kaṣāya. (P. kasāya; T. snyigs ma; C. zhuo; J. joku; K. t’ak 濁). In Sanskrit, lit. “turbidity,” “degeneration,” or “degradation,” etc., referring especially to a list of five degradations that are said to mark the period of degeneracy in the cosmic cycle, when the human life span has declined to between one hundred years and ten years. (Humans are thought to have longer, even much longer, life spans in more salutary periods of the eon.) The five are (1) degeneration of the life span (āyuḥkaṣāya), because the life span has diminished; (2) degeneration of views (dṛṣṭikaṣāya), because wrong views (MITHYĀDṚṢṬI) are so prevalent; (3) degeneration of afflictions (kleśakaṣāya), because the afflictions (KLEŚA) have become so much worse; (4) degeneration of sentient beings (sattvakaṣāya), because living creatures are mentally and physically inferior; and (5) degeneration of the age (kalpakaṣāya), because the world and the environment have worsened. A buddha does not appear in the world during a period marked by the five degenerations, but only during the salutary eon (see BHADRAKALPA).

kāṣāya. (P. kāsāya; T. ngur smrig; C. jiasha; J. kesa; K. kasa 袈裟). In Sanskrit, “dyed” (lit. “turbid-colored”) robes (CĪVARA), referring to the robes of an ordained monk or nun, which were traditionally required to be sewn from pieces of soiled cloth and “dyed” to a reddish- or brownish-yellow saffron color or ochre tone; also spelled kaṣāya. Although the color that eventually came to be used in different Buddhist traditions varied, the important feature was that it be a mixed or muddied hue—and thus impure—and not a pure primary color. This impurity would help monastics develop a sense of nonattachment even toward their own clothing. According to the VINAYA, the kāṣāya robe is also supposed to be sewn from sullied cloth that ordinary laypeople would be loath to use for clothing, such as rag cloth or funerary shrouds. Even new cloth offered to the SAṂGHA will typically be ritually defiled so that it fulfills this requirement. The final requirement for the kāṣāya robe is that it be sewn from pieces of cloth, not single sheets of new cloth, which were thought to be too luxurious. Robes were sewn from an odd-numbered series of vertical panels, typically five, seven, or nine in number, with each panel also in segments and the whole construction surrounded by a cloth edging. The Buddha is said to have received his inspiration for this patchwork design of the kāṣāya while he was looking over a field of rice paddies with their surrounding embankments. Robes were one of the four major requisites (S. NIŚRAYA; P. nissaya) of the monks and nuns, along with such basics as a begging bowl (PĀTRA), and were the object of the KAṬHINA ceremony, in which the monastics were offered cloth for making new sets of robes at the end of each rain’s retreat (VARṢĀ). Robes eventually became symbolic of sectarian affiliation and institutional status within the various Buddhist traditions and are made in an array of bright colors and luxurious fabrics; but even the fanciest of robes will still typically be sewn in the patchwork fashion of the original kāṣāya. See also CĪVARA; TRICĪVARA.

Kashmir-Gandhāra. [alt. Kāśmīra-Gandhāra]. A district in northwest India corresponding to modern Kashmir. According to Pāli tradition, this area was the destination of one of the nine Buddhist missions dispatched from Pāṭaliputta (S. PĀṬALIPUTRA) to adjacent lands (paccantadesa) by the elder MOGGALIPUTTATISSA; this mission is said to have occurred during the reign of the Mauryan king AŚOKA, following the third Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, THIRD) in the third century BCE. The elder Majjhantika (S. MADHYĀNTIKA) was said to have been in charge of the mission to this region. The third council at Pāṭaliputta and the nine Buddhist missions are known only in Pāli sources and are first recorded in the fifth century CE DĪPAVAṂSA. Burmese chroniclers instead identify Kashmir–Gandhāra with the kingdom of Nanchao in what is the modern Chinese province of Yunnan. See also GANDHĀRA.

