The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism

paccavekkhaṇañāṇa. In Pāli, “reviewing knowledge”; the recollection of any meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA, S. DHYĀNA) or object of concentration, the attainment of any of the four noble paths (P. magga, S. MĀRGA), or the fruition (PHALA) of a noble path. In the case of a noble attainment, reviewing knowledge arises in the following manner. According to the Pāli ABHIDHAMMA analysis, first, path consciousness (MAGGACITTA) gives rise to two or three moments of fruition consciousness (PHALACITTA), after which the mind subsides into the subconscious mental continuum or life stream (BHAVAṄGASOTA). The subconscious life stream continues until the mind adverts to the previous path moment for the purpose of reviewing it. This is followed by seven moments of mental excitation, called impulsion or advertence (javana), that take as their object the past path moment. Thereafter the mind again subsides into the subconscious life stream. The mind then adverts to previous moments of fruition for the purpose of reviewing them. This is followed by seven moments of mental excitation that take as their object the past fruition moments. In the same way that the practitioner reviews the path and fruition, he also reviews the afflictions (P. kilesa; S. KLEŚA) eradicated from his mind, those remaining to be eradicated, nibbāna (S. NIRVĀṆA) as an object, etc. He knows thereby what he has attained, what remains to be attained, and what he has experienced.

Padaeng Chronicle. “Chronicle of the Red Forest Monastery,” a chronicle of uncertain date written in the Khun language of Kengtung valley of the Shan states of Burma (Myanmar). It records the history of the THERAVĀDA tradition from its inception to the founding of Wat Padaeng at Kengtung and the vicissitudes of the religion in the Shan states thereafter. It begins with a record of the life of the Buddha, through the three Buddhist councils (SAṂGĪTI) in India, to Buddhism’s spread to Sri Lanka and the Mon kingdom of SUVAṆṆABHŪMI in Lower Burma. From that point, it describes the introduction of two reformed Sinhalese monastic sects at Martaban (Muttama) in Lower Burma, and the spread of reformed Sinhalese Buddhism from there to the Thai kingdoms of AYUTHAYA, SUKHOTHAI, and Chiangmai, following the narrative outline of the MŪLASĀSANA.

Paddamya Taung. A pagoda or JEDI (P. cetī/cetiya; S. CAITYA) located at the northernmost range of the Sagaing Hills along the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarvaddi) River in Upper Burma (Myanmar). Situated on a hill named Mani-kinzana Paddamya, the monument is claimed by local tradition to have been built by the Indian Mauryan emperor AŚOKA in 308 BCE, and to contain gems and buddha relics (P. sarīra; S. ŚARĪRA) that he donated. The pagoda derives its name from the surrounding area, which at one time was rich in rubies (Burmese, paddamya) and medicinal plants. It was restored in 1300 CE, while Sagaing was the capital of the Burmese kingdom, by the monk Thingayaza from Padu Village near the city. An annual festival is held there on the full moon day of the Burmese month of Tawthalin (September-October).

padma. (P. paduma; T. padma; C. lianhua/hong lianhua; J. renge/gurenge; K. yŏnhwa/hong yŏnhwa 蓮華/紅蓮華). In Sanskrit, “lotus,” an aquatic plant that blossoms above the surface of the water and is the most commonly occurring flower in Buddhist art and literature. Because the lotus flower blooms above the muddy waters of stagnant ponds, the lotus is used as a symbol for the purity of mind that develops out of the pollution that is SAṂSĀRA but remains unsullied by it. In addition, the lotus is said to be the only plant that produces its flower and fruit simultaneously, indicating in some interpretations that the cause (the Buddha’s teaching) and its effect (enlightenment) are not separate. Lotuses occur in a variety of colors, some of which have their own names, such as the PUṆḌARĪKA, or white lotus, which occurs in the title SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”). Lotuses are often depicted at the feet of the Buddha; buddhas and bodhisattvas are commonly seated in the middle of large lotus blossoms; deities often hold lotus blossoms in their hands. When the Buddha was born, he is said to have taken seven steps, with a lotus blossoming under his foot with each step. Lotuses play important symbolic roles in a number of texts. For example, in the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA, those who in their previous lives accumulate merit but continue to have doubts about being reborn in the PURE LAND are born there within the calyx of a lotus, where they reside for five hundred years, until the flower opens and they are able to begin their training. In the TATHĀGATAGARBHASŪTRA, countless lotuses appear in the sky; their petals unfold to reveal a buddha seated within, and then the petals fade. This symbolizes the presence of the TATHĀGATAGARBHA within all beings, hidden within the afflictions (KLEŚA), which are then destroyed upon the attainment of buddhahood. In tantric Buddhism, the term padma is sometimes used to refer to the female genitals.

Padma bka’ thang yig. (Pema gatangyik). In Tibetan, “Chronicle of the Lotus”; a treasure text (GTER MA) containing a well-known biography of PADMASAMBHAVA, discovered by the treasure revealer (GTER STON) O RGYAN GLING PA. Its complete title is: O rgyan gu ru padma ’byung gnas kyi skyes rabs rnam par thar pa rgyas par bkod pa padma bka’i thang yig. Because it was excavated from Shel brag (Sheldrak), or Crystal Cave, it is also known as the Shel brag ma (“Crystal Cave Version”).

Padma bkod. (Pema kö). One of Tibet’s foremost SBAS YUL, or “hidden lands,” located in southern Tibet and partially in Arunachal Pradesh in India. It is the location of the so-called Gtsang po (Tsangpo) gorges, where the Gtsang po River of Tibet makes a 180-degree bend from east to west through steep cliffs and waterfalls before changing its name to the Brahmaputra River in India. The region is primarily associated with PADMASAMBHAVA and his twenty-five main disciples, who are said to have meditated in caves throughout the area. After spending time there in retreat, the Indian master prophesied that the locale would become a powerful center for religious practice. The treasure revealer (GTER STON) Bdud ’dul rdo rje (Dudul Dorje, 1615–1672) discovered a pilgrimage guide (gnas yig) to the site and identified its geographical features with the body of the goddess VAJRAVĀRĀHĪ. Padma bkod was formally “opened” as a pilgrimage site and place of practice by Sgam po O rgyan ’gro ’dul gling pa (Gampo Orgyan Drodul Lingpa, b. 1757), Rig ’dzin Rdo rje rtog med (Rikdzin Dorje Tokme, 1746–1797), and Chos gling Gar dbang ’chi med rdo rje (Chöling Garwang Chime Dorje, b. 1763). The remote region is famous for its forests and dense jungle wilderness, and the numerous ethnic tribal groups living there. It has served as a safe haven for those fleeing conflict as well as a site for tantric practice. According to a seventeenth-century account, it is associated especially with VAJRAYOGINĪ, with the river representing her central channel (AVADHŪTĪ).

Padma dkar po. (Pema Karpo) (1527–1592). A Tibetan Buddhist master and lineage holder of the ’BRUG PA BKA’ BRGYUD tradition, renowned for his extensive and wide-ranging scholarship. Born in the Kong po region of southern Tibet, as a child he was already recognized as the fourth member in the line of ’BRUG CHEN INCARNATIONS. He became a fully ordained monk and studied widely in the Tibetan traditions of logic and TANTRA. Although famed for his experience in yogic practice and meditation, he also served as a skillful politician and religious administrator. He is perhaps most widely celebrated for his scholarly writings, which include extensive commentaries on traditional doctrinal topics as well as comprehensive historical works on the spread of Buddhism in Tibet, particularly his own ’Brug pa bka’ brgyud sect. His followers referred to him by the title kun mkhyen, “the omniscient,” a testament to his great learning. Padma dkar po was active at the monasteries of previous ’Brug chen incarnations, including the famed twelfth-century institution at RWA LUNG in Gtsang, but he also founded his own monastery Gsang sngags chos gling in 1574 at Rta dbang near the border with Bhutan. Following Padma dkar po’s death, two candidates were pitted against one another as the master’s authentic rebirth and the legitimate successor to the ’Brug chen throne. The outcome of the rivalry was eventually decided by the ruler of central Tibet, the Gtsang pa sde srid; the losing candidate, who had already been installed as the throne holder of Rwa lung Monastery, fled to Bhutan in 1616, where he established himself as the important Bhutanese religious figure ZHABS DRUNG NGAG DBANG RNAM RGYAL.

Padma gling pa. (Pema Lingpa) (1450–1521). An esteemed Bhutanese treasure revealer (GTER STON), famous for unearthing treasure in public and responsible for promulgating numerous important religious traditions, including forms of ritual monastic dance (’CHAM). He is counted as the fourth of the so-called five kingly treasure revealers (GTER STON RGYAL PO LNGA) and the last of the five pure incarnations of the royal princess PADMA GSAL. He is also regarded as the mind incarnation of the translator VAIROCANA and an incarnation of KLONG CHEN RAB ’BYAMS. Padma gling pa was born into a humble family of blacksmiths in the Bum thang region of Bhutan and studied the craft from the age of nine. Many examples of Padma gling pa’s craftsmanship, in the form of swords and chain mail, still exist. Padma gling pa’s life is somewhat unusual in that he did not undertake a traditional course of study with a spiritual master; it is recorded that he once declared, “I have no master and I am not a disciple.” Rather, his religious training was achieved almost entirely through visionary revelation. At the age of twenty-six, he had a vision of PADMASAMBHAVA, who bestowed on him a roster of 108 treasure texts that he would unearth in the future. The next year, amid a large public gathering, he made his first treasure discovery at ME ’BAR MTSHO, a wide pool of water in a nearby river. Surrounded by a multitude of people gathered along the riverside, Padma gling pa dove in the waters holding a burning butter lamp in his hand. When he reemerged, he held a great treasure chest under his arm, and, to the crowd’s amazement, the lamp in his hand was unextinguished; from that point on the pool was called “Burning Flame Lake.” This feat marked the beginning of Padma gling pa’s prolific career as treasure revealer and teacher. Between the years 1501 and 1505, he founded his seat at GTAM ZHING monastery in Bum thang. Padma gling pa composed a lengthy autobiography recording many of his activities in great detail. He was a controversial figure in his time (some of the treasure texts he discovered contain condemnations of those who doubted their authenticity), and the historicity of his deeds has been the subject of scholarly critique. However, Padma gling pa remains an important figure in the religious and cultural life of Bhutan, where he is considered both a saint and a national hero. He never received monastic ordination and fathered several sons who continued to transmit Padma gling pa’s spiritual lineage, especially at SGANG STENG monastery in central Bhutan. Several incarnation lineages of Padma gling pa were also recognized, such as the gsung sprul (“speech incarnation”) based at LHA LUNG Monastery in southern Tibet. Both the sixth DALAI LAMA TSHANGS DBYANGS RGYA MTSHO and the Bhutanese royal family are said to be descendants of Padma gling pa’s familial lineage.

Padma gsal. (Pemasel) (fl. c. eighth century). The daughter of the Tibetan King KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN, to whom PADMASAMBHAVA entrusted a lineage of RDZOGS CHEN instructions known as MKHA’ ’GRO SNYING THIG. She died at the age of eight. When the Tibetan king brought her body before the Indian master at the Brag dmar ke’u tshang (Drakmar Ke’utsang) cave at CHIMS PHU, he asked why someone with the great merit to be both a princess and a disciple of Padmasambhava had to die while still a child. The Indian master revealed she had been a bee who stung one of the four brothers involved in the completion of the great BODHNĀTH STŪPA. Thereafter Padmasambhava miraculously revived her, transmitted the instructions of the Mkha ’gro snying thig, and prophesied that she would reveal the teachings as a treasure (GTER MA) in a future rebirth as PADMA LAS ’BREL RTSAL. Some traditions describe a lineage of five pure incarnations of the royal princess Padma gsal (lha lcam padma gsal gyi dag pa’i skye ba lnga), including several important lamas of the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism:

1. Padma gsal

2. PADMA LAS ’BREL RTSAL

3. Spang sgang pa Rin chen rdo rje (Pang gangpa Rinchen Dorje)

4. KLONG CHEN RAB ’BYAMS

5. PADMA GLING PA

According to some Tibetan sources, however, Padma las ’brel rtsal was the secret name of Spang sgang pa Rin chen rdo rje.

padmakula. (T. padma’i rigs; C. lianhua bu; J. rengebu; K. yŏnhwa pu 蓮華部). In Sanskrit, “lotus family” or “lotus lineage”; one of the three, four, or five buddha families (see PAÑCATATHĀGATA) that occur in the Buddhist TANTRAS. In the lotus family, the chief buddha is AMITĀBHA and the chief bodhisattva is AVALOKITEŚVARA. In the three-family system, associated especially with KRIYĀTANTRA and CARYĀTANTRA, the other two families are the TATHĀGATAKULA and the VAJRAKULA. In the four-family system, associated with YOGATANTRA, the RATNAKULA is added; in the five-family system, associated with ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, the KARMAKULA family is added. Each of the five families is associated with one of the five SKANDHAs, five wisdoms (JÑĀNA), five afflictions (KLEŚA), five elements, and five colors. For the padma family, these are the perception (SAṂJÑĀ) skandha, the wisdom of specific knowledge (PRATYAVEKṢAṆĀJÑĀNA), the affliction of desire, the element fire, and the color red.

Padmapāṇi. (T. Phyag na pad mo; C. Lianhuashou; J. Rengeshu; K. Yŏnhwasu 蓮華手). In Sanskrit, “He Who Holds a Lotus in His Hand,” one of the common forms of AVALOKITEŚVARA, the bodhisattva of compassion. He is a two-armed form of the bodhisattva, holding a lotus blossom (PADMA) or the stem of a lotus flower in one hand, and is often depicted standing. One of the most famous images of Padmapāṇi is found at AJAṆṬĀ.

Padmasambhava. (T. Padma ’byung gnas) (fl. eighth century). Indian Buddhist master and tantric adept widely revered in Tibet under the appellation Guru rin po che, “Precious Guru”; considered to be the “second buddha” by members of the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism, who view him as a founder of their tradition. In Tibetan, he is also known as Padma ’byung gnas (Pemajungne), “the Lotus Born,” which translates his Sanskrit name. It is difficult to assess the many legends surrounding his life and deeds, although the scholarly consensus is that he was a historical figure and did visit Tibet. The earliest reference to him is in the SBA BZHED (a work that purports to be from the eighth century, but is likely later), where he is mentioned as a water diviner and magician, suggesting that he may have been an expert in irrigation, which would have required the ability to subdue local spirits. Two texts in the Tibetan canon are attributed to him. The first is the Man ngag lta ba’i phreng ba, which is a commentary on the thirteenth chapter of the GUHYAGARBHATANTRA. The second is a commentary on the Upāyapāśapadmamālā, a MAHĀYOGA TANTRA. Regardless of his historical status and the duration of his stay in Tibet, the figure of Padmasambhava has played a key role in the narrative of Buddhism’s arrival in Tibet, its establishment in Tibet, and its subsequent transmission to later generations. He is also venerated throughout the Himalayan regions of India, Bhutan, and Nepal and by the Newar Buddhists of the Kathmandu Valley. According to many of his traditional biographies, Padmasambhava was miraculously born in the center of a lotus blossom (PADMA) on Lake Danakośa in the land of OḌḌIYĀNA, a region some scholars associate with the Swat Valley of modern Pakistan. Discovered and raised by King Indrabodhi, he abandoned his royal life to pursue various forms of Buddhist study and practice, culminating in his training as a tantric adept. He journeyed throughout the Himalayan regions of India and Nepal, meeting his first consort MANDĀRAVĀ at Mtsho padma in Himachal Pradesh, and later remaining in prolonged retreat in various locations around the Kathmandu Valley including MĀRATIKA, YANG LE SHOD and the ASURA CAVE. His reputation as an exorcist led to his invitation, at the behest of the Indian scholar ŚĀNTARAKṢITA, to travel to Tibet in order to assist with the construction of BSAM YAS monastery. According to traditional accounts, Padmasambhava subdued and converted the indigenous deities inimical to the spread of Buddhism and, together with Śāntarakṣita and the Tibetan king KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN, established the first Buddhist lineage and monastic center of Tibet. He remained in Tibet as a court priest, and, together with his Tibetan consort YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL, recorded and then concealed numerous teachings as hidden treasure texts (GTER MA), to be revealed by a later succession of masters spiritually linked to Padmasambhava. The Rnying ma sect preserves the corpus of instructions stemming from the master in two classes of materials: those revealed after his passing as treasure texts and those belonging to an unbroken oral tradition (BKA’ MA). It is believed that Padmasambhava departed Tibet for his paradise known as the Glorious Copper-Colored Mountain (ZANGS MDOG DPAL RI), where he continues to reside. From the time of the later dissemination of the doctrine (PHYI DAR) in the eleventh century onwards, numerous biographies of the Indian master have been revealed as treasure texts, including the PADMA BKA’ THANG YIG, BKA’ THANG GSER ’PHRENG, and the BKA’ THANG ZANGS GLING MA. Padmasambhava is the focus of many kinds of ritual activities, including the widely recited “Seven Line Prayer to Padmasambhava” (Tshig ’dun gsol ’debs). The tenth day of each lunar month is dedicated to Padmasambhava, a time when many monasteries, especially those in Bhutan, perform religious dances reverencing the Indian master in his eight manifestations. In iconography, Padmasambhava is depicted in eight forms, known as the guru mtshan brgyad, who represent his eight great deeds. They are Padma rgyal po, Nyi ma ’od zer, Blo ldan mchog sred, Padmasambhava, Shākya seng ge, Padmakara (also known as Sororuhavajra, T. Mtsho skyes rdo rje), Seng ge sgra sgrogs, and RDO RJE GRO LOD.

padmāsana. (T. padma’i gdan; C. lianhua zuo; J. rengeza; K. yŏnhwa chwa 蓮華坐). In Sanskrit, “lotus posture,” a term for the seated posture in which the right foot rests on the left thigh and the left foot rests on top on the right thigh. It is a position predominantly used in Hindu forms of yoga, and in a Buddhist context is often confused with the VAJRAPARYAṄKA (vajra cross-legged posture), where the position of the feet is reversed. See also ĀSANA. ¶ The term padmāsana, in the denotation of “lotus seat,” is also used to designate the lotus-flower base upon which many Buddhist deities stand or sit.

