 128, 135, 225, 227, 232
Hollywood Revue of 1929 (film), 3, 26, 226
Hope, Bob, 71, 77, 100, 102, 106, 195, 238, 244, 249, 252, 253, 256, 272, 277, 278, 284, 308, 313
Horn Blows at Midnight (film), 256
Horne, Lena, 162, 165, 166, 174, 177
Information Please (radio program), 92, 215
International Jack Benny Fan Club (IJBFC), xii, 13
Jack Benny radio program: black voices in, 90, 122, 127–129, 136–142, 169–173, 179–183, 185, 292–293; Canada Dry Program May 1932–Jan 1933, 7, 21–23, 27–40, 59–67, 89, 101, 192–196, 228, 229; censorship and, 14, 99–102, 110, 208; characters developed in, 3, 5, 16, 23, 37–52, 58–85, 131–133, 152–153, 184, 199–200, 309; Chevrolet Program March 1933–April 1934. 40–41, 67–69, 196–197; commercials in, 3, 4, 5, 30, 32–34, 35, 36–37, 38, 43, 52, 60–61, 72, 78–79, 89, 101, 132, 139, 192–196, 200–213, 218–221, 251, 296, 305; ends radio program, 6, 303–306; ethnic voices in, 8, 37, 47, 50, 127–128, 129–130, 176–177; experimentation in, 19, 23, 32–38, 52, 62, 218–219, 250, 256–262; gender issues in, See masculine gender identity, and women; General Tire Program April 1934–September 1934, 41–43, 199–200, 205; gifted Sunday 7:00 pm time slot by NBC, 213; golden era of Benny radio program, 1946–1955 6, 19, 249, 250, 292, 304–305, 311–317; Grape Nuts Program October 1942–June 1943, 78–79, 214; I Can’t Stand Jack Benny contest, 14, 96, 140, 251, 258–261; Jell-O Program October 1934–June 1942, 43–52, 74–78, 122, 129–153, 200–213, 222, 228, 253; Jewish voices in, 96–98, 127, 176–177, 178, 255, 262; Jewish humor in, 94–97; liveness in radio broadcasts, 10, 22, 31, 82, 91, 262; Lucky Strike Radio Program September 1943–May 1955, 82–85, 167–185, 214–221, 254–280, 281–306; motion picture-related aspects, 5, 6, 40, 42–43, 76, 102–106, 225–228, 232–235; movie parodies in, 3, 19, 50, 63, 98, 102–106, 138, 225, 229–231, 249; racial issues in, See Rochester Van Jones character; relationships with film; radio and television critics, See critics; relationships with sponsors, 5, 18, 23, 38–40, 101, 188–223, 282–303; situation comedy in, 23, 77–79, 132; sponsor character in, 5, 89–90, 210; World War II era, 6, 19, 78–79, 83, 106–107, 217, 249, 250–257; Your Money or Your Life skit, 1–2, 13, 80. See also Benny, Jack; Jack Benny television program
Jack Benny television program: early local Los Angeles broadcast, xxx; first episode, 6, 294–298; “Gracie Benny” TV episodes, 17, 114–118; Lucky Strike Program 1950–1959, 294–309; other television episodes, 289–290, 298–308; radio contributions to Benny’s TV program, 19, 301, 302, 306–308, 311; relationships with sponsors, 289–290, 294–308; relationships with TV critics, 114–118, 282–303; as sitcom 300; use of vaudeville in, 199–300; use of visual comedy, 301–302, 308, 311–314
Jell-O Company. See General Foods Corporation
Jessel, George, 22, 25, 95, 267, 271
Jewish identity: anti-Semitism, 25, 96, 259; Benny’s religious and ethnic background, 2, 16, 24, 86, 94–97; discrimination against, 259; radio representations of, 47, 94–97, 129, 176–177, 178, 262
Josefsberg, Milt, 15, 62, 80, 110, 179, 180, 189, 254, 273, 275–276
Kitzel character, 97, 176–177, 178, 262
Kubelsky, Benjamin. See Jack Benny
Leacock, Stephen, 12–13
Liveness of radio, 10, 31, 82, 91, 262