Kassapasīhanādasutta. (S. Kāśyapasiṃhanādasūtra; C. Luoxing fanzhi jing; J. Ragyōbonjikyō; K. Nahyŏng pŏmji kyŏng 倮形梵志經). In Pāli, “Discourse on the Lion’s Roar of Kassapa”; the eighth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the twenty-fifth SŪTRA in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA), preached by the Buddha to the naked ascetic Acela Kassapa at Ujuñña in the Kaṇṇakattha deer park. Acela Kassapa approaches the Buddha and inquires whether it is true that he reviles all ascetic practices (see TAPAS) or whether this is a misrepresentation of his teachings. The Buddha states that he does not revile ascetic practices but that the proper course of action for mendicants is to follow the noble eightfold path (P. ariyāṭṭhaṅgikamagga; S. ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA). Acela Kassapa inquires about the efficacy of numerous ascetic practices engaged in by mendicants of the time. The Buddha responds that, even should one follow all of these practices scrupulously but still not be perfect in morality (sīlasampadā), in mentality (cittasampadā), and in wisdom (paññāsampadā), he will not be a true ascetic (samaṇa; ŚRAMAṆA) or a true brāhmaṇa; only when one has attained the destruction of the contaminants (āsavakkhāya; ĀSRAVAKṢAYA), or arahantship (see ARHAT), will one be so recognized. The Buddha then explains in detail Buddhist practice and the attainments, beginning with taking refuge in the three jewels (S. RATNATRAYA) of the Buddha, the dhamma, and the saṅgha, observing the precepts, renouncing the world to become a Buddhist monk, and controlling the senses with mindfulness (sati; SMṚTI), to cultivating the four meditative absorptions (JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) and developing the six higher knowledges or superpowers (abhiññā; ABHIJÑĀ) that culminate in the destruction of the contaminants. The sutta concludes by noting that, upon hearing the discourse, Acela Kassapa entered the Buddhist order and in due course attained arahantship.

kasiṇa. (S. *kṛtsna/*kṛtsnāyatana; T. zad par gyi skye mched; C. bianchu; J. hensho; K. p’yŏnch’ŏ 遍處). In Pāli, lit. “totality” or “universal” [alt. kasiṇāyatana], a “visualization device” that serves as the meditative foundation for the “totality” of the mind’s attention to an object of concentration. Ten kasiṇa are generally enumerated: visualization devices that are constructed from the physical elements (MAHĀBHŪTA) of earth, water, fire, and air; the colors blue, yellow, red, and white; and light and empty space. The earth device, for example, might be constructed from a circle of clay of even texture, the water device from a tub of water, and the red device from a piece of red cloth or a painted red disc. The meditation begins by looking at the physical object; the perception of the device is called the “beginning sign” or “preparatory sign” (P. PARIKAMMANIMITTA). Once the object is clearly perceived, the meditator then memorizes the object so that it is seen as clearly in his mind as with his eyes. This perfect mental image of the device is called the “eidetic sign,” or “learning sign” (P. UGGAHANIMITTA) and serves subsequently as the object of concentration. As the internal visualization of this eidetic sign deepens and the five hindrances (NĪVARAṆA) to mental absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) are temporarily allayed, a “representational sign” or “counterpart sign” (P. PAṬIBHĀGANIMITTA) will emerge from out of the eidetic image, as if, the texts say, a sword is being drawn from its scabbard or the moon is emerging from behind clouds. The representational sign is a mental representation of the visualized image, which does not duplicate what was seen with the eyes but represents its abstracted, essentialized quality. The earth disc may now appear like the moon, the water device like a mirror suspended in the sky, or the red device like a bright jewel. Whereas the eidetic sign was an exact mental copy of the visualized beginning sign, the representational sign has no fixed form but may be manipulated at will by the meditator. Continued attention to the representational sign will lead to all four of the meditative absorptions associated with the realm of subtle materiality. Perhaps because of the complexity of preparing the kasiṇa devices, this type of meditation was superseded by techniques such as mindfulness of breathing (P. ānāpānasati; S. ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI) and is rarely practiced in the THERAVĀDA world today. But its notion of a purely mental object being somehow a purer “representation” of the external sense object viewed by the eyes has compelling connections to later YOGĀCĀRA notions of the world being a projection of mind.

Kāśyapa. (P. Kassapa; T. ’Od srung; C. Jiashe; J. Kashō; K. Kasŏp 迦葉). Sanskrit proper name of one of the seven buddhas of antiquity (SAPTATATHĀGATA) who preceded the current buddha ŚĀKYAMUNI and, by some accounts, the buddha who predicted Śākyamuni’s own eventual enlightenment. He is also sometimes mentioned in a list of three past buddhas, along with Krakucchanda and Kanakamuni. ¶ Kāśyapa is also the name of one of the Buddha’s ten main disciples, who is usually known to the tradition as “Kāśyapa the Great”; see MAHĀKĀŚYAPA.