Paegam Sŏngch’ong. (栢庵性聰) (1631–1700). Korean scholar-monk and poet from the mid-Chosŏn dynasty. Born in 1631, he entered the SAṂGHA in 1645, at the age of sixteen, and received the precepts from the monk Ch’wiam (d.u.). He went to Mt. Pangjang (present-day CHIRISAN) and became a disciple of the eminent Sŏn master Ch’wimi Such’o (1590–1668). In 1660, Sŏngch’ong became a lecturer and subsequently traveled from one monastery to the next, including SONGGWANGSA, Chinggwangsa, and SSANGGYESA. He was also a renowned poet and is known to have befriended many famous poets of his time. In 1681, a boat containing more than 190 Buddhist texts, including the Daming Fashu, Huixuan ji, Sidashisuo lu, and Jingtubao shu, was found adrift near Imja Island. Sŏngch’ong was able to acquire these texts, and for the next fifteen years he made over five thousand copies of them. He passed away in 1700, while residing at the hermitage of Sinhŭngam in Ssanggyesa. Sŏngch’ong was also a prolific writer and left many works, including his Ch’imun chip chu (“Commentary on the ZIMEN JINGXUN”), Chŏngt’obosŏ, Paegam chip, and Chihŏm ki.

Paegun Kyŏnghan. (白雲景閑) (1299–1374). Korean SŎN master in the Imje (C. LINJI ZONG) lineage, who is known as one of the three great Sŏn masters of the late-Koryŏ dynasty, along with T’AEGO POU (1301–1376) and NAONG HYEGŬN (1320–1376). After entering the monastery at a young age, Kyŏnghan eventually traveled to Yuan-dynasty China in 1351, where he studied under the Chan master Shiwu Qinggong (1272–1352), a Linji-Chan teacher from whom he received dharma transmission, and under the Indian monk ZHIKONG CHANXIAN, who later came to live and teach in Korea. After awakening in 1353, Kyŏnghan returned to Korea, residing at An’guksa and Sin’gwangsa, both in Hwanghae province, and later at Ch’wiamsa in Yŏju, where he passed away in 1374. Kyŏnghan’s record of dharma talks, Paegun hwasang ŏrok (“Discourse Records of the Master Paegun”), in two rolls, was compiled posthumously by his disciple Sŏkch’an. Kyŏnghan is also the author of the PULCHO CHIKCHI SIMCH’E YOJŎL, an anthology of the biographies and teachings of the Buddhist patriarchs and Sŏn masters.

Paegyangsa. (白羊寺). In Korean, “White Ram Monastery”; the eighteenth district monastery (PONSA) of the contemporary CHOGYE CHONG of Korean Buddhism, located on Paegam (White Cliff) Mountain in South Chŏlla province. The monastery was founded in 632 by the Paekche monk Yŏhwan (d.u.) and was originally called Paegamsa; it was renamed Chŏngt’osa after a reconstruction project during the Koryŏ dynasty in 1034. Its current name of Paegyangsa comes from a Koryŏ-era legend. Sometime during the reign of King Sŏnjo of the Chosŏn dynasty (r. 1567–1607), a teacher now known as Hwanyang (d.u., lit. “Goat Caller”) was said to have been leading a recitation assembly on the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”), when a white ram came down out of the mountains to listen to the monks recite the SŪTRA. Once the event was over, the ram appeared to Hwanyang in a dream and explained that he had been reborn as a ram for transgressions he had committed in heaven; after hearing the master’s sermon, however, he was redeemed and was able to take rebirth once again as a divinity (DEVA). The next day the body of the ram was found on the monastery grounds, and Paegyangsa received the name by which it has been known ever since. Paegyangsa is guarded by the Gate of the Four Heavenly Kings (Sach’ŏnwang mun). The main shrine hall (TAEUNG CHŎN) is unusually located to the right of the gate, rather than centered in the compound, and an eight-story stone STŪPA is located behind the main hall, rather than in front of it. The oldest extant building on the campus is the Kŭngnak pojŏn, or SUKHĀVATĪ hall, the construction of which was sponsored by the queen-consort of the Chosŏn king Chungjong (r. 1506–1544). The main shrine hall, reconstructed in 1917 by the prominent Buddhist reformer MANAM CHONGHŎN (1876–1957), is dedicated to ŚĀKYAMUNI Buddha, and enshrines an image of Śākyamuni flanked by the bodhisattvas MAÑJUŚRĪ and SAMANTABHADRA. Much of the monastery burned in 1950 during the Korean War, and reconstruction extended into the 1990s. In 1996, Paegyangsa was elevated to the status of an ecumenical monastery (CH’ONGNIM), and is one of the five such centers in the contemporary Chogye order, which are expected to provide training in the full range of practices that exemplify the major strands of the Korean Buddhist tradition; the monastery is thus also known as the Kobul Ch’ongnim.

Paekkok Ch’ŏnŭng. (白谷處能) (1617–1680). Korean monk of the Chosŏn dynasty, also known as Sinsu. Ch’ŏnŭng received a traditional Confucian education from Ŭihyŏn (d.u.) and subsequently became a monk in 1631. He returned to Seoul a few years later and continued to study the Confucian classics from a Confucian scholar by the name of Sin Iksŏng. He later went to the monastery of SSANGGYESA in CHIRISAN and became the disciple of the Sŏn master PYŎGAM KAKSŎNG, under whom he studied for the next twenty-three years. In 1680, while lecturing at KŬMSANSA, he passed away at the age of sixty-four. Ch’ŏnŭng was particularly renowned for his writing and poetry, and maintained a close relationship with the leading Confucian scholars at the time. As a response to King Hyŏnjong’s (r. 1660–1674) suppression of Buddhism, Ch’ŏnŭng submitted to the court the Kanp’ye Sŏkkyo so (“Remonstration against the Ruination of Śākyamuni’s Teachings”), a critical response to the Confucian criticisms of Buddhism that were prevalent during that period. His writings can also be found in the Paekkok chip and Imsŏngdang taesa haengjang. The Paekkok chip is a collection of his poems and the biographies, stele inscriptions, and records of other monks. The Kanp’ye Sŏkkyo so can also be found in the Paekkok chip. He also authored the Imsŏngdang taesa haengjang, a record of the life of the Sŏn master Imsŏng Ch’ungŏn (1567–1638).

Paekp’a Kŭngsŏn. (白坡亘璇) (1767–1852). Korean SŎN master of the Chosŏn dynasty, also known as Kusan. Paekp’a was a native of Mujang in present-day North Chŏlla province. In 1778, he was ordained by a certain Sihŏn (d.u.) at the nearby monastery of Sŏnŭnsa. In 1790, he moved from his original residence at the hermitage of Yongmunam on Mt. Ch’o to the Yŏngwŏnam on Mt. Pangchang, where he studied under the renowned Hwaŏm chong (C. HUAYAN ZONG) master, Sŏlp’a Sangŏn (1707–1791). A year before Sangŏn passed away, Kŭngsŏn received the full monastic precepts from him. Paekp’a established himself at the famous hermitage of Unmunam and attracted many students. He studied the teachings of the renowned CHAN master XUEFENG YICUN at Mt. Yŏnggu and acquired the name Paekp’a. In order to practice Sŏn meditation, he returned to Yongmunam and revived POJO CHINUL’s Samādhi and Prajñā Society (CHŎNGHYE KYŎLSA). He subsequently returned to Unmunam to compile his influential treatise Sŏnmun sugyŏng (“Hand Mirror of the Sŏn School”), which was later the subject of a famous critique by the Sŏn master CH’OŬI ŬISUN (1786–1866) in his Sŏnmun sabyŏn manŏ (“Prolix Words on Four Distinctive Types in the Sŏn School”). Paekp’a was a staunch promoter of Sŏn, who sought to resolve what he perceived to be a fundamental internal tension within the Sŏn tradition: the radical subitism of the Imje chong (LINJI ZONG), which advocated the simultaneity of sudden awakening (DUNWU) and cultivation (K. tono tonsu; C. dunwu dunxiu), and the more moderate subitism of the Heze zong and POJO CHINUL (1158–1210), which advocated sudden awakening followed by gradual cultivation (K. tono chŏmsu; C. DUNWU JIANXIU). Paekp’a’s goal was to demonstrate how the subitist “questioning meditation” (K. kanhwa Sŏn; C. KANHUA CHAN) that became emblematic of both the Linji zong and the Korean Sŏn tradition after Chinul could be reconciled with Korean Buddhism’s preferred soteriological schema of moderate subitism. By contrast, Ch’oŭi was more concerned with exploring deeper levels of accommodation between Sŏn practice and Buddhist doctrinal teachings (KYO), by demonstrating the fundamental unity of these two major strands of the religion. Their respective positions set the stage for subsequent debates during the late Chosŏn dynasty over whether Korean Buddhism was an exclusively Sŏn, or a broader ecumenical, tradition, an identity debate that continues into the present day. Kŭngsŏn’s many writings also include the Susŏn kyŏlsamun, T’aegoamga kwasŏk, Sikchisŏl, Ojong kangyo sagi, Sŏnyo ki, and Chakpŏp kwigam.

Pagan. (Bagan). Capital of the first Burmese (Myanmar) empire (1044–c. 1287), located near the confluence of the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) and Chindwin rivers in the middle of Burma’s dry zone. The center of a classic hydraulic civilization, Pagan supported a large population of peasant farmers, specialized laborers, and religious and political elites through maintenance of elaborate irrigation works in nearby Kyaukse. Also known as Arimaddanapura, or “Crusher of Enemies,” Pagan began as a cluster of nineteen villages that coalesced into a fortified city-state by the ninth century. Pagan rose in importance in the vacuum left by the collapse of the Pyu kingdom of Śrīkṣetra, which succumbed to military pressure from Nanchao in 832 CE. Invigorated by the cultural and technological advancements brought by Pyu refugees, Pagan emerged as an empire in the eleventh century under the military leadership of King ANAWRAHTA (r. 1044–1077), who united Burma for the first time. His domain extended from the borders of Nanchao in the north to the maritime regions of Bassein, Thaton, and the Tenasserim peninsula in the south. Later chronicles credit Anawrahta with adopting THERAVĀDA Buddhism as the official religion of his empire, a religion he acquired as war booty from his conquest of the Mon kingdom of Thaton. While details of the account are doubtful, Pagan became a stronghold of the Pāli Buddhist tradition, whence it spread to other parts of Southeast Asia. Anawrahta began an extensive program of temple building that lasted till the Mongol invasion of 1287. Pagan’s royalty and aristocracy built thousands of pagodas, temples, monasteries, and libraries within the environs of the city, of which 2,217 monuments survive, scattered across an area of approximately forty square miles. Like the Pyu kingdom before it, Pagan received cultural influences from South India, Bengal, and Sri Lanka, all of which are reflected in varying degrees in the city’s architecture and plastic arts. Beginning in the twelfth century, Pagan extended patronage to the reformed Sinhalese Theravāda Buddhism imported from Sri Lanka, which flourished alongside the native “unreformed” Burmese Theravāda tradition until the end of the empire. Under later dynasties, reformed Theravāda Buddhism became the dominant religion of Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. Theravāda scholarship flourished at Pagan. Major works of the period include the Pāli grammars Saddanīti, Suttaniddesa and Nyāsa, and treatises on ABHIDHAMMA such as Saṅkhepavaṇṇanā, Nāmācāradīpanī, Mātikatthadīpanī, Visuddhimaggagaṇṭhi and Abhidhammatthasaṅgahaṭīkā.

pagoda. Portuguese term adapted into English, probably derived from the Sanskrit BHAGAVAT (“blessed,” “fortunate”) or the Persian but kadah (“idol house”); the term was first used by Portuguese explorers to describe Indian temples in general. The term was subsequently adopted by the British and eventually came to take on the specific meaning of the multistoried tower found in Buddhist monastic complexes, especially those in East Asia. In fact, the “pagoda” is a STŪPA, or reliquary, housing a relic (DHĀTU; ŚARĪRA) of the Buddha or a Buddhist saint. In East Asia, the finial or decorative ornament atop the hemispherical Indian stūpa evolved into a more prominent and elongated form, until the stūpa itself became a tower several stories tall, in some cases each story having it own projecting roof. See also CAITYA.

paiśunya. (P. pisuṇa; T. phra ma; C. lijianyu; J. rikengo; K. iganŏ 離間語). In Sanskrit, “slander,” or “malicious speech” (and sometimes rendered as “backbiting”); one of the ten unwholesome courses of action (daśākuśalakarmapatha; see KARMAPATHA) that lead to suffering in the future; also written as paiśunyavāda (P. pisuṇavācā). These ten unwholesome actions are classified into three negative physical deeds, four negative verbal deeds, and three negative verbal deeds. Slander falls into the second category, together with lying (mṛṣāvāda), offensive or harsh speech (PĀRUṢYA), and frivolous prattle (SAṂBHINNAPRALĀPA). Slander is speech intended to cause dissension and divisiveness between two parties. It has the effect of creating dissension between friends or greater dissension between enemies. It may be motivated by greed, hatred, or ignorance.

Pak Chungbin. (朴重彬) (1891–1943). Founder of the Korean new religion of WŎNBULGYO; also known by his cognomen SOT’AESAN. He is said to have begun his quest to discover the fundamental principle of the universe and human life at the age of seven and continued ascetic training for about twenty years. Finally, in 1916 at the age of twenty-six, Sot’aesan is said to have attained a personal enlightenment, which is considered the founding year of his religion. Since Sot’aesan recognized compelling parallels between his own experience and the description of enlightenment in Buddhism, he first called his religious organization the Pulpŏp Yŏn’guhoe (Society for the Study of the BUDDHADHARMA); later, the religion adopted the formal name of Wŏnbulgyo (lit. Consummate Buddhism). He presented his enlightenment, which he symbolized with the “one circle image” (IRWŎNSANG), as the criterion of religious belief and practice by proclaiming the “cardinal tenet of one circle” (irwŏn chongji). Along with organizing his religion’s fundamental tenets and building its institutional base, he and his followers also worked to improve the ordinary life of his followers, by establishing thrift and savings institutions and engaging in farming and land reclamation projects. The three foundational religious activities of edification (kyohwa), education (kyoyuk), and public service (chasŏn) continue to be emblematic of Wŏnbulgyo practice. Sot’aesan published in 1943 the Wŏnbulgyo chŏngjŏn (“Principal Book of Wŏn Buddhism”), a primer of the basic tenets of Wŏnbulgyo, which is one of the two representative scriptures of the religion, along with the Taejonggyŏng (“Discourses of the Founding Master”), the dialogues and teachings of Sot’aesan, published in 1962 by his successor Chŏngsan Song Kyu (1900–1962). Sot’aesan died in 1943 at the age of fifty-three, after delivering his last lecture, entitled “The Truth of Birth and Death” (Saengsa ŭi chilli).

pakṣa. (T. phyogs). In Sanskrit, “side” or “class”; a technical term in in Buddhist logic (HETUVIDYĀ) used to designate the “logical subject.” Pakṣa is related to two other terms, SAPAKṢA (similar instance), and VIPAKṢA (dissimilar instance): for example, in the syllogism (PRAYOGA) “sound is impermanent because it is produced,” sound is the pakṣa, or logical subject; a pot is sapakṣa (a similar instance or in the similar class), and space is vipakṣa (a dissimilar instance or in the dissimilar class). The word is also found in a number of compounds in its basic denotation of side or class, e.g. PRATIPAKṢA, PAKṢADHARMA, bodhipakṣa (see BODHIPĀKṢIKADHARMA). See also PRAYOGA.

pakṣadharma. (T. phyogs chos; C. zongfa; J. shūhō/shūbō; K. chongpŏp 宗法). In Sanskrit, lit. “property of the position,” a term in Buddhist logic that designates one of the qualities of a correct syllogism (PRAYOGA). A syllogism is composed of three parts, the subject (dharmin), the property being proved (SĀDHYADHARMA), and the reason (HETU or LIṄGA). In the syllogism “Sound is impermanent because of being produced,” the subject is sound, the property being proved is impermanence, and the reason is “being produced.” In order for the syllogism to be correct, three relations must exist among the three components of the syllogism: (1) the reason must be a property (DHARMA) of the subject, also called the “position” (PAKṢA); (2) there must be a relationship of pervasion (VYĀPTI) between the reason and the property being proved, such that whatever is the reason is necessarily the property being proved; and (3) there must be a relationship of reverse pervasion between the property and the reason such that whatever is not the property is necessarily not the reason. In the example, the syllogism “Sound is impermanent because of being produced” is correct because the reason (being produced) is a quality of the subject (sound), there is pervasion in the sense that whatever is produced is necessarily impermanent, and there is reverse pervasion because whatever is permanent is necessarily not produced. In Tibetan oral debate, the defender of a position is traditionally allowed only three answers to a position stated by the opponent; the position is typically stated in the form of a consequence (PRASAṄGA) rather than a syllogism (prayoga), but the mechanics of the statement are the same. The defender may say, “I accept” (’dod), meaning that he agrees that the property being proved is a property of the subject. The defender may say, “There is no pervasion” (ma khyab), meaning that whatever is the reason is not necessarily the property being proved. Or he may say, “The reason is not established” (rtags ma sgrub), meaning that the reason is not in fact a property of the position.