Livingstone, Mary, 4, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 37–38, 39–52, 53–85, 66, 70, 88, 89, 90, 91, 98, 100, 107, 108–109, 130–131, 132, 133, 134, 139, 140, 145, 146, 168, 203, 228, 231, 233, 241–242, 265–266, 275, 281, 292, 309, 311; adopting Mary Livingstone name, 62–63, 133; in battle of the sexes, 75–81, 84–85, 91; childhood as Sadye Marks, 56; compared to Gracie Allen 16, 53–54, 69–72; compared to Mae West 16, 54, 63, 67–68; as creative force and producer, 39, 65, 83; in cross-dressing roles, 97–98; in Dumb Dora roles, 57–65, 74; early radio performances, 16, 37–38, 39–52, 58–62; as heckler, 9, 16, 41, 53, 73–85, 88, 91–91; laughter, 16, 53, 54, 58–61, 71, 73–85, 88; leaping into conversations (Barnouw), 9, 61, 73–75; Mama character 55, 61, 71; marriage to Jack Benny 3, 16, 55, 72, 81, 91; Marks, Babe (sister), 55, 56, 71–72, 77, 88; Marks, Hilliard (brother) 56; as member of Benny program’s male gang, 16, 67, 97–98; microphone fright, 55, 73, 82, 84, 91, 262; mistakes made in performing scripts, 82, 91, 262; poems, 46, 47, 64, 68–69, 81–82; private life and personality, 54, 55, 57, 84; retirement of, 54–55, 83, 284, 305; as singer, 57, 73; stardom of, 55, 66, 68–70, 73, 83, 84; on television, 83–87; in “Twink Family” skit, 78–80; as undomestic, 72, 81; as unruly woman, 16, 54, 65, 68, 75–85, 88; vaudeville performances, 56–57
Love Thy Neighbor (film), 246–249, 252
Lux Radio Theatre (radio program), 224, 230, 246
Man About Town (film), 143–145, 239–241, 252
Marks, Sadye. See Livingstone, Mary
Marx, Groucho, 337n14
Marx, Zeppo, 56
Masculine gender identity and the Jack Benny character, 5, 6, 25, 41–43, 86–119; acting in a homosexual manner, 86, 87, 100, 102, 110;acting with fluid sexual identity, 86, 87, 88, 101; as asexual, 86, 101; as cross-dresser, 17, 86, 88, 97–118; as effeminate, 86, 87, 95, 97–118; as employer/patriarch, 5, 86, 89–91, 132, 218–221, 262; as female impersonator, 17, 86–87, 97–118; as heterosexual “Broadway Romeo,” 25, 62–63, 86, 103, 226, 229, 314; as heterosexual, deficient, 41–43, 75–80, 86, 95, 228, 314; as insult thrower/player of “the dozens,” 86, 91–94; as Jewish male, 94–97; in a racialized relationship with Rochester, 86, 90, 131–132, 135–153, 156, 158–160
Masculine gender identity represented on Benny program, 5, 16–17, 41–43, 75–80, 86–119; as effeminacy, 87, 97–118; as heterosexual dominance, 24–25, 86, 87, 88, 100; as heterosexual failure, 77–80, 86, 87, 88, 97–118; in homophobia, 102, 107–108, 110, 116; in homosexuality, 87, 98–100, 101, 102, 107–108, 195; as patriarchal authority, 86, 89–91; through queer/LGBTQ readings, 87, 88, 97–118.
master of ceremonies (emcee, m.c.), 3, 22, 23, 25–27, 126, 290, 313
Maxwell automobile, 5, 8, 19, 81, 173, 242, 257, 281, 288, 290, 295, 307, 310
Mays, Dr. Benjamin, 148–149
McDaniel, Hattie, 146–147, 155, 164, 176, 177, 186
McQueen, Butterfly, 83, 168–169, 255
Meyers, Cynthia, xii, 190, 202
Morrow, Bill, 45, 49–52, 74, 129–130, 167, 211, 228, 241, 242, 254, 256
Mouse that Jack Built (film), xi, 311–312
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and Walter White and leaders, 161–162, 163, 177, 180–181
NBC (National Broadcasting Company), 2, 21–23, 27, 102, 199, 227–228, 236–237, 279, 287–288, 293
Nelson, Frank, 5, 9, 88, 90, 110, 114, 220, 257, 292, 296, 305
Olsen, George, 21, 28, 29, 30, 34, 38–39, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 193, 229, 311
OTR (Old Time Radio), xi, 13, 314–317
Palace Theater (New York City), 3, 24, 25, 26, 29, 290
Paramount Studios, film production and marketing, 143–145, 228, 238–249
Parker, Frank, 41, 47, 74, 102, 197, 199, 234
Parsons, Louella, 157–158, 230
Polly the Parrot character, 257, 296
racial issues. See Anderson, Eddie; Rochester Van Jones, character; World War II.