Kāśyapa Mātaṅga. (C. Jiashe Moteng; J. Kashō Matō; K. Kasŏp Madŭng 迦葉摩騰) (d.u.). Indian monk whom Chinese tradition credits with first introducing Buddhism to East Asia. Emperor Ming (r. 57–75) of the Later Han dynasty is said to have had a dream about a golden man and sent out emissaries to find out who he was. His emissaries traveled to the Western Regions, where they invited Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and his colleague Zhu Falan (Dharmaratna) to China to teach about the golden man, the Buddha. The two monks arrived in the Chinese capital of Louyang in 67 CE with scriptures carried on white horses. Emperor Ming had a monastery built for them in Luoyang, which was accordingly named the White Horse Monastery (BAIMASI). The two missionaries were said to have translated the SISHI’ER ZHANG JING (“Sūtra in Forty-Two Sections”), the first translation of a Buddhist text into Chinese. The Sishi’er zhang jing is now known to be a Chinese indigenous composition (see APOCRYPHA), and its translators, Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Zhu Falan, are considered to be legendary figures.

Kāśyapaparivarta. (T. ’Od srung gi le’u; C. Yiri monibao jing; J. Yuinichi manihōkyō; K. Yuil manibo kyŏng 遺日摩尼寶經). In Sanskrit, “The KĀŚYAPA Chapter”; a SŪTRA from one of the earliest strata of Indian MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism, probably dating from sometime in the first century CE. The sūtra offers an overview of practices emblematic of BODHISATTVAs, which are arranged in several groups of four practices apiece. The text cites a “bodhisattva canon” (BODHISATTVAPIṬAKA) as the source for the teaching on the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) and offers one of the earliest mentions of the “thought of enlightenment” (BODHICITTA) in its Mahāyāna interpretation as the aspiration to achieve buddhahood. A bodhisattva who generates this thought even for the first time is said to be superior to the solitary buddhas (PRATYEKABUDDHA) and disciples (ŚRĀVAKA). Disciples are also censured as not being true sons of the Buddha, an early expression of the later Mahāyāna school’s more explicit denunciations of the so-called HĪNAYĀNA. The sūtra also refers to bodhisattva precepts (see BODHISATTVAŚĪLA), which will subsequently be elaborated upon in such texts as MAITREYA/ASAṄGA’s BODHISATTVABHŪMI and in such Chinese APOCRYPHA as the FANWANG JING. The Kāśyapaparivarta was one of the first sūtras translated into Chinese, by the Indo-Scythian monk *LOKAKṢEMA (c. 178–198 CE) in 179 CE; a later recension is also included in the massive RATNAKŪṬA collection of sūtras. The Kāśyapaparivarta is one of a substantial number of scriptures in the Ratnakūṭa collection for which Sanskrit recensions have been rediscovered and edited. Its Sanskrit manuscript was first discovered in KHOTAN in the 1890s and was more than one thousand years old; other Sanskrit fragments have subsequently been recovered.