P’algwanhoe. (八關會). In Korean, “Eight-Restrictions Festival,” a Korean variant of the pan-Buddhistic BAGUAN ZHAI (eight-restrictions feast). The Korean form is a large winter festival of thanksgiving held over two days during full-moon day of the eleventh month, and has little to do with the baguan zhai’s origins in the Buddhist UPOṢADHA observance. The Korean version of this festival was sponsored by the royal court and would begin with the king and his ministers exchanging formal greetings, followed by a series of plays that depicted legends of the Silla dynasty. The festival also propitiated some of the important heavenly deities and autochthonous spirits of the mountains and rivers. Spirits of deceased heroes of the state were also commemorated, a practice that seems to stem from the origins of this festival in an earlier Silla ritual to appease the spirits of fallen warriors. This festival therefore combined various aspects of indigenous Korean cultural practice with an imported Buddhist ritual targeting the laity.

Pāli. [alt. Pāḷi]. The term used to designate a dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan, which serves as the canonical language of the THERAVĀDA school of mainstream Buddhism. The term pāli does not, however, appear with this denotation in the Theravāda canon, where instead it refers to a canonical text or passage, in distinction to a commentary (AṬṬHAKATHĀ) on such a passage. By extension, then, in modern usage in both Southeast Asian nations and the West, Pāli has come to designate the language in which those passages and their commentaries are written. According to the tradition, the Buddha spoke Māgadhī, the dialect of the Indian state of MAGADHA. Although no specimens of Māgadhī survive from the period before AŚOKA, linguists have determined that it differed from Pāli. It appears that the Buddha did not teach in Sanskrit but instead spoke in the local dialects of the regions of northern India in which he preached, one dialect of which may have been Māgadhī. It is assumed that, after his death, his various teachings were gathered and then regularized into an ecclesiastical language that could be comprehended and recited by monastic groups across a wide region. It appears that, after the reign of King Aśoka, some Buddhist schools translated the Buddha’s teachings into Sanskrit while others used Pāli, but later scholastic Pāli was also influenced by Sanskrit. According to Theravāda tradition, the Buddha’s teachings were first recorded in writing in Pāli, in Sri Lanka rather than India, at the end the first century BCE. Although these texts do not survive, scholars speculate that the Pāli used in those recensions was generally equivalent to what is used in the canon as it is preserved today. Later Pāli incorporates variant vocabulary that derives in part from the local language—thus, for example, Pāli texts composed in Thailand often show the influence of Thai vernacular. There is no single script for Pāli, with the local script, including, for example, Old Mon, Khmer, Sinhalese, Burmese, Thai, and now Romanization, being employed to write the language.

Pali Text Society. An organization founded in 1881 by the British PĀLI specialist THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS (1843–1922), which, according to Rhys Davids’ mission statement, sought “to foster and promote the study of Pali texts.” The Pali Text Society (PTS) was one response to Buddhism’s growing popularity in the West in the mid- to late-nineteenth century, and the society played an essential role in sponsoring both the production of critical editions of Pāli texts and their translation into English. With the help of scholars around the world, the PTS published critical, Romanized editions of most of the Pāli Canon over the first three decades of its existence; this massive project was followed with editions of important commentarial literature and an English translation series. The PTS also started the Journal of the Pali Text Society, which continues to publish articles on both Pāli Buddhism and broader topics in Buddhist Studies. The group also published primers for learning the Pāli language and such important reference works as the Society’s Pali-English Dictionary, begun by Rhys Davids and finished by his student William Stede, which is now available in a searchable electronic format online. By the time of Rhys Davids’ death in 1922, the PTS had published almost thirty thousand pages of Romanized and translated Pāli materials, as well as a host of articles and essays written by Western scholars. Over the years, presidents of the PTS have included such distinguished Pāli scholars as CAROLINE A. F. RHYS DAVIDS (1858–1942), ISALINE BLEW HORNER, and K. R. Norman. In 1994, the PTS began the Fragile Palm Leaves project to collect, identify, catalogue, preserve, and copy a number of rare Pāli manuscripts that survive in the Southeast Asian Buddhist traditions.

Pallava dynasty. A line of hereditary rulers who governed the southeastern coast of India from their capital Kāñcī (or Kāñcīpuram) from the fourth through the ninth centuries CE. The Pallavas maintained important maritime trade links with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia and were strong patrons of the JAINA religion through the sixth century, after which they shifted their allegiance to Śaivism. The Pallava kings were patrons of the arts, and their kingdom is renowned for its literature, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The most notable building of the Pallava period is the sculptured stone Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram dedicated to Śiva. While the capital of an increasingly Hindu-oriented kingdom, Kāñcī remained throughout the Pallava period an important Buddhist center. Its monasteries supported various schools of Buddhism, including STHAVIRANIKĀYA and VĀTSĪPUTRĪYA, and exerted a particularly strong influence on the Buddhism of Śrīkṣetra, the contemporary Pyu kingdom of Burma. Excavations at Pyu sites uncovered numerous Pāli and Sanskrit inscriptions written in Pallava script. The YOGĀCĀRA masters DIGNĀGA and DHARMAPĀLA were from Kāñcī and its environs, and the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG visited the city in 642 and described a large walled monastery to the south of the city, which contained an Aśokan STŪPA one hundred feet tall, marking the spot where the Buddha had defeated a non-Buddhist (TĪRTHIKA). A formidable military power, the Pallavas were regularly at war with the Chalukyas of Badami. In 897, they fell to the Cōḷas, whose rising empire was to dominate South India for the next several centuries.

P’alman taejanggyŏng. (K) (八萬大藏經). In Korean, “The Scriptures of the Great Repository in Eighty Thousand [Xylographs],” the popular name of the second Koryŏ edition of the Buddhist canon (K. taejanggyŏng; C. DAZANGJING), now housed at the monastery of HAEINSA. See KORYŎ TAEJANGGYŎNG.

Palsim suhaeng chang. (發心修行章). In Korean, “Arouse Your Mind and Practice,” an edifying tract by the Buddhist exegete and propagator WŎNHYO (617–686), which remains one of the most widely read of all Korean Buddhist works. The Palsim suhaeng chang is a clarion call to Buddhist practice, which warns about the dangers of desire and the value of studying the dharma. Even those who cannot enter the mountains and cultivate the mind in solitude should still apply themselves to cultivating virtuous courses of action (KUŚALA-KARMAPATHA). The verses end with a lament about the inevitability of death and the need to practice now before age robs people of their vitality. This text exemplifies Wŏnhyo’s personal commitment to disseminating Buddhism among the people of Silla Korea and was probably written sometime during his most active period of propagation, perhaps between 677 and 684. During the middle of the Chosŏn dynasty (1392–1910), the Palsim suhaeng chang was included in the CH’OBALSIM CHAGYŎNG MUN (“Personal Admonitions to Neophytes Who Have First Aroused Their Minds”), a primer of three short texts used to train Korean postulants (K. haengja; C. XINGZHE) and novices in the basics of Buddhist morality and daily practice.

pañcabala. (T. stobs lnga; C. wuli; J. goriki; K. oryŏk 五力). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “five powers,” (1) faith (ŚRADDHĀ), (2) effort (VĪRYA), (3) mindfulness (SMṚTI), (4) concentration (SAMĀDHI), and (5) wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). These five are essential to progress on the path, serving as antidotes to unwholesome states of mind, and specifically to the five hindrances (NĪVARAṆA) that obstruct the five factors of meditative absorption (DHYĀNĀṄGA): faith serves as an antidote to ill will (VYĀPĀDA); effort serves as an antidote to sloth and torpor (STYĀNĀ–MIDDHA); mindfulness serves as an antidote to either heedlessness (APRAMĀDA) or sensual desire (KĀMACCHANDA); samādhi serves as an antidote to distraction or restlessness and worry (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA); and wisdom serves as an antidote to skeptical doubt (VICIKITSĀ). In the SAṂYUTTANIKĀYA, the Buddha explains that faith is faith in the Buddha’s enlightenment; effort is effort at the four exertions (to prevent the arising of unwholesome states that have not yet arisen, to abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen, to create wholesome states that have not yet arisen, and to maintain wholesome states that have already arisen); mindfulness is the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness (P. SATIPAṬṬHĀNA, Skt. SMṚTYUPASTĀNA); concentration is achievement of the four dhyānas; and wisdom is discerning the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni). The five powers constitute five of the thirty-seven aspects of enlightenment (BODHIPĀKṢIKADHARMA). In the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ literature, they are described as five states achieved on the forbearance (KṢĀNTI) and highest worldly dharmas (LAUKIKĀGRADHARMA) levels of the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA; see NIRVEDHABHĀGĪYA). They are preceded on the heat (ŪṢMAN) and peak (MŪRDHAN) levels by the five same factors at a lesser stage of development; there they are called the “five faculties,” or “dominants” (PAÑCENDRIYA).

pañcacakṣus. (P. pañcacakkhu; T. spyan lnga; C. wuyan; J. gogen; K. oan 五眼). In Sanskrit, “five eyes,” referring to five specific sorts of vision. In Pāli texts they are all associated with the vision of a buddha; in MAHĀYĀNA texts, the five eyes open at higher and higher stages of practice; they overlap with the five (or six) superknowledges (ABHIJÑĀ). The MĀṂSACAKṢUS (fleshly eye) is a VIPĀKAPHALA (maturation result) restricted in its range to the sight of the particular human, animal, or deity that possesses it. (In the case of vultures, for example, it is up to a hundred miles or so; in the case of deities it may be the entire cosmos.) The DIVYACAKṢUS (heavenly eye) sees the death and rebirth of all beings; the PRAJÑĀCAKṢUS (wisdom eye) knows all conditioned (SAṂSKṚTA) and unconditioned (ASAṂSKṚTA) dharmas and is free from all projections; the DHARMACAKṢUS (dharma eye) knows the attainments of all noble persons, from stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) up to buddha; and the BUDDHACAKṢUS (buddha eye) sees all dharmas in the full awakening of final enlightenment. In place of dharmacakṣus, Pāli lists have the samantacakkhu (all-seeing eye).

pañcagati. (T. ’gro ba lnga; C. wudao/wuqu; J. godō/goshu; K. odo/och’wi 五道/五趣). In Sanskrit, the “five destinies” or places of rebirth in SAṂSĀRA; in descending order: divinities (DEVA), humans (MANUṢYA), animals (TIRYAK), ghosts (PRETA), and hell denizens (NĀRAKA). In other expositions of the places of rebirth, a sixth is often added, that of the ASURA, or demigods. See GATI.

pañcajñāna. (T. ye shes lnga; C. wuzhi; J. gochi; K. oji 五智). In Sanskrit, “five wisdoms,” “five knowledges”; five aspects of the perfect enlightenment (BODHI) of the buddhas, according to the MAHĀYĀNA tradition. They are (1) the wisdom of the DHARMADHĀTU (DHARMADHĀTUJÑĀNA), (2) the mirrorlike wisdom (ĀDARŚAJÑĀNA), (3) the wisdom of equality or impartiality (SAMATĀJÑĀNA), (4) the wisdom of specific knowledge (PRATYAVEKṢAṆAJÑĀNA), and (5) the wisdom of accomplishing what was to be done (KṚTYĀNUṢṬHĀNAJÑĀNA). They are important especially in YOGĀCĀRA, where it is said, for example, that the foundational storehouse consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA) is transformed into the mirrorlike wisdom, and the afflicted mind (KLIṢṬAMANAS) is transformed into the wisdom of equality. In tantric Buddhism, the five wisdoms are associated with the five buddhas (PAÑCATATHĀGATA): VAIROCANA, AKṢOBHYA, RATNASAMBHAVA, AMITĀBHA, and AMOGHASIDDHI, respectively. It is also said that, through the practice of the tantric path, the five KLEŚAs of delusion or obscuration (MOHA), hatred (DVEṢA), pride (MĀNA), desire (RĀGA), and jealousy (ĪRṢYĀ) are transformed into the five wisdoms in the order listed above.

pañcakāmaguṇa. (T. ’dod yon sna lnga; C. wumiaoyu; J. gomyōyoku; K. omyoyok 五妙欲). In Sanskrit and Pāli, the “five strands of desire,” the five qualities of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU): viz., pleasing visual objects, sounds, fragrances, tastes, and tangible objects. It is through attachment to these five that beings are reborn in the sensuous realm and it is in turn by giving up these attachments that beings are able to develop meditative absorption (DHYĀNA) and be reborn in the subtle-materiality realm (RŪPADHĀTU) and the immaterial realm (ĀRŪPYADHĀTU).

pañcakaṣāya. (T. snyigs ma lnga; C. wuzhuo; J. gojoku; K. ot’ak 五濁). In Sanskrit, lit. “five turbidities,” the “five degenerations” that are said to be signs of the degenerate age of the dharma (SADDHARMAVIPRALOPA). These five are said to mark the period in the cosmic cycle when the human life span is less than one hundred years and more than ten years. The five are (1) degeneration of life span (āyuḥkaṣāya) because the life span is short during this period; (2) degeneration of views (dṛṣṭikaṣāya) because wrong views (DṚṢṬI) are prevalent; (3) degeneration of afflictions (kleśakaṣāya) because the afflictions (KLEŚA) become worse; (4) degeneration of sentient beings (sattvakaṣāya) because those beings are mentally and physically inferior; and (5) degeneration of the eon (kalpakaṣāya) because the world and environment worsen. A buddha does not appear in the world during a period marked by the five degenerations.

pañcakrama. (T. rim lnga; C. wucidi; J. goshidai; K. och’aje 五次第). In Sanskrit, “five stages,” the five stages of the completion stage (NIṢPANNAKRAMA) of the ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA path according to the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA. The five stages are (1) vajra repetition (vajrājāpa), (2) purification of consciousness (cittaviśuddhi), (3) self-empowerment (svādhiṣṭhāna), (4) enlightenment (abhisaṃbodhi), and (5) union (yuganaddha). ¶ Pañcakrama is also the title of a text attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA on the five stages according to the Guhyasamājatantra. Scholars attribute this to the “tantric Nāgārjuna,” and not to the MADHYAMAKA master, although, according to the Tibetan tradition, Nāgārjuna lived for six hundred years and thus composed works on tantra. Together with ĀRYADEVA’s commentary, the Caryāmelāpakapradīpa, the pañcakrama provides one of the most influential interpretive systems for an anuttarayogatantra cycle.

pañcakula. (T. rigs lnga; C. wubu; J. gobu; K. obu 五部). In Sanskrit, “five lineages” or “five families”; referring to the five buddha families of tantric Buddhism. The five are the TATHĀGATA, VAJRA, PADMA, RATNA, and KARMAN families. The concept of buddha families began to be formulated with the onset of the MAHĀYĀNA, likely rooted in earlier Buddhist tendencies to divide practitioners, scripture, deities, and the like into different “families” (GOTRA or KULA). One of the earliest expressions of this was the TRIKULA system, in which VAJRASATTVA is the buddha of VAJRAKULA, VAIROCANA belongs to the TATHĀGATAKULA, and AVALOKITEŚVARA belongs to the PADMAKULA. In the fivefold system, VAIROCANA, AKṢOBHYA, AMITĀBHA, RATNASAMBHAVA, and AMOGHASIDDHI are the buddhas of the tathāgata, vajra, padma, ratna and karman families, respectively. The five buddhas were seen as DHARMAKĀYA buddhas, with the number five providing a number of homologies, including with the five aggregates, the five poisons, the five wisdoms, the five colors, and the five elements. The number five was also important for the MAṆḌALA, with one buddha holding the central position, and the other four in the cardinal directions.

pañcamārga. (T. lam lnga; C. wuwei; J. goi; K. owi 五位). In Sanskrit, “five paths,” the most common description of the path to enlightenment in Sanskrit Buddhism: (1) the path of accumulation (SAṂBHĀRAMĀRGA), (2) the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA), (3) the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA), (4) the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA), and (5) the adept path, lit., “the path where there is nothing more to learn” (AŚAIKṢAMĀRGA). These five paths are progressive, moving the practitioner sequentially from ordinary existence towards enlightenment and complete liberation from suffering. This system is elaborated especially in SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA materials, as well as in the YOGĀCĀRA school of the MAHĀYĀNA. Depending on the source in which it is discussed, the pañcamārga can therefore be deployed to describe the spiritual development culminating in the rank of ARHAT or culminating in the rank of buddha. The general features of each of the five stages are as follows. ¶ The first is the “path of accumulation” or “equipment” (saṃbhāramārga), wherein the practitioner develops a small degree of three prerequisite qualities for spiritual advancement: morality (ŚĪLA) by way of the basic precepts, merit (PUṆYA) by way of veneration, and concentration (SAMĀDHI). The path of accumulation marks the beginning of the religious life. ¶ In the second “path of preparation” (prayogamārga), the practitioner continues to cultivate those qualities developed in the first path, but also undertakes a more stringent cultivation of concentration (samādhi) through the practice of calmness (ŚAMATHA); he also begins the cultivation of wisdom (PRAJÑĀ) through the practice of insight (VIPAŚYANĀ). ¶ With the third path, the “path of vision” (darśanamārga), the practitioner comes to a direct perception of the true nature of reality as it is. This reality may be described in terms of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni) and/or emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ). In the Yogācāra school, this path is understood as the realization that subject and object derive from the same source and a subsequent perception of phenomenal objects without the intervention of conventional labels. The darśanamārga is of particular importance because it typically marks the end of the mundane path of training and the beginning of the supramundane path of sanctity; thus, it is upon entering the path of vision that one becomes a noble person (ĀRYA). In abhidharma models, the path of vision corresponds to the stage of stream-entry (SROTAĀPANNA); in later Mahāyāna models, attainment of this path marks the first stage (BHŪMI) of the bodhisattva path. ¶ The fourth path, the “path of cultivation” or “development” (bhāvanāmārga), involves the reinforcement and deepening of the insights developed in the path of vision. This cultivation is accomplished by advanced stages of meditation, through which one eliminates the most subtle and deep-rooted afflictions (KLEŚA). The various schools delineate the meditative practices involved in this path in a variety of ways. The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA, for example, schematizes this path both in terms of the nature or object of the meditation and in terms of the type of affliction that is abandoned during practice. ¶ Finally, the fifth stage, the adept path, lit., the “path where there is nothing more to learn” or the “path where no further training is necessary” (aśaikṣamārga), is synonymous with the soteriological goal, whether that is the state of an arhat or a buddha. With the consummation of the path of cultivation, the adept achieves the “adamantine-like concentration” (VAJROPAMASAMĀDHI), which leads to the permanent destruction of even the subtlest and most persistent of the ten fetters (SAṂYOJANA), resulting in the “knowledge of cessation” (KṢAYAJÑĀNA) and in some presentations an accompanying “knowledge of nonproduction” (ANUTPĀDAJÑĀNA), viz., the knowledges that the fetters were destroyed and could never again recur. With the attainment of this path, the practitioner has nothing more he needs to learn and is freed from the possibility of any further rebirth due to the causal force of KARMAN. This final path is also sometimes referred to as the NIṢṬHĀMĀRGA, or “path of completion.” All those proceeding to a state of liberation (VIMOKṢA), whether as an arhat or as a buddha, are said to traverse these five paths. See also ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA; VIMOKṢAMĀRGA.