ratings of radio programs, 40, 271, 293, 306 of TV programs 297, 306
Rochester Van Jones, character, 1, 5, 14–15, 17–18, 77, 83, 88, 89, 94, 98, 100, 106, 114, 116, 118–119, 120, 121–123, 129–153, 154–187, 228, 253, 255, 257, 265–266, 273–275, 277, 281, 289, 292, 296, 305, 309; and African-American community in Los Angeles, 125–127, 150–153, 155, 178–179; on Benny TV program, 184–185, 289–290, 294–296, 298–299, 303; “blackness” made visible on radio, 122, 130, 135–140, 159, 337n14; and Interracial understanding fostered by, 134–153, 157–159, 187–188, 255; and minstrel show stereotypes, 122, 127, 134–135, 136–140, 141, 159–160, 177; named Rochester by Jack Benny, 132; and prejudiced southern audiences, 122, 140–141, 146–147, 166–167, 174–175; and racial stereotypes in radio, 90, 122, 127–129, 136–142, 169–173, 179–183, 185, 292–293; and racism in radio broadcasting, 127–128, 130, 138, 140–141, 156–157; relationship with Jack character, 89, 90, 100, 120, 122, 126, 130–153, 155–187, 303, 305; and Uncle Tom charges, 121, 130, 142, 154–155, 160–161, 176, 177. See also Anderson, Eddie; Jack Benny radio program; Jack Benny TV program
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 2, 8, 36–37, 40, 196
Salisbury, Cora, 3
Sandrich, Mark, 15, 142–148, 222, 238–249
Seldes, Gilbert, 19, 250, 265–267, 272
Shlepperman character, 97–98, 129
Shutta, Ethel, 21, 28, 29, 30, 33–34, 38–39, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 229
silence in radio humor, 1–2, 9, 74–75, 310
Sinatra, Frank, 299–300
Skelton, Red, 77, 100, 102, 271, 278, 284
sponsors. See Canada Dry Company, General Foods Corporation, Jack Benny program
Sportsmen Quartet, 89, 90, 218–221, 251, 269, 296, 305
Stewart, Jimmy, 231, 292, 301–302, 311
television, 281–317: networks’ abandonmment of radio for, 281–293; postwar rise of, 281–293. See also Jack Benny television progam
To Be or Not to Be (film), 224, 252
Transatlantic Merry Go Round (film), 42–43, 228
Van Horne, Harriet, 92, 115, 250, 283
Vault, underground, 5, 19, 257, 281, 288, 290, 307–308
Voices in radio performance, 1–2, 7–12, 37, 71, 88, 120–121, 127–128, 130–132, 134, 176–177, 192, 196, 203–206, 209, 309
Waters, Ethel, 148, 155, 160, 165, 166
Waukegan, Illinois, 2–3, 95, 144, 239–240, 268
Weaver, Pat, 49, 188, 191–192, 209, 210, 254
Welles, Orson, 175–176
Wilson, Don, 3, 4, 41, 43, 47, 72, 75, 78, 80, 82, 89, 91, 98, 100, 106–107, 108, 114, 116, 132, 139, 145, 191, 199–200, 203–209, 218, 241, 266, 270, 281, 288, 294, 305, 311
Women: female gender identity on Benny’s program, 5, 16, 53–85, 87, 88, 91–92, 309; lack of, in major radio roles, 69; relationships with men on Benny program, 55–56, 75–85, 141; as unruly women, 16, 53–55, 63, 69, 141. See also Allen, Gracie; Livingstone, Mary; West; Mae
Woods, Lyman, 3
World War II: efforts to improve representation of African Americans during, 18, 123, 151–154, 163–164, 165; race riots during, 164–167; racial segregation in military, 175–176, 250–257, 263; radio programs broadcast from military camps, 250, 253, 254; radio’s role in; 19, 78–79, 92, 106, 214, 215; working women in, “Twink Family skit,” 78–80. See also Jack Benny radio program
Wynn, Ed, 7, 22, 31, 38, 100, 195, 229, 282, 284, 290–291
Young & Rubicam advertising agency, 4, 49, 144, 191, 202–214, 235, 239–240, 243, 247, 252, 253, 254