Kāśyapīya. (P. Kassapīya/Kassapika; T. ’Od srung ba’i sde; C. Jiasheyibu/Yinguangbu; J. Kashōyuibu/Onkshō; K. Kasŏbyubu/Ŭmgwangbu 迦遺部/飮光部). In Sanskrit, “Followers of Kāśyapa”; one of the eighteen traditional schools of the mainstream Indian Buddhist tradition. There have been several accounts of the identity of the founder Kāśyapa. PARAMĀRTHA and KUIJI presume he was the Indian sage Kāśyapa (MAHĀKĀŚYAPA), while others opine that he was a Kāśyapa who was born some three centuries after the Buddha’s death. DAOXUAN (596–667) in his Sifen lü kaizong ji says that Jiashe (Kāśyapa) was the personal name of the founder of the Kāśyapīya school and Shansui (SUVARŚAKA) his surname. According to the tradition he is relating, Kāśyapa was one of the five disciples of UPAGUPTA, the fifth successor in the Buddha’s lineage about one hundred years following his death. These five disciples established their own schools based on their differing views regarding doctrine and redacted the VINAYA into five distinct recensions (C. Wubu lü). The so-called *Prātimokṣavinaya of the Kāśyapīya school is not extant, but it is known through the Prātimokṣasūtra (Jietuojie jing), a primer of the school’s monastic discipline. There are several competing theories regarding the lineage of the Kāśyapīya school. The SAMAYABHEDOPARACANACAKRA posits that the Kāśyapīya split off from the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school about three hundred years after the Buddha’s death and identifies it with the Suvarśaka school (C. Shansuibu). But other texts, such as the Śariputraparipṛcchāsūtra, state that the Kāśyapīya and Suvarśaka schools are distinct, with the former having descended from the STHAVIRANIKĀYA and the latter from the Sarvāstivāda school. (The name of the Suvarśaka school is, however, not attested in Pāli sources.) The Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā instead claims that the school derived from the DHARMAGUPTAKA school, while the Tibetan tradition considers it as a collateral lineage of the VIBHAJYAVĀDA school. The most plausible scenario is that the Kāśyapīya, MAHĪŚĀSAKA, and Dharmaguptaka were each subsections of the Vibhajyavāda, which was a loose umbrella term for all those schools (except the Sarvāstivāda) that split off from the Sthaviranikāya. Inscriptional evidence for all three schools survives in northwestern India. The doctrines of the Kāśyapīya tend to be closest to those ascribed to the Sarvāstivāda and Dharmaguptaka schools. The arrangement of its TRIPIṬAKA also seems to have paralleled that of the Dharmaguptaka school, and its ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA in particular seems to have been similar in structure to the Śāriputrābhidharmaśāstra of the Dharmaguptakas. Some of the doctrines that are peculiar to the Kāśyapīyas are as follows: (1) Past KARMAN that has not yet borne fruit exists (but the rest of the past does not), the present exists, and some of the future exists. By limiting the existence of past objects, the Kāśyapīyas reject the Sarvāstivāda position that dharmas perdure in all three time periods. (2) All compounded things (SAṂSKĀRA) are instantly destroyed. (3) Whatever is compounded (SAṂSKṚTA) has its cause in the past, while the uncompounded (ASAṂSKṚTA) has its cause in the future. This view also contrasts with that of the Sarvāstivāda, which holds that future actions can serve as either the retributive cause (VIPĀKAHETU) or the efficient or generic cause (KĀRAṆAHETU) of compounded objects, such that every conditioned dharma serves as the generic, indirect cause for the creation of all other compounded things, except itself. (4) The worthy ones (ARHAT) perfect both the knowledge of cessation (KṢAYAJÑĀNA) and the knowledge of nonproduction (ANUTPĀDAJÑĀNA), the two types of knowledge that accompany liberation from rebirth (SAṂSĀRA); thus, they are no longer subject to the afflictions (KLEŚA).

Kathāvatthu. In Pāli, “Points of Controversy”; the fifth of the seven books of the Pāli abhidhammapiṭaka (SEE ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA). The Pāli tradition ascribes this text to MOGGALIPUTTATISSA, who is credited with having composed the work at the conclusion of the third Buddhist council (COUNCIL, THIRD) held at Pāṭaliputta (S. PĀṬALIPUTRA) in the third century BCE. In its twenty-three chapters, the treatise analyzes a wide range of doctrines held by contemporary Buddhist schools and demonstrates the orthodoxy of STHAVIRANIKĀYA positions. The work presumes the existence of the DHAMMASAṄGAṆI, the VIBHAṄGA, and the PAṬṬHĀNA as definitive abhidhamma sources for resolving doctrinal controversies.

kaṭhina. (T. sra brkyang; C. jiachinayi/jianguyi; J. kachinae/kengoe; K. kach’inaŭi/kyŏn’goŭi 迦絺那衣/堅固衣). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “robe-cloth ceremony,” referring to the ceremony held in the fourth month of the rainy season, at which time the SAṂGHA as a whole receives gifts of robes or plain cloth from the laity; the cloth or robes are then distributed to individual monastics who have properly observed the rains retreat (VARṢĀ; P. VASSA). If cloth is given, the recipient must stitch it into one of three types of proper robe (TRICĪVARA; see also KAṢĀYA) on the same day. A monk selected to receive a kaṭhina robe or cloth is entitled to five privileges that remain in force for five months: (1) he may accept a meal invitation without telling anyone, (2) he may dwell without one of his three robes, (3) he may eat in a group with other monks, (4) he may keep any number of robes, and (5) he is entitled to a share of the robes donated to the saṃgha. A monk loses his right to receive kaṭhina robes or cloth if he is absent for more than a week from the monastery where he is observing the rains retreat.