pañcāmṛta. (T. bdud rtsi lnga). In Sanskrit, the “five ambrosias,” one of the more graphic examples of the inversion of purity and pollution in the Buddhist TANTRAs. The five ambrosias are feces, urine, semen, menstrual blood, and marrow. In the ANUTTARAYOGATANTRAs, it is said that an advanced YOGIN is able to transform these five polluting substances into five types of ambrosia, which represent the five buddhas (PAÑCATATHĀGATA): VAIROCANA, AKṢOBHYA, AMITĀBHA, RATNASAMBHAVA, and AMOGHASIDDHI. Once purified, the five ambrosias can then be ingested as a form of worshipping the five buddhas and as a means of speeding the attainment of the five wisdoms (PAÑCAJÑĀNA): (1) the wisdom of the DHARMADHĀTU (DHARMADHĀTUJÑĀNA), (2) the mirrorlike wisdom (ĀDARŚAJÑĀNA), (3) the wisdom of equality (SAMATĀJÑĀNA), (4) the wisdom of specific knowledge (PRATYAVEKṢAṆĀJÑĀNA), and (5) the wisdom of accomplishing activities (KṚTYĀNUṢṬHĀNAJÑĀNA).

pañcānantarya. (P. pañcānantariya; T. mtsham med lnga; C. wu wujian ye; J. gomukengō; K. o muganŏp 五無間業). In Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, “five acts of immediate consequence” (ĀNANTARYAKARMAN) or “five great misdeeds,” the worst moral offenses that one can commit. The lists vary slightly from source to source, but typically include: (1) patricide, (2) matricide, (3) killing an ARHAT, (4) spilling the blood of a buddha, and (5) causing schism in the monastic community (SAṂGHABHEDA). Despite whatever wholesome actions one may perform afterwards, after death, these deeds result in the “immediate retribution” of rebirth in the AVĪCI hell. In the SĀMAÑÑAPHALASUTTA of the Pāli canon, King Ajātasattu (AJĀTAŚATRU) admits to killing his father, the former king BIMBISĀRA. The Buddha remarks that this action is what keeps King Ajātasattu from fully realizing the fruits of hearing the DHARMA. However, the most notorious of those who have committed these actions is DEVADATTA, the Buddha’s own cousin, who is infamous for attempting to kill the Buddha (and in one case wounding him), murdering the arhat UTPALAVARṆĀ, and then causing a schism in the saṃgha. As a result of these deeds, the earth opened up and Devadatta fell into AVĪCI hell, where he is said to remain for one hundred thousand eons.

pañcaniyata. (T. nges pa lnga; C. wu jueding; J. goketsujō; K. o kyŏlchŏng 五決定). In Sanskrit, the “five certainties,” five qualities describing a buddha’s enjoyment body (SAṂBHOGAKĀYA), the body that appears in an ideal realm and is visible to BODHISATTVAs. The order and detail of these characteristics vary slightly from source to source. Generally, the enjoyment body will appear (1) as a definite body, adorned with the thirty-two major marks and the eighty minor marks of a great man (MAHĀPURUṢALAKṢAṆA); (2) in a definite place, such as the heavenly AKANIṢṬHA realm; (3) with a definite retinue, viz. bodhisattvas who have achieved the first stage (BHŪMI) or above or, according to some sources, the tenth stage; (4) expounding a definite teaching, the doctrines of the MAHĀYĀNA; and (5) in a definite time, until the end of the SAṂSĀRA.

Pañcappakaraṇaṭṭhakathā. In Pāli, “Commentary on the Five Books,” a voluminous Pāli commentary attributed to BUDDHAGHOSA on the last five books of the ABHIDHAMMAPIṬAKA: the DHĀTUKATHĀ, PUGGALAPAÑÑATTI, KATHĀVATTHU, YAMAKA, and PAṬṬHĀNA. Thus Buddhaghosa produced a commentary for each of the seven books of the Pāli abhidhammapiṭaka—the AṬṬHASĀLINĪ, a commentary on the DHAMMASAṄGAṆI, the SAMMOHAVINODANĪ, a commentary on the VIBHAṄGA, and this PAÑCAPPAKARAṆAṬṬHAKATHĀ. The section of the Pañcappakaraṇaṭṭhakathā that comments on the Dhātukathā—called the Dhātukathāṭṭhakathā—contains fourteen divisions and offers a detailed analysis of such doctrinal categories as ĀYATANA, SKANDHA, and DHĀTU. The commentary that deals with the Kathāvatthu is of particular interest, because it identifies the specific mainstream Buddhist schools that hold the various wrong types of wrong views that are refuted in the Kathāvatthu. The commentary begins with an account of the eighteen MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS that arose prior to the third Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, THIRD), as well six additional schools. The section on the Paṭṭhāna—called the Paṭṭhānapakaraṇaṭṭhakathā—may have been written by a monk named Cullabuddhaghosa at the request of Buddhaghosa. Like other Pāli commentaries, this commentary also calls itself an “Exposition on the Highest Matter” (P. Paramatthadīpanī); however, this title is very rarely used for the work, since there is a commentary by DHAMMAPĀLA on the CARIYĀPIṬAKA written around the same time that is also called the Paramatthadīpanī.

pañcaśīla. (P. pañcasīla; T. bslab pa lnga; C. wujie; J. gokai; K. ogye 五戒). In Sanskrit, the “five precepts,” five rules of conduct or “steps in training” (ŚIKṢĀPADA) that form the foundation for Buddhist morality (ŚĪLA) for both lay and monastic followers. The five are (1) to abstain from killing living creatures (usually interpreted to mean not killing human beings); (2) to abstain from taking what is not given; (3) to abstain from engaging in sexual misconduct; (4) to abstain from lying (commonly defined as not to lie about the possession of high states of attainment or superhuman powers); and (5) to abstain from consuming intoxicants that cause heedlessness (PRAMĀDA). These rules are commonly administered as part of the ceremony of going for refuge (ŚARAṆA), which is the formal acknowledgment of becoming an adherent of Buddhism. Each of these precepts is administered in the formula, “I undertake the training rule (śikṣāpada) to abstain from killing living creatures,” etc. The precepts are regarded as steps in training that are useful in prompting virtuous actions (KUŚALAKARMAN), in restraining unvirtuous deeds of body and speech, and in correcting the intention (CETANĀ) that prompts action. It is generally understood that the practitioner must become adept in maintaining the precepts before he can effectively engage in the cultivation of concentration (SAMĀDHI) and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), the next two stages in the threefold training (TRIŚIKṢĀ). Taking the precepts is considered karmically efficacious, since an act will be more virtuous if one first takes a vow to desist from an unvirtuous activity and then does so, rather than desisting from the activity without having first taken such a vow. ¶ These five precepts also figure in other important moral formulas. Monks and nuns take the five precepts (with the third precept defined as celibacy), with violation of the first four bringing “defeat” (PĀRĀJIKA) and, in some traditions, expulsion from the SAṂGHA. These five precepts (with celibacy as the third) are augmented by three additional precepts to form a short-term code observed by lay disciples fortnightly on the new moon and full moon days (UPOṢADHA; P. uposatha); this code is known as the eight “retreat precepts” (S. upoṣadhaśīla; P. uposathasīla), a sort of temporary renunciation (see AṢṬĀṄGASAMANVĀGATAṂ UPAVĀSAṂ; BAGUAN ZHAI) that essentially turns the layperson into a monk for that day. The three additional precepts are (6) not to eat at an inappropriate time (generally interpreted to mean between noon and the following dawn); (7) not to dance, sing, play music, attend performances, or adorn one’s body with garlands, perfumes, or cosmetics; and (8) not to sleep on high or luxurious beds. The same five precepts (with the third again defined as celibacy) are augmented by five additional rules that are kept by novice monks (ŚRĀMAṆERA) and nuns (ŚRĀMAṆERIKĀ) to constitute the “ten precepts” (DAŚAŚĪLA). The additional five are (6) not to eat at an inappropriate time; (7) not to dance, sing, play music, or attend performances; (8) not to adorn one’s body with garlands, perfumes, and cosmetics; (9) not to sleep on high or luxurious beds; (10) not to handle gold and silver, viz. money. Fully ordained monks (BHIKṢU) and nuns (BHIKṢUṆĪ) observe in turn hundreds of specific training rules, all putatively promulgated by the Buddha himself, which are set out in great detail in the PRĀTIMOKṢA of various VINAYA traditions. See also ŚĪLA.

pañcaskandha. (P. pañcakhandha; T. phung po lnga; C. wuyun; J. goun; K. oon 五蘊). The “five aggregates” that are the objects of clinging. See SKANDHA.

Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa. (T. Phung po lnga’i rab tu byed pa; C. Dasheng wuyun lun; J. Daijō gounron; K. Taesŭng oon non 大乘五蘊論). In Sanskrit, “Explanation of the Five Aggregates,” the title of two different works. The earliest Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa is a short work, now lost in the original Sanskrit, by the fourth or fifth century CE Indian master VASUBANDHU. According to tradition, Vasubandhu had both a “HĪNAYĀNA” and a MAHĀYĀNA period, beginning as an adherent of the SAUTRĀNTIKA school of the mainstream Buddhist tradition, before being converted to the Mahāyāna by his half brother ASAṄGA. Although his presentation of the five aggregates bears many similarities to that in his ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA (the chief work of his so-called hīnayāna period), this work derives from his Mahāyāna period; it begins with a homage to the bodhisattva MAÑJUŚRĪ and mentions the ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA. In this work, Vasubandhu seems to be reworking the presentation of the five aggregates found in Asaṅga’s ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA; he also sets forth and criticizes the positions of the MAHĪŚĀSAKA, the school in which Asaṅga was originally trained. ¶ There is also a Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa by the seventh-century Indian MADHYAMAKA master CANDRAKĪRTI, discussing the factors (DHARMA) categorized under the headings of the five SKANDHA, the twelve ĀYATANA, and the eighteen DHĀTU.

pañcatathāgata. (T. de bzhin gshegs pa lnga; C. wuzhi rulai/wu fo; J. gochi nyorai/gobutsu; K. ojiyŏrae/obul 五智如來/五佛). In Sanskrit, “five tathāgatas,” a grouping of five buddhas important in tantric Buddhism. They are also known as the “five conquerors” (PAÑCAJINA) and sometimes in English as the “five DHYĀNI BUDDHAs” (although the term dhyāni buddha is a Western neologism that does not appear in Buddhist texts). The members of the group vary across tantric texts and traditions, but the most common grouping is that derived from the SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAṂGRAHA. They are VAIROCANA, AKṢOBHYA, AMITĀBHA, RATNASAMBHAVA, and AMOGHASIDDHI, the buddhas of the TATHĀGATAKULA, VAJRAKULA, PADMAKULA, RATNAKULA, and KARMAKULA families, respectively. The concept of buddha families began to be formulated with the rise of the MAHĀYĀNA, rooted in earlier Buddhist tendencies to divide practitioners, scripture, deities, and the like into different “families” (GOTRA or KULA). One of the earliest expressions of such a grouping was the trikula system, in which VAJRASATTVA is the buddha of the vajrakula, Vairocana belongs to the tathāgatakula, and AVALOKITEŚVARA belongs to the padmakula. The five buddhas were seen as DHARMAKĀYA buddhas, with the number five providing a number of possible homologies, including the five aggregates, the five poisons, the five wisdoms, the five colors, and the five elements. The number five was also important for the MAṆḌALA, with one buddha holding the central position, the other four in the cardinal directions. The five tathāgatas were also integrated into the separate and later concept of the ĀDIBUDDHA, or “primordial buddha,” which would become especially important in Newari Buddhism.

pañcavargika. (P. pañcavaggiyā; T. lnga sde; C. wuqun [biqiu]; J. gogun [biku]; K. ogun [pigu] 五群[比丘]). In Sanskrit, the “group of five”; the five ascetics who practiced austerities with the BODHISATTVA prior to his enlightenment and to whom the Buddha preached his first sermon after his enlightenment, thus becoming the Buddha’s first disciples. They are ĀJÑĀTAKAUṆḌIYA (or Kauṇḍinya), AŚVAJIT, VĀṢPA, MAHĀNĀMAN, and BHADRIKA. According to the Pāli account (where they are called Aññātakoṇḍañña or Koṇḍañña, Assaji, Vappa, Mahānāma, and Bhaddiya), Koṇḍañña had been present as one of the eight brāhmaṇas who attended the infant’s naming ceremony, during which the prophesy was made that the prince would one day become either a wheel-turning monarch (P. cakkavatti, S. CAKRAVARTIN) or a buddha. The other four ascetics were sons of four of the other brāhmaṇas in attendance at the naming ceremony. When the prince gave up his practice of austerities and accepted a meal, the five ascetics abandoned him in disgust. After his enlightenment, the Buddha surveyed the world with his divine eye (S. DIVYACAKṢUS) and surmised that, of all people then alive, these five ascetics were most likely to understand the profundity of his message. When he first approached them, they refused to recognize him, but the power of his charisma was such that they felt compelled to show him the honor due a teacher. He preached to them two important discourses, the DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA, in which he explained the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (S. catvāry āryasatyāni), and the ANATTALAKKHAṆASUTTA (S. *Anātmalakṣaṇasūtra), in which he explained the doctrine of nonself (P. anatta, S. ANĀTMAN). Upon hearing and comprehending the first sermon, the five ascetics attained the dhammacakku (S. DHARMACAKṢUS) or the “dhamma eye,” an attainment equated in the Pāli canon with that of the stream-enterer (P. sotāpanna, S. SROTAĀPANNA). The five then requested to be accepted as the Buddha’s disciples and were ordained as the first Buddhist monks (P. bhikkhu, S. BHIKṢU), using the informal EHIBHIKṢUKĀ (P. ehi bhikkhu), or “come, monk,” formula. Upon hearing the second sermon, the five were completely freed of the contaminants (P. āsava, S. ĀSRAVA), becoming thereby arahants (ARHAT) freed from the prospect of any further rebirth. With this experience, there were then six arahants in the world, including the Buddha. The Pāli story of the conversion of the group of five is recounted in the MAHĀVAGGA section of the Pāli VINAYAPIṬAKA. The group of five appears often in JĀTAKA stories of the previous lives of the Buddha, indicating their long karmic connections to him, which result in their remarkable fortune at being the first to hear the Buddha preach the dharma. In Sanskrit materials, this group of five is usually known as the bhadravargīya, or “auspicious group.”

pañcavidyā. (T. rig gnas che ba lnga; C. wuming; J. gomyō; K. omyŏng 五明). In Sanskrit, the “five sciences”; the five traditional sciences of ancient India, which a bodhisattva is said to have mastery of; also known as the pañcavidyāsthāna. These are śabda, which includes grammar and composition; hetu or logic; cikitsā or medicine; śilpakarma, which includes the manual arts; and adhyātmavidyā, the “inner knowledge,” which in the case of Buddhism was said to be knowledge of the TRIPIṬAKA and the twelve categories (AṄGA) of the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA).

Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa; C. Mohe bore boluomi jing; J. Maka hannya haramitsukyō; K. Maha panya paramil kyŏng 摩訶般若波羅蜜經). In Sanskrit, “Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines,” one of the three most important of the “large” PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ sūtras, together with the ŚATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA (“Perfection of Wisdom in One-Hundred Thousand Lines”) and the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA (“Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines”). The early prajñāpāramitā sūtras were named based upon their length. The scholarly consensus is that the earliest of the sūtras of this genre was the version in eight thousand lines. Although it is not strictly the case that the two larger sūtras are simply prolix expansions of the shorter sūtra, there is considerable repetition among the texts, with the larger sūtras increasing the number of categories to which various qualifications, including negations, were made. The prajñāpāramitā sūtras are said to have an explicit meaning and a hidden meaning: the former is the doctrine of emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ), the latter is the structure of the bodhisattva’s path (MĀRGA) to this enlightenment. This structure is set forth in the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA attributed to MAITREYANĀTHA, one of the most widely commented upon of all Mahāyāna ŚĀSTRAs in India. Although the text does not explicitly say so, the Abhisamayālaṃkāra is said to derive its categories from the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā. Ārya VIMUKTISENA, Bhadanta Vimuktisena, and HARIBHADRA each wrote commentaries on the Abhisamayālaṃkāra, in which they explicitly connect it with the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā. The DAZHIDU LUN is also considered a commentary on this sūtra.

pañcaviṣaya. (T. yul lnga; C. wujing; J. gokyō; K. ogyŏng 五境). In Sanskrit, “five objects,” the five external physical sensory objects of forms, sounds, odors, tastes, and tangible objects. See VIṢAYA.

pañcendriya. (P. pañcindriya; T. dbang po lnga; C. wugen; J. gokon; K. ogŭn 五根). In Sanskrit, the “five [sense] faculties,” or “dominants”; the five internal visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile faculties associated with the physical sense organs. In the ABHIDHARMA literature, these faculties are said not to refer to the physical eye, ear, etc., but to subtle matter located in the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body that provide the physical basis for sense experience. ¶ The pañcendriya are also a soteriological term, referring to five spiritual “dominants” or “faculties” that are crucial to development along the path: faith (ŚRADDHĀ), effort (VĪRYA), mindfulness (SMṚTI), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). These are called the “five powers” (PAÑCABALA) at a higher stage of development. See INDRIYA.