Kātiyānī. (T. Kā ti bu mo). Sanskrit and Pāli proper name of a lay disciple of the Buddha, who is declared in Pāli sources to be foremost among laywomen in unswerving trust. According to Pāli sources, she was a resident of the city of Kururaghara and a devoted friend of the laywoman KĀLĪ KURURAGHARIKĀ. Kālī was a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) whose son, SOṆA-KOṬIKAṆṆA, was an arahant (S. ARHAT) renowned for his eloquence. One day, Kātiyānī accompanied Kālī to hear Soṇa preach to his mother. While the two women listened to the sermon, thieves broke into Kātiyānī’s house, and when a servant girl, who had been sent back to fetch oil for lamps, returned and reported the theft, Kātiyānī refused to leave until the sermon was finished. At the end of the sermon, she became a streamenterer. She became renowned for her resoluteness in listening to the dhamma (DHARMA), an honor she had resolved to attain in a previous life during the time of Padumuttara Buddha. The chief of the thieves witnessed all that had transpired and was so moved at Kātiyānī’s faith that he ordered that all of her property be returned. The thieves then begged Kātiyānī to forgive them for their wrongdoing. She forgave them and brought them to Soṇa-Koṭikaṇṇa who, seeing their underlying virtue, ordained them. All of the former thieves in turn became arahants as well.

Katsuragisan. (J) (葛城山). Mountain practice site on the border between the present-day Japanese prefectures of Nara and Ōsaka, which was an important center of SHUGENDŌ practice. The semilegendary founder of Shugendō, EN NO OZUNU (b. 634), is said to have lived for some thirty years in a cave on this mountain. Since En no Ozunu was considered to be a manifestation of Hōki Bosatsu (DHARMODGATA) who, according to the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, lived in the Diamond Mountains, the Katsuragi range includes the appositely named KONGŌSAN (Mt. Kongō; see also KŬMGANGSAN). Like many sacred mountains around Japan, there are encased sūtras known to be interred in Katsuragisan region. Twenty-eight buried scrolls (J. kyōzuka) of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”)—corresponding to its twenty-eight chapters—were presumed to have been buried at Mt. Katsuragi, according to the late twelfth-century Shozan engi text. Also purportedly interred on the mountain are twenty-nine scrolls of the Nyohōkyō (C. *Rufa jing) and eight hannyakyō (PRAJÑAPĀRAMITĀ) scrolls. During the Heian period, burying Buddhist scriptures at mountains in Japan served the dual role of physically sacralizing the mountain and also preserving the dharma in the face of the religion’s predicted demise (J. mappō; C. MOFA).

kaṭvāṅga. (S). See KHAṬVĀṄGA.

Kātyāyana. (P. Kaccāna; T. Ka tya’i bu; C. Jiazhanyan; J. Kasen’en; K. Kajŏnyŏn 迦旃延). One of the ten main disciples of the Buddha, who is usually known to the tradition as “Kātyāyana the Great.” See MAHĀKĀTYĀYANA.

Kātyāyanīputra. (T. Kā ta’i bu mo’i bu; C. Jiaduoyannizi; J. Kataennishi; K. Kadayŏnnija 迦多衍尼子) (c. second to first century BCE). Important scholiast in the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school to whom the tradition attributes authorship of the JÑĀNAPRASTHĀNA, the central text of the Sarvāstivāda ABHIDHARMA.

Kaukkuṭika. [alt. Gokulika] (T. Bya gag ’tshong ba; C. Jiyin bu; J. Keiinbu; K. Kyeyunpu 鷄胤部). In Sanskrit, “those from KUKKUṬĀRĀMA”; a major monastery in PĀṬALIPUTRA; one of the three main subgroups of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school of mainstream (NIKĀYA) Buddhism, along with the LOKOTTARAVĀDA [alt. Ekavyavahārika] and the CAITYA. The school is said to have placed pride of place on the ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA, treating the VINAYA and SŪTRA as preparatory training, and emphasized the logical analysis of the abhidharma to the more expository and provisional expressions of truth found in the other two sections of the canon. This early collateral line of the Mahāsāṃghika school seems to have been most prominent around the end of the second century BCE, before it eventually split into the BAHUŚRUTĪYA and PRAJÑAPTIVĀDA subbranches.

kaukṛtya. (P. kukkucca; T. ’gyod pa; C. hui; J. ke; K. hoe 悔). In Sanskrit, “worry,” “remorse,” or perhaps “crisis of conscience”; along with the related “restlessness” or “distraction” (AUDDHATYA), with which it is often seen in compound (as auddhatya-kaukṛtya); it constitutes the fourth of the five hindrances (NĪVARAṆA) to the attainment of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). Auddhatya-kaukṛtya is the specific hindrance to joy (SUKHA), the fourth of the five factors of dhyāna (DHYĀNĀṄGA), and is fostered by unwise attention (AYONIŚOMANASKĀRA) to mental unrest and is overcome through learning and reflecting on the SŪTRA and VINAYA, and associating with elders of calm demeanor. Restlessness and worry are countered by SAMĀDHI, the fourth of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA) and the sixth of the factors of enlightenment (BODHYAṄGA), together with development of the tranquillity (PRAŚRABDHI), and equanimity (UPEKṢĀ) enlightenment factors.