Paṇ chen Lama. A Tibetan title given to members of an important line of incarnate lamas (SPRUL SKU), commonly identified as second in stature in Tibet after the DALAI LAMAs. Their seat is BKRA SHIS LHUN PO monastery in Gtsang in western Tibet. Paṇ chen is a common abbreviation for the mixed Sanskrit and Tibetan appellation “paṇḍita chen po” (literally “great scholar”), and is an honorific title granted to scholars of great achievement. It was also used as an epithet for the abbot of Bkra shis lhun po monastery, beginning with its founder and first abbot DGE ’DUN GRUB. The fifth Dalai Lama gave the abbacy of Bkra shis lhun po to his tutor, BLO BZANG CHOS KYI RGYAL MTSHAN. As abbot of the monastery, he was called Paṇ chen, but he came to receive the distinctive title “Paṇ chen Lama” when the fifth Dalai Lama announced that, upon his teacher’s death, his teacher would reappear as an identifiable child-successor. Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan thus had conferred on him the title “Paṇ chen Lama.” The Paṇ chen Lama is considered the human incarnation of the buddha AMITĀBHA, while the Dalai Lama is considered the human incarnation of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEŚVARA. Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan is traditionally viewed as the fourth member of the lineage, with his previous incarnations recognized posthumously, beginning with TSONG KHA PA’s disciple MKHAS GRUB DGE LEGS DPAL BZANG PO. For this reason, there is some confusion in the numbering of the lamas of the lineage; Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan is sometimes referred to as the fourth Paṇ chen Lama, but more commonly in Tibetan sources as the first. Blo bzang dpal ldan ye shes is sometimes referred to as the sixth Paṇ chen Lama, but more commonly in Tibetan sources as the third. (In the discussion below, the higher numerical designation will be employed, since it is used in the contemporary controversy over the identity of the Paṇ chen Lama.) The fifth Dalai Lama apparently hoped that the Dalai Lama and Paṇ chen Lama could alternate as teacher and student in lifetime after lifetime. This plan required, however, that each live a long life, which was not to be the case. Subsequent incarnations were recognized and installed at Bkra shis lhun po and eventually grew to wield considerable religious and political power, at times rivaling that of the Dalai Lama himself. This was particularly true in the nineteenth century, when few Dalai Lamas reached their majority. The sixth Paṇ chen Lama, Blo bzang dpal ldan ye shes (Losang Palden Yeshe, 1738–1780), was a skilled politician who secured Tibet’s first relationship with a European power when he befriended George Bogle, British emissary to the East India Company under Warren Hastings. The ninth Paṇ chen Lama (1883–1937) did not enjoy close relations with the thirteenth Dalai Lama; the Dalai Lama felt that the Paṇ chen Lama was too close to both the British and the Chinese. They also disagreed over what taxes the Paṇ chen Lama owed the LHA SA government. The Paṇ chen Lama went to China in 1925, and his supporters became aligned with the nationalist Guomindang party. While in China, he gave teachings and performed rituals, including some intended to repulse the Japanese invaders then on the Chinese mainland. After the death of the thirteenth Dalai Lama, he served in an advisory capacity in the search for the fourteenth Dalai Lama and died shortly thereafter, while en route back to Tibet. His successor, the tenth Paṇ chen Lama ’Phrin las lhun grub chos kyi rgyal mtshan (Trinle Lhündrup Chökyi Gyaltsen, 1938–1989) was selected by the Chinese, with the Lha sa government providing only tacit support. He was drawn into the official Chinese administration as a representative of the Communist party and remained in China when the Dalai Lama fled into exile in 1959. In 1964, he was arrested and imprisoned for his outspoken opposition to the Communist party’s harsh policies in Tibet, and was subjected to public humiliation and physical abuse. After fourteen years in prison, he was released in 1978, and played a key role in fostering the cultural reconstruction that helped to reestablish religious life in Tibet. Despite his role in the Communist administration, many Tibetans continue to view his life as a heroic struggle for the cause of liberalization in Tibet. His death led to the recognition of two child incarnations: one, Dge ’dun chos kyi nyi ma (Gendün Chökyi Nyima, b. 1989), chosen by the fourteenth Dalai Lama in exile and favored by the majority of Tibetan people, and another, Rgyal mtshan nor bu (b. 1990), installed by the Chinese government. The disappearance of the Dalai Lama’s candidate in China has led to a significant increase in tension between the two factions. The lineage of Paṇ chen Lamas includes:

1. Mkhas grub Dge legs dpal bzang (1385–1438)

2. Bsod nams phyogs kyi glang po (Sönam Chokyi Langpo, 1439–1505)

3. Dben sa pa Blo bzang don grub (Wensapa Losang Döndrup, 1505–1566)

4. Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1567–1662)

5. Blo bzang ye shes dpal bzang po (Losang Yeshe Palsangpo, 1663–1737)

6. Blo bzang dpal ldan ye shes (Losang Palden Yeshe, 1738–1780)

7. Blo bzang bstan pa’i nyi ma (Losang Tenpe Nyima, 1781–1854)

8. Blo bzang bstan pa’i dbang phyug dpal ldan chos kyi grags pa (Losang Tenpe Wangchuk Palden Chökyi Drakpa), 1855–1882)

9. Blo bzang thub bstan chos kyi nyi ma dge legs rnam rgyal (Losang Tupden Chökyi Nyima Gelek Namgyal, 1883–1937)

10. ’Phrin las lhun grub chos kyi rgyal mtshan (Trinle Lhundrup Chökyi Gyaltsen, 1938–1989)

11. Dge ’dun chos kyi nyi ma (Gendün Chökyi Nyima, b. 1989)

Pang jushi yulu. (J. Hō koji goroku; K. Pang kŏsa ŏrok 龐居士語

). In Chinese, “The Recorded Sayings of Layman Pang”; the discourse record of the lay Chan adept PANG YUN. See PANG YUN.

Pang Yun. (J. Hō On; K. Pang On 龐蘊) (740–808). One of the most famous lay adepts of the CHAN ZONG, commonly known within the tradition as “Layman Pang” (PANG JUSHI); also referred to as “VIMALAKĪRTI of the East” (Dongtu Weimo). PENG SHAOSHENG (1740–1796), in his JUSHI ZHUAN (“Biographies of Lay Buddhists”), lists Pang Yun as one of the three great lay masters (sangong) of Chinese Buddhism, along with LI TONGXUAN (635–730) and LIU CHENGZHI (354–410), praising Pang for his mastery of Chan practice. One of the famous anecdotes regarding Pang is that, in his middle age, he gave his house away to be used for a monastery and discarded all his personal possessions by loading them onto a boat and sinking them in a river. Subsequently, he is said to have earned his livelihood by making and selling bamboo utensils. He is presumed to have carried on religious practices at a hermitage separate from his residence. Pang was father to both a son and a daughter. The daughter, LING ZHAO, who also attained a deep understanding of Chan, seems to have had an especially close spiritual relationship with her father. Pang is presumed to have visited the Chan master SHITOU XIQIAN (710–790) about 785, whom he asked, “What man is it who does not accompany the ten thousand dharmas?” Shitou covered the layman’s mouth with his hand and Pang Yun was instantly enlightened. The layman stayed with Shitou until 786, when he traveled to visit MAZU DAOYI (707–786), one of the most influential Chan masters of his time. When the layman asked Mazu the same question he had asked Shitou, Mazu is said to have replied: “Wait till you’ve swallowed in one swig all the water of the West River, then I’ll tell you,” whereupon he attained great enlightenment. After staying with Mazu for two years, Pang Yun is believed to have started pilgrimages around central China, probably writing many verses that are extant now in materials such as the PANG JUSHI YULU (“Recorded Sayings of Layman Pang”), the posthumous records of Pang’s later years compiled by his friend the prefect Yu Di. Perhaps the most famous saying attributed to Pang Yun is: “Supernatural powers and marvelous activities are drawing water and carrying firewood.” Pang is said to have had a premonition of the time of his death. When he was about to die, he sat up cross-legged in his bed and told his daughter to report to him when it was noon, at which point he would pass away; she looked out and said, “The sun has just reached the zenith, but there is an eclipse.” While the layman went out to look at the eclipse, his daughter sat down sat cross-legged on his bed and passed away herself. Seeing this, the layman said, “My daughter has anticipated me.” He then postponed his death for seven days and died in the presence of his friend Yu Di, uttering these final words: “Please just regard as empty everything in existence, but beware of presuming that all nonexistence is real. Live comfortably in the world, where all is like shadows and echoes.” Records pertaining to Layman Pang are also found in such major Chan texts as BIYAN LU, CHODANG CHIP, ZONGJING LU, and JINGDE CHUANDENG LU.

panjiao. (判教). In Chinese, “tenet classifications,” “doctrinal taxonomies.” See JIAOXIANG PANSHI.

Paññāsajātaka. In Pāli, “Fifty Birth Stories,” and sometimes referred to in Western scholarship as the “Apocryphal Jātakas”; a collection of fifty JĀTAKA stories that are not included in the canonical jātaka collection of the Pāli TRIPIṬAKA. There are Thai, Cambodian, and Burmese recensions of these stories, the first two of which are quite similar in structure, the last of which differs in the selection and order of the stories. This Burmese (Myanmar) recension of this collection, called the ZIMMÈ PAÑÑĀSA, literally means the “Chiangmai Fifty,” suggesting that the provenance for many of these stories may be in the northwest of Thailand near the city of Chiangmai. The dating and authorship are unknown, but the terminus ad quem for the collection is around the fifteenth century. Some of the fifty stories show clear connections to the Pāli jātaka collection; others are more similar to Sanskrit texts. Still other stories seem to have no connection to the available Pāli and Sanskrit literature and may derive from folk traditions; indeed, the grammar and syntax of the stories also seems to suggest local influences.

Panthaka. [alt. Mahāpanthaka] (P. Mahāpanthaka; T. Lam chen bstan; C. Bantuojia; J. Hantaka; K. Pant’akka 半託迦). An ARHAT known for his mastery of the four immaterial absorptions (ĀRŪPYADHYĀNA); according to Pāli sources, the Buddha declared him foremost in the ability to manipulate perception (saññāvivaṭṭakusalānaṃ). Panthaka was the elder of two brothers born to a merchant’s daughter from RĀJAGṚHA who had eloped with a slave. After she became pregnant, she decided to return home to give birth, but the infant was born along the way. This happened again when she gave birth to her second child. Because both he and his younger brother, CŪḌAPANTHAKA, were born along the side of a road, they were given the names, “Greater” and “Lesser” Roadside. The boys were eventually taken to Rājagṛha and raised by their grandparents, who were devoted to the Buddha. Panthaka often accompanied his grandfather to listen to the Buddha’s sermons and was inspired to ordain. He proved to be an able monk, skilled in doctrine, and eventually attained arhatship. He later ordained his younger brother Cūḍapanthaka but was gravely disappointed in his brother’s inability to memorize even a single verse of the dharma. He treated Cūḍapanthaka with such contempt that the Buddha intervened on his behalf, giving the younger brother a simple technique by which he too attained arhatship. ¶ Panthaka is also traditionally listed as tenth of the sixteen ARHAT elders (ṢOḌAŚASTHAVIRA), who were charged by the Buddha with protecting his dispensation until the advent of the next buddha, MAITREYA; his younger brother Cūḍapanthaka is the sixteenth on that list. Panthaka resides in the TRĀYASTRIṂŚA heaven (the heaven of the thirty-three devas) with 1,300 disciples. Panthaka was good at arithmetic and an expert in chanting and music. When sitting in meditation, Panthaka often sat in half-lotus posture; and after his finished his sitting, he would raise both his hands and take a deep breath. For this reason, he was given the nickname “the Arhat who Reaches Out His Hands” (Tanshou Luohan). In CHANYUE GUANXIU’s standard Chinese depiction, Panthaka has placed his sitting-cloth on a rock, where he sits in meditation, with a sash across his shoulders. Holding a scroll in both hands, he appears to be reading a SŪTRA.

pāpa. (T. sdig pa; C. e/zui; J. aku/zai; K. ak/choe 惡/罪). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “transgression”; an unsalutary, unwholesome, or nonvirtuous (AKUŚALA) deed that produces a correspondingly negative effect; thus, any knowingly wrongful, wicked, or immoral act of body, speech, or mind. Equivalent in meaning to AKUŚALAKARMAN, or “unsalutary action,” pāpa leads to unfortunate and painful consequences in the form of physical or mental suffering for the agent of the deed, either in this or future lives; it may lead to rebirth as an animal (TIRYAK), ghost (PRETA), or hell denizen (NĀRAKA). Pāpa is the opposite of PUṆYA, meritorious deeds that lead to happiness in this or future lifetimes. The common translation of pāpa as “sin” is misleading because there is no divine being in Buddhism whose commandments can be broken. Rather, painful consequences of unsalutary actions befall the agent, according to the impersonal law of KARMAN and its retribution. According to classical karman theory, a person is literally defiled by the performance of unwholesome deeds and carries that stain until those deeds are either expiated through painful experience, or until the person attains liberation, whereupon the seeds of all former nonvirtuous deeds are destroyed. In practice, however, the Buddhist traditions are replete with practices designed to remove or minimize the effects of past nonvirtuous actions.

pāpadeśanā. [alt. pāpaśodhana] (P. pāpadesanā; T. sdig pa bshags pa; C. chanhui; J. sange; K. ch’amhoe 懺悔). In Sanskrit, “confession of transgressions,” “atonement”; the confession of unvirtuous deeds, either privately in the presence of a real or visualized representation of a buddha, or communally as part of a confession ceremony, such as the fortnightly monastic confession (S. UPOṢADHA; P. uposatha). Such confession also figures as a standard component in many MAHĀYĀNA and tantric liturgies. The Mahāyāna also deployed a confessional ritual designed for people burdened with heavy karmic obstructions who wished swiftly to attain complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAṂBODHI); this ritual involved chanting the names of thirty-five buddhas of the ten directions (daśadigbuddha, see DAŚADIŚ) and making offerings before images of them. Regardless of the setting, the tenor of confession practice is to make public something that has been hidden; there is no tradition in Buddhism of a priest offering absolution of sins. According to standard theory of KARMAN, the seeds of an unsalutary deed can be removed only through suffering the effects of that deed or through destroying the seed through wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). However, there is a general view in the Buddhist ethical systems that the strength of an unwholesome deed, especially one of a less heinous nature, can be diminished through its declaration and revelation.

Papañcasūdanī. In Pāli, “Destruction of Obstacles [to Progress],” a commentary on the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA by the fifth-century exegete BUDDHAGHOSA. According to the colophon to the commentary, Buddhaghosa wrote the commentary in response to a request of Buddhamitta, a monk from Mayūrapaṭṭana. The Papañcasūdanī is quoted in Buddhaghosa’s commentary to the VINAYAPIṬAKA, the SAMANTAPĀSĀDIKĀ, suggesting that it antedates that work.

Pāpīyāṃs. (P. Pāpimant; BHS. Pāpīmant; T. Sdig can; C. Mowang [Boxun]; J. Maō [Hajun]; K. Mawang [Pasun] 魔王 [波旬]). An epithet of MĀRA. See NAMUCI.

pāra. (T. pha rol; C. bi’an; J. higan; K. p’ian 彼岸). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “distant,” “opposite”; often freely rendered into Buddhist languages as “the other shore,” a common metaphor for the state of liberation, or NIRVĀṆA. The Buddhist path is often described metaphorically in Buddhist texts as a crossing from the near shore of SAṂSĀRA to the far shore of nirvāṇa, with the DHARMA serving as one’s raft or ship. In other imagery, saṃsāra itself is the perilous ocean, and nirvāṇa the safe harbor.

parach’um. (

囉

). In Korean, “cymbal dance,” a CHAKPŎP ritual dance performed by Buddhist monks during such Korean Buddhist rites as the YŎNGSANJAE, using a cymbal (para). This dance is supposedly performed in veneration of, and as an offering to, the Buddha. One of the types of parach’um is known as “thousand-handed cymbal dance” (ch’ŏnsu para) and is performed while other monks chant in honor of the thousand-armed form of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEŚVARA (see SĀHASRABHUJASĀHASRANETRĀVALOKITEŚVARA). This dance is considered to be extremely masculine, owing to its confident and strong motions, and thus is almost always performed by monks. In this dance, an even number of dancers (generally between two and ten), dressed in ceremonial robes with long sleeves, grasp with both hands the two cymbals, which are larger than dinner plates. The dancers raise and lower the cymbals, bringing them clashing together in front of their bodies and over their heads. This sound is intended to lead sentient beings towards the path to buddhahood. The tempo is quicker than that of the butterfly dance (NABICH’UM), and, as the dancers turn, they also manipulate the shiny cymbals so that they flash beautifully.

paracittajñāna. [alt. cetoparyāyābhijñāna] (P. cetopariyañāṇa; T. gzhan gyi sems shes pa; C. taxintong; J. tashintsū; K. t’asimt’ong 他心通). In Sanskrit, “knowledge of others’ minds”; one of the five mundane (LAUKIKA) “superknowledges” or “supranormal powers” (ABHIJÑĀ) that are gained through refinement of the fourth stage of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). The sixth “superknowledge,” the knowledge of the extinction of the contaminants (ĀSRAVAKṢAYA; P. āsavakhaya) is supramundane (LOKOTTARA). One who has developed paracittajñāna knows when another’s mind is greedy or free from greed, hateful or free from hate, deluded or undeluded, constrained or distracted, developed or undeveloped, surpassable or unsurpassable, concentrated or unconcentrated, and freed or unfreed.

pārājika. (T. phas pham pa; C. boluoyi; J. harai; K. parai 波羅夷). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “defeat,” according to the monastic codes, those misdeeds that entail automatic (and, according to the Pāli recension of the VINAYA, permanent) expulsion from the SAṂGHA and reversion to the laity. There are four pārājika offenses for monks (BHIKṢU): (1) sexual intercourse through any of the orifices, (2) theft, (3) murder or abetting the murder of a human being, and (4) falsely claiming to have attained any degree of enlightenment, or to possess suprahuman powers (uttaramanuṣyadharma). Nuns (BHIKṢUṆĪ) have a list of eight pārājika offenses, which include the above four, plus (5) enjoying physical contact with a male between the collarbone and the knee, (6) concealing the pārājika offense of another nun, (7) becoming the follower of a monk (who is suspended), and (8) possessing eight dispositions tinged with sexuality (which include cases of a lascivious nun rejoicing at the arrival of a lecherous man, asking him to sit down, or stretching her body toward him). In the Pāli VINAYA, a monk or nun who commits a pārājika offense is compared to a person with his or her head cut off, to a withered leaf dropped from a branch, and to a stone split in two, etc., in that they may never return to their former monastic state, and may never again rejoin the saṃgha. Other vinaya traditions, such as the MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA, retain some possibility of redemption from this state of “defeat” by continuing to live in the monastery as a “pārājika penitent,” or ŚIKṢĀDATTAKA.

Parākramabāhu I. [alt. Parakkamabāhu I] (r. 1153–1186). Also known as Sirisaṅghabodhi Parakkamabāhu, a Sinhalese king who abolished the ABHAYAGIRI and JETAVANA fraternities and unified the Sinhalese SAṂGHA under the banner of the MAHĀVIHĀRA fraternity. Emulating the example of King AŚOKA, the king first acquainted himself with the rules and regulations of the order so that he could discriminate between compliance and noncompliance with the monastic code. Monks were summoned to be examined by him and a council of elders. Unworthy monks were expelled and were assigned lucrative positions so that they would not reenter the order. Of the three fraternities, only the Mahāvihāra was judged to be in possession of a valid ordination ritual (UPASAMPADĀ), so monks of the Abhayagiri and Jetavana fraternities were forced to be reordained into the Mahāvihāra fraternity. The CŪḶAVAṂSA states that those monks from the Abhayagiri and Jetavana not unfrocked for misconduct were received as novices (P. samaṇera; S. ŚRĀMAṆERA). At the end of the purification movement, in 1165 CE, the king had a committee of elders draw up a new monastic code on the basis of DHAMMAVINAYA, which was called the Mahā-Parakkamabāhu-Katikāvata. This law code was promulgated by the king and, citing Aśoka as a precedent, was made binding on the entire Sinhalese saṃgha. The reforms of Parākramabāhu I are recognized as having influenced (directly or indirectly) the Sinhalese fraternities established at PAGAN by Chapada Thera and his associates beginning in 1181 CE, as well as SUKHOTHAI Buddhism (fourteenth–fifteenth century), Mon Buddhism (fourteenth–fifteenth century) and the THUDHAMMA reformation of Burmese Buddhism (late eighteenth century). Later Buddhist historical writings borrowed directly from the Mahā-Parakkamabāhu-Katikāvata, including, e.g., Saddhammasaṅgaha (fourteenth century) and the KALYĀṆĪ INSCRIPTIONS (fifteenth century).

Parākramabāhu VI. [alt. Parakkamabāhu VI] (r. 1410–1468). A Sinhalese king, who, according to the CŪḶAVAṂSA, arranged for repeated performances of the UPASAMPADĀ ordination ceremony. He promulgated a monastic code (katikāvata), which is only partially preserved. In 1423, during his reign, a delegation of thirty-nine Thai and Mon monks headed by either Medhaṅkara (according to JINAKĀLAMĀLĪ) or Ñāṇagambhīra (according to the PADAENG CHRONICLE) reached Sri Lanka, where they were trained. In 1424 they were laicized and reordained into the MAHĀVIHĀRA order at Kalyāṇī near Colombo. The “Padaeng Chronicle” has the delegation of monks headed by Ñāṇagambhīra arriving in Sri Lanka and receiving ordination in 1419, whence they were trained for five years before returning to the Thai kingdom of AYUTHAYA. In either case, this delegation is credited with inaugurating a second wave of Sinhalese-inspired monastic reforms in the Thai kingdoms. The “Padaeng Chronicle” (but not the Jinakālamālī) states explicitly that Ñāṇagambhīra sought training and reordination in Sri Lanka because of numerous deficiencies and heresies in the Thai Buddhist order that had been introduced by the earlier reformer, Sumana. The contested points concern ownership of property, use of money, the ordination procedure, and the setting up of proper SĪMĀ boundaries for monastic rituals and procedures.

paramāṇu. (T. rdul phra rab; C. jiwei; J. gokumi; K. kŭngmi 極微). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “particle” or “atom”; the smallest unit of matter. Buddhist schools take a variety of positions on the ontological status of such atoms, especially as to whether or not they were divisible or indivisible. Both the SAUTRĀNTIKA and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA schools of mainstream Buddhism, for example, held that each paramāṇu was an indivisible unit of matter, but differed on the exact nature of the objects formed through the coalescence of these particles. By contrast, the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy rejected any such notion of particles, since it did not accept that there was anything in the universe that possessed independent existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA), and thus the notion of such atoms was simply a convenient fiction. Numerous Mahāyāna SŪTRAs, notably the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, extol the ability of a buddha to place entire world systems within a single particle without changing either’s size. These Buddhist debates have parallels within both the JAINA and Hindu traditions. Modern Buddhists have also sought to suggest that apparent parallels between the notion of paramāṇu and modern atomic theory are evidence that Buddhism is consistent with science.

Paramārtha. (C. Zhendi; J. Shindai; K. Chinje 眞諦) (499–569). Indian Buddhist monk, translator, and exegete. Paramārtha is said to have been a native of Ujjayinī in western India. Little is known of his early career, but he became renowned in China after arriving at the capital of Jiangang (near present-day Nanjing) and the court of the Liang-dynasty Emperor Wu (r. 502–549) in 546 CE. Under the patronage of Emperor Wu, Paramārtha began translating the many scriptures that he is said to have brought with him from India. After a rebellion took the life of the emperor, Paramārtha headed south, where he continued his translation activities with the support of local rulers. His translations include the SUVARṆAPRABHĀSOTTAMASŪTRA (552), Suixiang lun zhong shiliu di shu (555–556), Anuttarāśrayasūtra (557), MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA (558?), and VIṂŚATIKĀ (563), among others; the apocryphal DASHENG QIXIN LUN is also said by tradition to have been translated (in 553) by Paramārtha. Another influential anthology attributed to Paramārtha is the Wuxiang lun (consisting of the treatises Zhuanshi lun, San wuxing lun, and Xianshi lun), which posits the existence of an immaculate ninth consciousness known as the AMALAVIJÑĀNA and contends that the eighth consciousness, or ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA, is impure. These claims were further developed by his followers in the SHE LUN ZONG exegetical tradition, who based their claims on Paramārtha’s influential translation of the MAHĀYĀNASAṂGRAHA. Paramārtha died in 569 while translating the ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA. Among his disciples, Huikai (518–568) and Fatai (d. 601) are most famous.

paramārthabodhicitta. (T. don dam byang chub kyi sems). In Sanskrit, the “ultimate aspiration to enlightenment.” In Indian MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature, this term is contrasted with the “conventional aspiration to enlightenment” (SAṂVṚTIBODHICITTA). This latter term is used to refer to bodhicitta in its more common usage, as the aspiration to achieve buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. It is the creation of this aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) that marks the beginning of the bodhisattva path and the Mahāyāna path of accumulation (SAṂBHĀRAMĀRGA). The ultimate aspiration or mind of enlightenment refers to the bodhisattva’s direct realization of the ultimate truth. In the case of MADHYAMAKA, this would be the direct realization of emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ). Such realization, and hence the ultimate aspiration to enlightenment, occurs beginning on the Mahayāna path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA) and is repeated on the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA).

paramārthasatya. (P. paramatthasacca T. don dam bden pa; C. zhendi/diyiyi di; J. shintai/daiichigitai; K. chinje/cheirŭi che 眞諦/第一義諦). In Sanskrit, “ultimate truth,” “absolute truth”; one of the two truths (SATYADVAYA), along with “conventional truth” (SAṂVṚTISATYA). A number of etymologies of the term are provided in the commentarial literature, based on the literal meaning of paramārthasatya as “highest-object truth.” Thus, an ultimate truth is the highest-object truth because it is the object of wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), the highest form of consciousness. It is also the highest-object truth because it is the supreme of all factors (dharma). The term paramārtha is variously defined in the Buddhist philosophical schools but refers in general to phenomena that do not appear falsely when directly perceived and that are the objects of wisdom, that is, those dharmas the understanding of which leads to liberation. Thus, Buddhist philosophical schools do not speak simply of a single “ultimate truth” but of ultimate truths. For example, according to VAIBHĀṢIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, an ultimate truth is anything that cannot be broken into parts, such as particles or atoms (PARAMĀṆU), and persists only for the shortest unit of time, an instant (KṢAṆA). The term paramārtha is especially associated with the MADHYAMAKA school, where the ultimate truth is emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ); the object qualified by emptiness is a conventional truth (SAṂVṚTISATYA).

Paramārthastava. (T. Don dam par bstod pa). In Sanskrit, “Praise of the Ultimate One”; one of the four hymns (CATUḤSTAVA) of NĀGĀRJUNA, along with the LOKĀTĪTASTAVA, ACINTYASTAVA, and NIRAUPAMYASTAVA. All four hymns are preserved in Sanskrit and are cited by Indian commentators, leaving little doubt about their authorship. There is somewhat greater doubt in the case of this text, however, since the Indian commentators, such as ATIŚA DĪPAṂKARAŚRĪJÑĀNA, are from a later period. However, it is very similar in style and content to the Niraupamyastava, which is cited by BHĀVAVIVEKA and other early commentators. The Paramārthastava is a brief work in eleven stanzas. It is a hymn of praise to the Buddha from the perspective of the ultimate, acknowledging the dilemma of using worldly conventions to praise the Buddha, who transcends linguistic expression and comparison; the Buddha is described as being without intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA), duality, color, measure, or location. Thus, Nāgārjuna writes, “Thus praised, and praised again, what, indeed, has been praised? All dharmas are empty; who has been praised, and by whom has he been praised?”

paramārthaviniścayadharmacakra. (T. don dam rnam par nges pa’i chos ’khor). In Sanskrit, “the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate,” the third of three turnings of the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). The SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA describes three turnings of the wheel of the dharma by the Buddha: in the first, he taught the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni); in the second, he taught emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ); and in the third, he taught what was “well differentiated” (suvibhakta). The third of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma was delivered in VAIŚĀLĪ. The sūtra identifies it as a teaching for BODHISATTVAs and classifies it as definitive (NĪTĀRTHA); this third turning of the wheel is the teaching of the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra itself. According to the commentators, this third wheel accounts for the Buddha’s provisional (NEYĀRTHA) statements in the first wheel of the dharma (see CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA), namely, that the four noble truths exist; and his apparently contradictory statement in his second wheel of the dharma in the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ SŪTRAs (perfection of wisdom sūtras) (see ALAKṢAṆADHARMACAKRA) that all dharmas are “unproduced, unceased, primordially peaceful, and naturally passed beyond sorrow.” Here, in this third and definitive teaching, also called “the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation” (*SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA), he says that dharmas have three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), and each of those in its own way lacks an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The three natures are the PARIKALPITA or imaginary nature of dharmas, the PARATANTRA or dependently arisen nature of dharmas, and the PARINIṢPANNA or consummate nature of dharmas. In Tibet, there was a debate that extended over centuries as to whether the paramārthaviniścayadharmacakra, this third turning of the wheel, according to the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra, was provisional or definitive. See RANG STONG GZHAN STONG.

Paramatthamañjūsā. In Pāli, “Container of the Ultimate Truth” (S. PARAMĀRTHA), a commentary on BUDDHAGHOSA’s VISUDDHIMAGGA by the post-fifth-century scholar DHAMMAPĀLA. This commentary is also often referred to in the literature as the “Great Subcommentary” (Mahāṭīkā).

paramatthasaṅgha. (S. paramārthasaṃgha; T. don dam pa’i dge ’dun; C. shengyi seng; J. shōgisō; K. sŭngŭisŭng 勝義僧). In Pāli, “ultimate community”; a technical term used in the Pāli commentaries to answer the question of what precisely constitutes the SAṂGHA jewel among the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), as in the refuge (ŚARAṆA) formula, “I go for refuge to the saṃgha.” That is, does the saṃgha constitute the larger community of the Buddhist faithful, only those who have been ordained as monks or nuns, or only those who achieved some level of enlightenment? According to the Pāli tradition, the paramatthasaṅgha consists of the seven and/or eight dakkhiṇeyyapuggala (S. dakṣiṇīyapudgala), or “person(s) worthy to receive gifts,” described in the DĪGHANIKĀYA. In keeping with the canonical definition of noble persons (P. ariyapuggala; S. ĀRYAPUDGALA), the term paramatthasaṅgha thus refers specifically to ordained monks and nuns who have reached any of the four ĀRYA paths: that of (1) sotāpanna (S. SROTAĀPANNA), or stream-enterer, (2) sakkadāgāmi (S. SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), or once-returner, (3) anāgāmi (S. ANĀGĀMIN), or nonreturner, and (4) arahant (S. ARHAT), or worthy one. Technically speaking, then, this advanced paramatthasaṅgha group constitutes the saṃgha jewel. The paramatthasaṅgha is contrasted in the Pāli commentaries with the SAMMUTISAṄGHA (S. saṃvṛtisaṃgha) or “conventional saṃgha,” which is comprised of monks and nuns who are still puthujjanas (S. PṚTHAGJANA), or ordinary unenlightened persons. Since the paramatthasaṅgha refers only to those who are both enlightened and ordained, the term necessarily excludes all laymen, enlightened or otherwise, as well as any nonhuman beings (such as divinities, etc.) even if they are enlightened, for nonhuman beings are ineligible for ordination as monks or nuns. Also excluded are all BODHISATTVAs, since by definition in the Pāli tradition bodhisattvas remain unenlightened persons until the night that they attain buddhahood. Buddhas are also excluded from the paramatthasaṅgha because they comprise the buddha jewel among the three jewels. While novices technically are outside the saṃgha by virtue of not having yet received higher ordination (UPASAMPADĀ), enlightened novices are nevertheless included in the paramatthasaṅgha as objects of refuge.

pāramitā. (P. pāramī; T. pha rol tu phyin pa; C. boluomi; J. haramitsu; K. paramil 波羅蜜). In Sanskrit, “perfection,” a virtue or quality developed and practiced by a BODHISATTVA on the path to becoming a buddha. The term is paranomastically glossed by some traditional commentators as “gone beyond” or “gone to the other side” (see PARA), although it seems in fact to derive from Skt. parama, meaning “highest” or “supreme.” The best-known enumeration of the perfections is a group of six: giving (DĀNA), morality (ŚĪLA), patience or forbearance (KṢĀNTI), effort (VĪRYA), concentration (DHYĀNA), and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). There are also lists of ten perfections. In the MAHĀYĀNA (specifically in the DAŚABHŪMIKASŪTRA), the list of ten includes the preceding six, to which are added method (UPĀYA), vow (PRAṆIDHĀNA), power (BALA), and knowledge (JÑĀNA), with the explanation that the bodhisattva practices the perfections in this order on each of the ten bodhisattva stages or grounds (BHŪMI). Thus, giving is perfected on the first bhūmi, morality on the second, and so on. In Pāli sources, where the perfections are called pāramī, the ten perfections are giving (dāna), morality (sīla), renunciation (nekkhamma; S. NAIṢKRAMYA), wisdom (paññā), effort (viriya), patience (khanti), truthfulness (sacca; S. SATYA), determination (adhiṭṭhāna; S. ADHIṢṬHĀNA), loving-kindness (mettā; S. MAITRĪ), and equanimity (upekkhā; S. UPEKṢĀ). The practice of these perfections over the course of the many lifetimes of the bodhisattva’s path eventually fructifies in the achievement of buddhahood. The precise meaning of the perfections is discussed at length, as is the question of how the six (or ten) are to be divided between the categories of merit (PUṆYA) and wisdom (JÑĀNA). For example, according to one interpretation of the six perfections, giving, morality, and patience contribute to the collection of merit (PUṆYASAṂBHĀRA); concentration and wisdom contribute to the collection of wisdom (JÑĀNASAṂBHĀRA), and effort contributes to both. Commentators also consider what distinguishes the practice of these six from other instances of the practice of giving, etc. Some MADHYAMAKA exegetes, for example, argue that these virtues only become perfections when the bodhisattva engages in them with an understanding of emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ); for example, giving a gift without clinging to any conception of giver, gift, or recipient.