Kauṇḍinya. (S). See ĀJÑĀTAKAUṆḌINYA.

Kaung-hmu-daw Pagoda. A massive PAGODA (Burmese, JEDI) located five miles north of SAGAING City in Upper Burma (Myanmar). The Kaung-hmu-daw pagoda was built by King Thalun of AVA (r. 1629–1648) between 1636 and 1648 and houses the Buddha’s alms bowl (PĀTRA) and an assortment of gems presented by the king of Sri Lanka. In recognition of its contents, the pagoda also receives the epithet Raza-mani-sula (“Lesser Royal Jewel”). The Kaung-hmu-daw was constructed on a massive scale (214 ft high and 243 ft in diameter) in order to protect the relics it enshrines from the ravages of earthquakes and pillagers. It is similar in shape to the MAHĀTHŪPA of Sri Lanka. Both pagodas are hemispherical and take as their prototype the reliquary STŪPA used in ancient India and Sri Lanka.

kausīdya. (P. kusīta; T. le lo; C. jietai; J. kedai; K. haet’ae 懈怠). In Sanskrit, “indolence,” “laziness,” or “lassitude.” According to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA, indolence is one of the six “fundamental afflictions” or “defiled factors of wide extent” (KLEŚA-MAHĀBHŪMIKA) that are associated with all defiled thoughts, together with delusion (MOHA), heedlessness (PRAMĀDA), lack of faith (ĀŚRADDHYA), sloth (STYĀNA), and restlessness (AUDDHATYA); the YOGĀCĀRA school also lists indolence among the twenty secondary afflictions (UPAKLEŚA). In addition to the general sense of laziness suggested by the English translations, the term also encompasses a sense of inferiority that discourages one from undertaking the practice of virtue. Indolence encourages attachment to unwholesome activities and the investment of energy in worldly deeds. In each of these senses, kausīdya serves as an obstacle to wholesome deeds, including the practice of meditation. Its antidote is effort (VĪRYA). Eight occasions of indolence are listed in the mainstream NIKĀYAs and ĀGAMAs (ranging from “I may get busy and become tired, so let me lie down now,” to “I’ve been very ill and am not fully recovered, so let me lie down now”), each of which prompts laziness and discourages the adept from arousing the energy necessary to attain, achieve, or realize what is not yet attained, and so forth.

Kauśika. (P. Kosiya; T. Ka’u shi ka; C. Jiaoshijia; J. Kyōshika; K. Kyosiga 憍尸迦). The name for the king of the heaven of the thirty-three (TRĀYASTRIṂŚA), ŚAKRO DEVĀṆĀM INDRAḤ (known more simply as ŚAKRA or INDRA), during a previous human lifetime as a brāhmaṇa priest. Śakra is often addressed more intimately as Kauśika in Buddhist texts.

Kauṣṭhila. (P. Koṭṭhita; T. Gsus po che; C. Juchiluo; J. Kuchira; K. Kuch’ira 拘絺羅). One of the principal arhat disciples of the Buddha deemed foremost among his monk disciples in analytical knowledge (S. PRATISAṂVID; P. paṭisambhidā), viz., of (1) true meaning, (2) the dharma, (3) language, and (4) ready wit. During the time of a previous buddha, Kauṣṭhila was said to have been a wealthy householder, who happened to overhear the Buddha praise one of his disciples as being foremost in analytical knowledge. It was then that he resolved to achieve the same preeminence during the dispensation of a future buddha. According to the Pāli account, Kauṣṭhila/Koṭṭhita was the son of a wealthy brāhmaṇa family from ŚRĀVASTĪ, who was learned in the Vedas and who converted while listening to the Buddha preach to his father. He entered the SAṂGHA and, taking up a topic of meditation (KAMMAṬṬHĀNA), soon attained arhatship. Kauṣṭhila is a frequent interlocutor in the NIKĀYAs and ĀGAMAs and often engages in doctrinal exchanges with ŚĀRIPUTRA, such as regarding what exists after NIRVĀṆA or the relative quality of various types of liberation (VIMUKTI; P. vimutti). Other topics on which Kauṣṭhila discourses in the SŪTRAs include discussions on action (KARMAN); the arising of phenomena, ignorance, and knowledge; the nature of the senses and sense objects; the fate of ARHATs after their deaths; things not revealed by the Buddha; and so on. On one occasion, during a discussion among the elders, a dispute erupted between Kauṣṭhila and a monk named Citta. Citta continually interrupted the discussion by insisting on his views, to the point that Kauṣṭhila had to remind him to let others speak. Citta’s supporters objected that their favorite’s views were eminently sound; but Kaṣṭhila replied that not only were Citta’s views mistaken but he would soon reject the Buddha’s teachings and leave the order. Kauṣṭhila’s reputation was burnished when events unfolded exactly as he had foretold. Śāriputra held Kauṣṭhila in such high regard that he praises him in three verses preserved in the Pāli THERAGĀTHĀ. His fame was such that he is often known within the tradition as Kauṣṭhila the Great (Mahākauṣṭhila; P. Mahākoṭṭhita).