pāramitāyāna. (T. phar phyin theg pa). In Sanskrit, “perfection vehicle.” In scholastic tantric literature, the MAHĀYĀNA is sometimes divided into the pāramitāyāna and the VAJRAYĀNA, with the former referring to the path of the BODHISATTVA, set forth in Mahāyāna sūtras and focused on the practice of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). The vajrayāna is represented as a faster and more effective route, set forth in the tantras, to the same goal of buddhahood. In this way, the Mahāyāna is represented as having both exoteric and esoteric forms. The pāramitāyāna is also called the pāramitānaya, or “perfection mode.”

paraṃparā. (T. rgyud pa; C. xiangcheng; J. sōjō; K. sangsŭng 相承). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “succession,” “lineage”; a lineage of teachers and disciples (ācāryaparaṃparā), through which the specific teachings and practices of a teacher are transmitted down through successive generations of students. The term, also important in both Hindu and JAINA traditions, has the sense of instructions passed down orally from master to disciple over the generations. In Buddhism, paraṃparā refers most often to a transmission of teachings that can be traced from the present time and place back to India and to the Buddha. Although such transmission is particularly important in Buddhist TANTRA and in the CHAN traditions of East Asia, it is a dominant element throughout the Buddhist world, including the ordination lineages of monks and nuns. See also CHUANDENGLU; FASI; YINKE.

paranirmitavaśavartin. (P. paranimmitavasavatti; T. gzhan ’phrul dbang byed; C. tahuazizai tian; J. takejizaiten; K. t’ahwajajaech’ŏn 他化自在天). In Sanskrit, “controlling the emanations of others,” the sixth and highest of the six heavens of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU). This heaven is so named because the divinities there not only control their own emanations or creations (as do the divinities of the heaven of the enjoyment of creation, or NIRMĀṆARATI), but also have the ability to control the emanations of other beings. They are the tallest and longest-lived of all divinities in the sensuous realm.

paraprasiddhānumāna. (T. gzhan la grags pa’i rjes dpag). In Sanskrit, lit. “inference familiar to another,” a term in Buddhist logic, important especially in the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhist philosophy. Similar to the case of PARĀRTHĀNUMĀNA (“inference for others”), paraprasiddhānumāna refers not to the mental conclusion or an inference drawn from evidence but rather to a logical argument made to an opponent. In this case, “inference familiar to another” refers to an argument consisting of elements that (1) the person stating the argument does not accept and (2) that the opponent accepts (or does not reject). The argument is stated with the intention of causing the opponent to draw the correct conclusion, that is, a conclusion contrary to his own tenets. It is generally the case in Indian logic that all elements of the syllogism must be accepted by both parties in a debate; such a syllogism is referred to as an “autonomous syllogism” (SVATANTRĀNUMĀNA; SVATANTRAPRAYOGA). This is not the case with the inference familiar to another, in which the elements of the syllogism are accepted only by the opponent. In the Madhyamaka school, there was a controversy over whether such syllogisms were acceptable when a Madhyamaka adherent debated with a proponent of another school. The locus classicus of the controversy is the debate between BHĀVAVIVEKA and CANDRAKĪRTI concerning BUDDHAPĀLITA’s commentary on the first chapter of NĀGĀRJUNA’s MŪLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. It was Candrakīrti’s position that the Madhyamaka should use only consequences (PRASAṄGA) or an inference familiar to others; to use an autonomous syllogism implied acceptance of intrinsically established relations among the elements of the syllogism. Bhāvaviveka had argued that it was necessary for the Madhyamaka to state an autonomous syllogism at the conclusion of a debate. Based on this controversy, the terms *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAṄGIKA were coined retrospectively in Tibet to describe later developments within the Indian Madhyamaka school.

parārtha. (T. gzhan don; C. lita; J. rita; K. it’a 利他). In Sanskrit, “welfare of others,” “benefiting others.” As part of his training, a BODHISATTVA, out of his concern for the welfare of others, willingly relinquishes motivations and deeds that would lead to his own personal benefit. For example, in the JĀTAKA stories, the bodhisattva repeatedly sacrifices his own welfare, and often his own life, for the benefit of others. This compassionate motivation is contrasted with the more selfish motivation of “benefiting oneself” (SVĀRTHA). However, it is said that through the practice of the bodhisattva path, one achieves buddhahood in which both of these two aims (ARTHA) are fulfilled. The welfare of others is fulfilled because the bodhisattva becomes a buddha who teaches the dharma to sentient beings. The welfare of oneself (that is, the bodhisattva himself) is fulfilled because, by achieving buddhahood, the bodhisattva achieves omniscience and liberation from rebirth.

parārthānumāna. (T. gzhan don rjes dpag; C. tabiliang; J. tahiryō; K. t’apiryang 他比量). In Sanskrit, “inference for others,” a key term in Buddhist logic. Two types of inference (ANUMĀNA) are set forth: inference for oneself (SVĀRTHĀNUMĀNA) and inference for others. The former generally refers to the mental process of inference whereby a conclusion is arrived upon based on evidence. In contrast, inference for others is not an inference in a technical sense but only metaphorically. It refers to the statement that would be made to another person, such as an opponent in a debate, in order for that person to arrive at the correct conclusion. Precisely what constitutes such a statement—especially how much and how little is to be said—is a major topic of Buddhist logic. For example, there is discussion of whether the actual conclusion that one wishes the other person to draw must be formally stated, or not. In a standard example of an inference for others, the conclusion would not be stated. Thus, to someone who thought that sound is permanent, one might say: “Whatever is produced is impermanent, such as a clay pot. Sound is produced.” The fourth chapter of DHARMAKĪRTI’s PRAMĀṆAVĀRTTIKA is devoted to the topic of inference for others. See PARAPRASIDDHĀNUMĀNA.

parasaṃbhogakāya. (C. ta shouyong shen; J. tajuyūshin; K. t’a suyong sin 他受用身). In Sanskrit, “body intended for others’ enjoyment”; one of the four types of buddha bodies (BUDDHAKĀYA) discussed in the BUDDHABHŪMIŚĀSTRA (C. Fodijing lun), the MAHĀYĀNASAṂGRAHA (C. She dasheng lun), and the CHENG WEISHI LUN (S. *Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi), along with the “self-nature body” (SVABHĀVAKĀYA), “body intended for personal enjoyment” (SVASAṂBHOGAKĀYA), and “transformation body” (NIRMĀṆAKĀYA). This fourfold schema of buddha bodies derives from the better-known three bodies of a buddha (TRIKĀYA)—viz., dharma body (DHARMAKĀYA), reward body (SAṂBHOGAKĀYA), and transformation body (nirmāṇakāya)—but distinguishes between two different types of enjoyment bodies. The first, the svasaṃbhogakāya, derives from the countless virtues that originate from the accumulation of immeasurable merit and wisdom over a buddha’s infinitely long career; this body is a perfect, pure, eternal, and omnipresent material body that enjoys the bliss of dharma (DHARMAPRĪTI) for oneself until the end of time. By contrast, the parasaṃbhogakāya is a subtle virtuous body deriving from the wisdom of equality (SAMATĀJÑĀNA), which resides in a PURE LAND and displays supernatural powers in order to enhance the enjoyment of the dharma by bodhisattvas at all ten stages of the bodhisattva’s career (BODHISATTVABHŪMI).

paratantra. (T. gzhan dbang; C. yitaqi xing; J. etakishō; K. ŭit’agi sŏng 依他起性). In Sanskrit, lit., “other-powered,” viz., “dependent”; the second of the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), a central tenet of the YOGĀCĀRA school in which all phenomena are classified as having three natures: an imaginary (PARIKALPITA), dependent (paratantra), and consummate (PARINIṢPANNA) nature. In the Yogācāra system, external objects do not exist as materially distinct entities that are separate from the consciousness that perceives them. According to this school, the perception of forms, sounds, smells, and so on is produced not by an external sensory stimulus, but from the ripening of karmic seeds (BĪJA); i.e., from residual impressions (literally “perfumings”; see VĀSANĀ) left by earlier perceptions of a similar type. The paratantra is the category of dependently originated, impermanent phenomena that arise from seeds stored in the foundational consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA), seeds that fructify as states of consciousness. Sentient beings do not comprehend the paratantra nature because sense experience is distorted by subject-object bifurcation (see GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA), called the imaginary (parikalpita) nature. The paratantra category encompasses all impermanent phenomena, which are produced in dependence on causes and conditions. The SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA describes the paratantra as lacking any intrinsic nature of production (utpattiniḥsvabhāvatā); that is, no impermanent phenomenon can produce itself. They provide for the functioning of SAṂSĀRA and the path to NIRVĀṆA and enlightenment (BODHI). However, they also serve as the basis of misconceptions (parikalpita) due to ignorance, which falsely imagines objects to be separate entities from the consciousness that perceives them. The absence of this falsely imagined separation with regard to dependent phenomena is called the consummate (pariniṣpanna).

parātmaparivartana. (T. bdag gzhan brje ba). In Sanskrit, “exchange of self and other,” a method for developing BODHICITTA, or the aspiration to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings from suffering. As described by ŚĀNTIDEVA in the eighth chapter of his BODHICARYĀVATĀRA, the BODHISATTVA should take one’s natural sense of self-cherishing and transfer that to others, while taking one’s natural disregard for others and transfer that to oneself. In this way, one can then seek the welfare of others as one once sought one’s own welfare, and abandon one’s own welfare as one once abandoned the welfare of others. The goal is for the bodhisattva to develop the aspiration to give all of one’s happiness to others and to take all of the sufferings of others upon oneself.

parātmasamatā. (T. bdag gzhan mnyam pa; C. zita pingdeng; J. jita byōdō; K. chat’a p’yŏngdŭng 自他平等). In Sanskrit, “equalizing self and other,” a method for developing BODHICITTA, or the aspiration to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings from suffering. In the eighth chapter of his BODHICARYĀVATĀRA, ŚĀNTIDEVA, drawing apparently on the Tathāgataguhyasūtra, explains that there is no reason to cherish oneself over others, because both oneself and others equally wish for happiness and equally wish to avoid suffering. If suffering is to be dispelled, it should be done without distinguishing whether that suffering is experienced by oneself or by another sentient being. This equalizing of self and other is considered a prerequisite for the “exchange of self and other” (PARĀTMAPARIVARTANA).

paricchedajarāmaraṇa. (C. fenduan shengsi; J. bundan shōji; K. pundan saengsa 分段生死). In Sanskrit, “determinative birth-and-death,” one of the two categories of SAṂSĀRA as delineated in the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi), along with transfigurational birth-and-death (PARIṆĀMIKAJARĀMARAṆA); this is saṃsāra as experienced by ordinary sentient beings taking rebirth within the three realms of existence (TRAIDHĀTUKA). (In this compound, jarāmaraṇa does not mean only “old age and death,” but is used as an abbreviation for the whole panoply of human experience, viz. “birth, old age, sickness, and death.”) While the mind-made bodies (MANOMAYAKĀYA) of ARHATs or great BODHISATTVAs may undergo transfigurational birth-and-death (pariṇāmikajarāmaraṇa) and are thus able to change their appearance and life span at will, the physical bodies of ordinary sentient beings are restricted in their longevity, appearance, and size and are thus subject to determinative birth-and-death. The main causes and conditions that lead to determinative birth-and-death are contaminated action (SĀSRAVA-KARMAN) and the afflictive obstructions (KLEŚĀVARAṆA); transfigurational birth-and-death is instead conceived to result from uncontaminated action (ANĀSRAVA-KARMAN) and the cognitive obstructions (JÑEYĀVARAṆA) that still remain even after overcoming the afflictive obstructions.

parihāṇi. (P. parihāni; T. yongs su nyams pa; C. tui; J. tai; K. t’oe 退). In Sanskrit, lit., “diminution,” “retrogression,” or “backsliding” from virtuous states that had previously been cultivated or mastered. Parihāṇi refers specifically to the diminution of mental states that had been directed toward liberation (VIMUKTI), which allows mental disturbances to reappear and thus causes regression to previous habitual tendencies involving unwholesome or mundane thoughts and activities. The term often appears in debates concerning the issue of whether the noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) are subject to backsliding. Such MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS as the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA, SARVĀSTIVĀDA, and SAṂMITĪYA argued, for example, that ARHATs were subject to backsliding because they were still prone to vestigial negative proclivities of mind (ANUŚAYA), even if those only manifested themselves while the monks were sleeping, e.g., nocturnal emissions. The STHAVIRANIKĀYA argued that arhats were not subject to backsliding since they had perfected all the necessary stages of training and were free from such proclivities. Related to this issue are discussions concerning the status of once-returners (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN) and nonreturners (ANĀGĀMIN): the majority of schools posited that once-returners and nonreturners could regress to the status of the stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), the first level of sanctity, but that the status of the stream-enterer was not subject to retrogression and was thus inviolate. In the PURE LAND tradition, backsliding is a core rationale justifying the pure land teachings, since, in the world of SAṂSĀRA, backsliding is inevitable for all except the most resolute practitioners. According to the AMITĀBHASŪTRA, for example, sentient beings have accumulated karmic burdens since time immemorial and are invariably subject to backsliding; thus, they will never be able to escape from the endless cycle of birth-and-death on their own. For this reason, the buddha AMITĀBHA encourages them to seek rebirth in the pure land, instead, where they will have no hindrances to their eventual attainment of liberation. In the MAHĀYĀNA tradition, reaching the stage where there no longer is any prospect of regression is a crucial threshold on the path to liberation. Different scriptures place this point of nonbacksliding at different stages along the path. One of the most common explanations about which stage is “irreversible” (AVAIVARTIKA) appears in the DAŚABHŪMIKASŪTRA, which locates it on the eighth stage (BHŪMI), the “immovable” (ACALĀ), where further progress is assured and where there is no possible of retrogressing to a preceding stage. However, HARIBHADRA in his commentary on the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA identifies two earlier points at which the bodhisattva becomes irreversible, one on the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA) and one on the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA).

parikalpita. (T. kun btags; C. bianji suozhi xing; J. henge shoshūshō; K. pyŏn’gye sojip sŏng 遍計所執性). In Sanskrit, “imputed,” “imaginary,” or “artificial,” the first of the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), a central tenet of the YOGĀCĀRA school, in which all phenomena are classified as having three natures: an imaginary (parikalpita), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (PARINIṢPANNA) nature. The Yogācāra “mind only” (CITTAMĀTRA) system expounded in the YOGĀCĀRABHŪMI, MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, MAHĀYĀNASŪTRĀLAṂKĀRA, and the commentaries of ASAṄGA and VASUBANDHU asserts that external objects do not exist as materially different entities, separate from the consciousness that perceives them; all ordinary appearances are distorted by subject-object bifurcation (see GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). Forms, sounds, and so on are only seen by ordinary persons in their imaginary (parikalpita) nature. In this system, which denies the existence of external objects, the imaginary refers to the falsely perceived nature of objects as entities that exist separate from the consciousness that perceives them. Karmic seeds (BĪJA), classified as dependent (paratantra), fructify to produce both the perceiving consciousness and the perceived object. However, due to ignorance (AVIDYĀ), subject and object are imagined to be distant from each other, with objects constituting an external world independent of the consciousness that perceives it. The constituents of such an external world are deemed imaginary (parikalpita). The term parikalpita is also used by DHARMAKĪRTI and his Yogācāra followers, who assert that the grāhyagrāhakavikalpa distortion makes objects appear to be naturally the bases of the terms used to designate them although they in fact do not. The SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA describes the parikalpita as lacking the nature of characteristics (lakṣaṇaniḥsvabhāvatā).

parikalpitakleśāvaraṇa. (T. nyon sgrib kun btags; C. fenbie huo; J. funbetsuwaku; K. punbyŏl hok 分別惑). In Sanskrit, “imaginary” or “artificial” “afflictive obstructions,” those obstructions (ĀVARAṆA) to liberation that derive from mistaken conceptions of self (ĀTMAN) generated through the study of flawed philosophical systems in the present lifetime. This type is in distinction to SAHAJAKLEŚĀVARAṆA, “innate afflictive obstructions,” which derive from the mistaken conceptions of self generated and reinforced over the course of many lifetimes. In progressing along the path to liberation, the parikalpitakleśāvaraṇa are said to be easier to abandon than the sahajakleśāvaraṇa.

parikalpitātmagraha. (T. bdag ’dzin kun btags; C. fenbie wozhi; J. funbetsugashū; K. punbyŏl ajip 分別我執). In Sanskrit, “artificial conception of self,” a term used to refer to the conception of self acquired during a human lifetime through the study of false systems of tenets, such as those that assert the existence of a permanent self or soul (ĀTMAN). It is contrasted with the “innate conception of self” (SAHAJĀTMAGRAHA), the deep-seated conception of self that is carried by all sentient beings from lifetime to lifetime. Those on the path to enlightenment abandon the artificial conception of self more easily than the innate conception of self.

parikalpitāvidyā. (T. kun btags ma rig pa; C. fenbie wuming; J. funbetsumumyō; K. punbyŏl mumyŏng 分別無明). In Sanskrit, “imaginary” or “artificial ignorance”; the form of ignorance that derives from the study and adoption of mistaken philosophical views during the present lifetime of a human being. It is thus more superficial and more easily overcome than the “innate ignorance” (SAHAJĀVIDYA) that is accumulated over the course of many lifetimes. Because of its more superficial nature, imaginary ignorance is not cited as the cause of cyclical existence; rebirth is instead said to be caused by innate ignorance. Imaginary ignorance is, however, understood to be the cause of the multitude of wrong views (MITHYĀDṚṢṬI) regarding the nature of the self.

parikammanimitta. In Pāli, “preparatory image” or “preliminary sign;” the first of the three major visualization signs experienced in tranquillity (P. samatha; S. ŚAMATHA) exercises, along with the UGGAHANIMITTA (eidetic image) and the PAṬIBHĀGANIMITTA (representational or counterpart image). Any object of attention, such as a visualization device (KASIṆA) that is used in the initial development of concentration, is termed a parikammanimitta. Generally, these devices involve visual objects such as fire, a circle of earth, or a particular color, though the breath may also be considered a parikammanimitta. These three signs and the meditative exercises employed to experience them are discussed in detail in BUDDHAGHOSA’s VISUDDHIMAGGA, where they are listed sequentially according to the degree of concentration necessary for them to appear. In these exercises, the meditator attempts to convert a visual object of meditation, such as earth, fire, or a color, into a mental projection or conceptualization that is as clear as the visual image itself. The image the practitioner views with his eyes is called the parikammanimitta or “preparatory image,” and the effort the practitioner makes is called parikammabhāvanā. When that parikammanimitta is equally clear when visualized in the mind, the practitioner is then said to have obtained the uggahanimitta (eidetic image). Even that image, however, still represents a relatively weak degree of concentration, and it must be enhanced until the paṭibhāganimitta, or “counterpart image,” emerges, which marks the access to meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA, S. DHYĀNA).

parikammasamādhi. In Pāli, “preparatory concentration”; a preliminary degree of concentration established at the beginning of a meditative development; parikammasamādhi takes as its object an initial mental image called the PARIKAMMANIMITTA (preparatory image). The parikkamanimitta can be developed on the basis of any number of mental or physical objects used as supports. One such object could be, for example, a blue circle used as an external visualization device (KASIṆA). The preparatory image so generated is crude, weak, and unstable. With the deepening of concentration, however, the image becomes refined, at which point it is called an “eidetic image” (UGGAHANIMITTA). Through increased concentration, the uggahanimitta eventually is displaced by a clear luminous image called the “representational” or “counterpart” “image” (PAṬIBHĀGANIMITTA), at which point the mind enters the next stage of concentration, called UPACĀRASAMĀDHI or “access concentration,” which may eventually develop into thoroughgoing “meditative absorption” (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA).

pariṇāmanā. (T. yongs su bsngo ba; C. huixiang; J. ekō; K. hoehyang 廻向). In Sanskrit, “dedication,” the practice of mentally or ritually directing the merit (PUṆYA) produced from a virtuous (KUŚALA) deed or deeds (KARMAN) to a particular aim. Merit may be dedicated to the benefit of all sentient beings or to the benefit of a specific person or persons (such as a family member), but the term is used especially to refer to the dedication of the merit accumulated by a BODHISATTVA to the greater goal of achieving buddhahood so that one may be able to liberate all beings from suffering. Merit may also be dedicated toward the goal of a rebirth in a specific realm (such as a PURE LAND or the heavens) in the next lifetime. The dedication of merit is a standard element of Mahāyāna ritual (PŪJĀ) and meditative practices and is often praised as a means of protecting virtuous faculties (KUŚALAMŪLA) from being destroyed by unwholesome states of mind. See also PATTIDĀNA.

pariṇāmikajarāmaraṇa. [alt. pariṇāmikijarāmaraṇa] (C. bianyi shengsi; J. henyaku shoji; K. pyŏnyŏk saengsa 變易生死). In Sanskrit, “transfigurational birth-and-death,” one of the two categories of SAṂSĀRA as delineated in the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi), along with determinative birth-and-death (PARICCHEDAJARĀMARAṆA); this is saṃsāra as experienced by an ARHAT or great BODHISATTVA (vaśitāprāptabodhisattva). (In this compound, jarāmaraṇa does not mean only “old age and death,” but is used as an abbreviation for the whole panoply of human existence, viz. “birth, old age, sickness, and death.”) Since these noble (ĀRYA) beings have already achieved some measure of enlightenment, when they undergo rebirth and death in the three realms of existence (TRAIDHĀTUKA), these occur as a “transfigurational birth-and-death” of the “mind-made body” (MANOMAYAKĀYA), not a “determinative birth-and-death” of the physical body. Although these beings have overcome the afflictive obstructions (KLEŚĀVARAṆA) that tie one to the cycle of saṃsāra (and specifically to paricchedajarāmaraṇa), they may still be subject to the cognitive obstructions (JÑEYĀVARAṆA) that block full understanding (JÑĀNA); thus, while they may still engage in actions, these are non-karma-producing actions (viz., “uncontaminated actions,” or ANĀSRAVAKARMAN) that do not lead to a determinative rebirth. While such beings may then appear to be reborn, these rebirths are actually transfigurations of their mind-made bodies (manomayakāya), which may be manipulated at will to change their appearances or to extend their life spans indefinitely.

parinirvāṇa. (P. parinibbāna; T. yongs su mya ngan las ’das pa; C. banniepan; J. hatsunehan; K. panyŏlban 般涅槃). In Sanskrit, “final nirvāṇa” or “complete nirvāṇa,” the final passage into NIRVĀṆA upon the death of a buddha or an ARHAT. The term is most widely associated with the passing away of the buddha ŚĀKYAMUNI. Delineations of the Buddhist path set forth the experience of nirvāṇa in two phases. The first occurs when all of the causes for future rebirth have been destroyed, at which point one becomes an arhat or a buddha. However, the karmic seed that had fructified as the final lifetime has not yet run its full course, and thus the enlightened person does not instantly die and pass into nirvāṇa, but instead lives out the remainder of his or her lifetime. This type of nirvāṇa is sometimes called the “nirvāṇa with remainder” (SOPADHIŚEṢANIRVĀṆA). When the term of the last lifetime comes to an end, there is a total extinction of all conventional physical and mental existence because the adept has previously brought an absolute end to any propensity toward defilement (KLEŚA) and eradicated all the causes that would lead to any prospect of future rebirth. The nirvāṇa that is experienced at death is thus “without remainder” (ANUPADHIŚEṢANIRVĀṆA), because there are no physical or mental constituents remaining that were the products of previous KARMAN; the “nirvāṇa without remainder” is therefore synonymous with parinirvāṇa. The parinirvāṇa of the Buddha is one of the most important scenes in all of Buddhist art and literature. It is described at length in both the eponymous Pāli MAHĀPARINIBBĀNASUTTA and Sanskrit MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA. Images of the “reclining buddha” depict the buddha at the time of his parinirvāṇa.

pariniṣpanna. (T. yongs su grub pa; C. yuanchengshi xing; J. enjōjisshō; K. wŏnsŏngsil sŏng 圓成實性). In Sanskrit, “perfected” or “consummate,” the third of the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), a central tenet of the YOGĀCĀRA school, in which all phenomena are classified as having three natures: an imaginary (PARIKALPITA), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (pariniṣpanna) nature. Pariniṣpanna is the emptiness or lack of an imaginary external world (bāhyārtha) materially different from the consciousness that perceives it. The paratantra category encompasses the conventional truth (SAṂVṚTISATYA) of dependently originated impermanent phenomena that arise from seeds stored in the foundational consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA). The pariniṣpanna category is their ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). Thus pariniṣpannasvabhāva, the consummate nature, is an absence of an object that is different in nature from the consciousness that perceives it. The consummate (pariniṣpanna) is sometimes defined as the absence of the imaginary (parikalpita) in the dependent (paratantra). The consummate nature is the highest reality according to Yogācāra; the SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA describes it as paramārthaniḥsvabhāva, the “lack of intrinsic nature, which is the ultimate.”

pariṣad. (P. parisā; T. ’khor; C. zhonghui; J. shue; K. chunghoe 衆會). In Sanskrit, “following,” “assembly,” or “congregation”; the followers of the buddha, said to consist of four groups: monks (BHIKṢU), nuns (BHIKṢUṆĪ), male lay disciples (UPĀSAKA), and female lay disciples (UPĀSIKĀ). The term is often used to designate the followers of the Buddha collectively, whereas the term SAṂGHA is generally used in a more limited sense to designate the ordained followers, or the enlightened ordained. See ĀRYASAṂGHA; PARAMĀRTHASAṂGHA.

pariṣkāra. (P. parikkhāra; T. yo byad; C. ziju/daoju; J. shigu/dōgu; K. chagu/togu 資具/道具). In Sanskrit, “requisites,” “personal belongings,” “equipment”; the minimal possessions of food, shelter, and clothing that Buddhist monks and nuns were permitted to possess as “requisites” for their physical survival. A list of four such requisites is commonly found in the VINAYA literature: robes (CĪVARA; TRICĪVARA); alms bowl (PĀTRA); seat and bed (śayanāsana); and medicine to cure illness (glānapratyayabhaiṣajya). In the Pāli recension of the vinaya, there are eight requisites: (1) the three robes, consisting of the inner robe (ANTARAVĀSAKA), the upper robe (UTTARĀSAṄGA), and a cloak or shawl (SAṂGHĀṬĪ); (2) a waist band or belt (kāyabandhana); (3) an alms bowl (P. patta; S. pātra); (4) a sitting mat (nisīdana); (5) a piece of cloth for filtering water to prevent the accidental death of insects (P. parissāvana; S. PARISRĀVAṆA); (6) a jug for collecting water (dhammakaraka); (7) sewing needles kept in a small box (sūcighara); and (8) a razor for shaving (vāsi). There is also a list of thirteen, one version of which includes the three robes, a mat, two undergarments, two garments for absorbing perspiration, a face towel, a towel for the body, a bandage, a cloth for catching hair when shaving, and a cloth bag for medicines. There are also lists of eighteen requisites. Perhaps reflecting the increasing needs of a large and mainly sedentary monastic community, longer lists also appear. The MAHĀVYUTPATTI lists one hundred requisites of a ŚRAMAṆA, including various dining utensils and containers, shoes, mattresses, cushions, stools, brooms, a mosquito net, a hatchet, a hook for hanging things on the wall, and an iron chain. When not involving a specific list, pariṣkāra may also refer generically to anything that may appropriately be offered to a monk or nun. The term is also occasionally used in the sense of “spiritual requisites” or “equipment,” as in a list of seven pariṣkāra, which refer to the first seven steps in the eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA) that culminate in right SAMĀDHI. The rationale behind the pariṣkāra is that they demonstrate that a monk shuns luxury and lives only on the bare essentials that are absolutely necessary for survival. Inevitably, however, the list more often represents an ideal rather than the actual state of monastic affairs. See also NIŚRAYA.

pariṣkāravaśitā. (T. yo byad la dbang ba; C. caizizai; J. zaijizai; K. chaejajae 財自在). In Sanskrit, lit. “power of requisites” or “equipment”; one of the ten powers of an advanced BODHISATTVA, which are discussed in the BODHISATTVABHŪMI. Pariṣkāravaśitā indicates the power of a bodhisattva miraculously to produce the requisites, or “equipment” of life (such as food, shelter, and clothing). The Bodhisattvabhūmi explains that, as with the other nine powers, pariṣkāravaśitā is acquired through merit accumulated through the practice of a variety of selfless acts.

parisrāvaṇa. (P. parissāvana; T. chu tshags; C. lushui nang; J. rokusuinō; K. noksu nang 漉水囊). In Sanskrit, “strainer” or “filter”; one of the requisites (PARIṢKĀRA) of a Buddhist mendicant, which was to be placed over a vessel as water is poured into it in order to avoid the accidental drowning of insects. Although according to Buddhist karmic theory, only the intentional killing of insects had negative karmic effects, Buddhist monks and nuns, like their JAINA counterparts, sought in this way to avoid harming insects while also providing some measure of purification for their drinking water.

pariśuddha. (T. yongs su dag pa; C. qingjing; J. shōjō; K. ch’ŏngjŏng 清淨). In Sanskrit, “purified” or “cleansed”; a state that is free from afflictions or defilements (KLEŚA). In the Buddhist tradition, the term can be applied in a number of ways. The body, speech, and mind of a buddha are described as pariśuddha, as are many of the SŪTRAs that contain his teaching. The buddha-fields (BUDDHAKṢETRA) or PURE LANDs of AMITĀBHA and AKṢOBHYA are also described as pariśuddha. In doctrinal developments such as those associated with the TATHĀGATAGARBHA tradition, pariśuddha is used to characterize the inherent, inviolable nature that underlies the reality of all beings. This term is also used to describe the conduct of those who adhere to the teachings, as in the formulation pariśuddhakāyasamācāra, or “purity in bodily conduct.” Pariśuddha is often coupled with the related term paryavadāta, also meaning “clean” or “pure”; in compound, they are often translated as “bright (or white) and pure.”

pariśuddhabuddhakṣetra. (T. sangs rgyas kyi shing yongs su dag pa; C. qingjing foguotu; J. shōjō bukkokudo; K. ch’ŏngjŏng pulgukt’o 清淨佛國土). In Sanskrit, “purified buddha-field.” In the MAHĀYĀNA, when a buddha attains enlightenment, he not only achieves the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of a buddha, but also creates a land in which he will preach the dharma. That land can be either pure, impure, or mixed. A pure buddha field may be one in which the inhabitants engage in only virtuous deeds and experience no suffering. The term is also used to describe a buddha-field that does not include the unfortunate realms (APĀYA; DURGATI) of animals, ghosts, and hell denizens. The buddha-field of Amitābha, SUKHĀVATĪ, is a pure field in these two senses (although the term pariśuddhabuddhakṣetra does not appear in the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA). The term may also be used with regard to whether the inhabitants of the buddha-field are all BODHISATTVAs, or all ĀRYABODHISATTVAs, that is, those who have achieved at least the first BHŪMI. It is possible that the Chinese term JINGTU (the source of the English term “PURE LAND”), which does not appear to be a direct translation from Sanskrit, derives from pariśuddhabuddhakṣetra, perhaps as an abbreviation of it. In the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA’s explanation of the PAÑCAVIṂŚATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA, the pariśuddhabuddhakṣetra is twofold, corresponding to the BHĀJANALOKA (“container world,” referring to the wider environment or the physical or inanimate world) and the SATTVALOKA, the “world of sentient beings,” who are the inhabitants of that “container.” A degraded environment with treeless deserts, thornbushes, and so on is impure; when beings are sick and hungry, etc., the sattvaloka is impure. The perfect purity of a buddha-field comes about when a bodhisattva achieves the purity of those two worlds by counteracting their imperfections through the creation of an entirely pleasant environment, and through the supply of food, clothing, shelter, etc.

paritta. [alt. parittā] (BHS. parītta, T. yongs su skyob pa; C. minghu/minghu jing; J. myōgo/myōgokyō; K. myŏngho/myŏngho kyŏng 明護/明護經). In Pāli, “protection” (classical S. paritrāṇa); referring to both the practice of reciting a short passage from a SŪTRA in order to draw on the text’s apotropaic powers, as well as to the passages themselves. The use of paritta are said to have been sanctioned by the Buddha: after a monk had died of a snake bite, the Buddha recited a text (the Khandhaparitta, or “Protection of the Aggregates”) for the monks to repeat as protection, which states that loving-kindness (P. mettā; S. MAITRĪ) and the infinite power of the Buddha, DHARMA, and SAṂGHA would guard the monks from the finite power of snakes, scorpions, and other dangerous creatures. There were many specific instances that subsequently led the Buddha to deliver different paritta verses, including protection from evil spirits, the assurance of good fortune, exorcism, curing serious illness, and even safe childbirth. The power of these verses often is thought to derive from an asseveration of truth (S. SATYAVACANA; P. saccavacana, saccakiriyā), as in the famous paritta associated with AṄGULIMĀLA, who offered this statement to help ease a woman’s labor pains: “Since I was born of āryan birth, O sister, I am not aware of having intentionally deprived any living being of its life. By this asseveration of truth, may you be well and may your unborn child be well.” (There is intentional irony in this statement, since Aṅgulimāla was well known to have been a murderous highwayman before he became a monk; his “āryan birth” here refers to his ordination into the SAṂGHA.) ¶ Collections of paritta are particularly common in Southeast Asian Buddhism, and the texts included in these collections are among the most widely known of Buddhist scriptures among the laity. One of the most popular such Pāli anthologies is the Catubhanavara (“The Text of the Four Recitals”), which contains twenty-nine (or in some recensions twenty-four) Pāli suttas whose protective powers are thought to be particularly efficacious. (This text is widely used in Sri Lanka, where it is known as the Pirit Potha.) Scriptures commonly presumed to have apotropaic powers in Pāli Buddhism include the METTĀSUTTA (“Discourse on Loving-Kindness”), the MAṄGALASUTTA (“Discourse on the Auspicious”), the RATANASUTTA (“Discourse on the Precious”), and the ĀTĀNĀTIYASUTTA (“Discourse on the Ātānātiya Protective Spell”). The recitation of these texts accompanies all sorts of Buddhist ceremonies, from weddings to funerals to house blessings. In Southeast Asia, the monks performing a parittarecitation ritual are sometimes connected to the congregation with a ritual string, through which blessings and protection are transferred to the participants. See also RAKṢĀ.

parīttābha. (P. parittābhā; T. ’od chung; C. shaoguang tian; J. shōkōten; K. sogwang ch’ŏn 少光天). In Sanskrit, “lesser radiance,” the lowest of the three heavens of the second meditative absorption (DHYĀNA) associated with the subtle-materiality realm (RŪPADHĀTU). The divinities of this heaven are so named because their bodies emanate less light than those of the divinities of the upper realms of the second dhyāna. As with all the heavens of the subtle-materiality realm, one is reborn as a divinity there through achieving the same level of absorption (dhyāna) as the gods of that heaven during one’s practice of meditation in a previous lifetime.