kāya. (T. lus/sku/tshogs; C. shen; J. shin; K. sin 身). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “body”; a term used to refer to the ordinary human body as well as the exalted body, or bodies, of a buddha (for which see TRIKĀYA, or “three bodies”). The body can serve as an object of meditation, as in “mindfulness of the body” (KĀYĀNUPAŚYANĀ; P. kāyānupassanā; see SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA), which involves practices associated with mindfulness of breathing (S. ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI; P. ānāpānasati), mindfulness of the physical postures (ĪRYĀPATHA), full awareness of bodily actions, contemplation of bodily impurities, contemplation of elements, and nine cemetery meditations (AŚUBHABHĀVANĀ). ¶ The term is also used to refer to a group, collection, or mass, typically as the final member of a compound, for example, a mass or crowd of people (janakāya), or the “collection of names,” viz., “letters” (nāmakāya; see CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAṂSKĀRA). ¶ From this sense of kāya as a group evolves the notion of the DHARMAKĀYA, originally meaning the “whole mass” (viz., “all”) of the dharmas, and more specifically the “corpus” of a buddha’s auspicious qualities (DHARMA). From this latter sense it would come to mean the foundational “dharma-body” of the buddhas.

kāyānupaśyanā. (P. kāyānupassanā; T. lus dran pa nye bar bzhag pa; C. shenguan; J. shinkan; K. sin’gwan 身觀). In Sanskrit, “mindfulness of the body.” See SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA.

kāyaprabhā. (T. lus kyi snang ba/lus ’od; C. guangbei; J. kōhai; K. kwangbae 光背). In Sanskrit, lit. “body light”; a “nimbus,” “mandorla,” or “aureole” of light that encircles either the head or the body of holy figures in Buddhist painting and sculpture. The radiance surrounding the body of a buddha, bodhisattva, or other sacred being helps to highlight the sacred character of the iconography. This use of light in Buddhist art may derive from depictions of the supernatural-fire motif in Zoroastrian iconography. The Chinese offers several related terms in addition to guangbei (lit. “lighted back”) that more precisely delineate what kind of light is being described. “Head light” (C. touguang; J. tōkō; K. tugwang) originally referred to light emanating from between the eyebrows (see ŪRṆĀKEŚA), but it also is used to refer to a halo of light encircling the head, thus a “nimbus.” “Body light” (C. shenguang; J. sinkō; K. sin’gwang) or “light [surrounding] the whole body” (C. jushenguang; J. kyosinkō; K. kŏsin’gwang) refers to a halo of light encircling the entire body, or what is usually referred to in the West as a “mandorla” (lit. the “almond” of light surrounding an image). The outdated art-historical term “aureole” may refer to the radiance enveloping either the head or the body in Buddhist iconography.

kāyasākṣin. (P. kāyasakkhi; T. lus kyi mngon sum du byed pa; C. shenzheng; J. shinshō; K. sinjŭng 身證). In Sanskrit, “bodily witness” or “one who has bodily testimony”; the fifth of the seven noble disciples (ARYA) listed in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA; a particular sort of nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAṂGHA (see VIṂŚATIPRABHEDASAṂGHA). According to commentaries on the ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, there are two types of kāyaśākṣin. The kāyasākṣin who is a dṛṣṭadharmaśama (one for whom there is peace in this life) is a nonreturner who does not journey to the realms of subtle materiality or immateriality and is not reborn in the sensuous realm either, but enters into NIRODHASAMĀPATTI (equipoise of cessation) during a final life in the sensuous realm, and, without that cessation weakening, enters nirvāṇa. Other kāyaśākṣins are nonreturners who are born as subtle materiality realm deities, enter into nirodhasamāpatti on that basis, and enter NIRVĀṆA in that life, or nonreturners who are born as subtle materiality realm deities, enter into nirodhasamāpatti on that basis, die, and enter nirvāṇa as a divinity in the immaterial realm.

kāyavijñāna. (P. kāyaviññāṇa; T. lus kyi rnam par shes pa; C. shenshi; J. shinshiki; K. sinsik 身識). In Sanskrit, “tactile consciousness” or “body consciousness”; one of the five consciousnesses of physical objects (along with those of the eye, ear, nose, and tongue) and one of the six sensory consciousnesses (adding the mental consciousness, or MANOVIJÑĀNA). The tactile consciousness perceives tangible objects (SPRAṢṬAVYA). Like the other consciousnesses of physical objects, tactile consciousness is produced through the contact (SPARŚA) between a tactile sensory object (spraṣṭavya) and the tactile sense base or body sense organ (KĀYENDRIYA) and in dependence on three conditions (PRATYAYA): the object condition (ĀLAMBANAPRATYAYA), in this case, a tangible object; a dominant condition (ADHIPATIPRATYAYA), here, the tangible sense base or body sense organ (KĀYENDRIYA); and the immediately preceding condition (SAMANANTARAPRATYAYA), a prior moment of consciousness. The tactile consciousness is counted as one of the six sensory consciousnesses (VIJÑĀNA) and eighteen elements (DHĀTU).

kāyaviññāṇa. (P). See KĀYAVIJÑĀNA.

kāyāyatana. (T. lus kyi skye mched; C. shenchu; J. shinsho; K. sinch’ŏ 身處). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “tactile sense base” or “base of tactile cognition”; the tactile or body sense organ (KĀYENDRIYA), as it occurs in the list of the twelve sense-fields (ĀYATANA), which are called “bases of cognition” because each pair of sense base and sense object produces its respective sensory consciousness. In this case, the contact (SPARŚA) between a tactile sensory object (SPRAṢṬAVYA) and the tactile sense base (kāyendriya) produces a tactile consciousness (KĀYAVIJÑĀNA).

kāyendriya. (P. kāyindriya; T. lus kyi dbang po; C. shengen; J. shinkon; K. sin’gŭn 身根). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “tactile sense base” or “body sense organ”; the physical organ located in the body that makes it possible to perceive tangible objects (SPRAṢṬAVYA). This sense base is not the body itself, but a form of subtle materiality located on the body and invisible to the naked eye. It is said to be like a thin layer of skin covering the entire body. If this sense organ is absent or damaged, physical sensation is not possible. The tactile sense organ serves as the dominant condition (ADHIPATIPRATYAYA) for the production of tactile consciousness (KĀYAVIJÑĀNA). The tactile sense base is counted among the six sense bases or sense organs (INDRIYA), the twelve sources (ĀYATANA), and eighteen elements (DHĀTU).

Kazi Dawa Samdup. (Ka dzi Zla ba bsam ’grub) (1868–1922). An early translator from Tibetan to English, best known for his work with WALTER EVANS-WENTZ as translator of The Tibetan Book of the Dead. He apparently had wished to pursue the religious life but, as the eldest son in his family, was unable to do so. He was a disciple of a Bhutanese lama, one Guru Norbu, who was affiliated with the ’BRUG PA BKA’ BRGYUD sect. Kazi Dawa Samdup served as a translator for such figures as ALEXANDRA DAVID-NÉEL, Charles Bell, and John Woodroffe (Arthur Avalon) and also was a member of the political staff of the thirteenth DALAI LAMA during his sojourn in Sikkim and India. In 1919, he published a 20,000-word English–Tibetan dictionary. Also in 1919, he was serving as the English teacher at the Maharaja’s Boys’ School in Gangtok, when the local police chief introduced him to Evans-Wentz. He agreed to provide a translation of a Tibetan text that Evans-Wentz had acquired, the BAR DO THOS GROL CHEN MO. The translations that Kazi Dawa Samdup made for Evans-Wentz eventually appeared in three books: The Tibetan Book of the Dead (1927), Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (1935), and The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation (1954). He was subsequently appointed to the post of lecturer in Tibetan at the University of Calcutta. In 1924, after his death, Evans-Wentz visited Kazi Dawa Samdup’s family in Kalimpong, from whom he received a manuscript translation of the MI LA RAS PA’I RNAM THAR, a famous biography of MI LA RAS PA, which Evans-Wentz subsequently edited and published as Tibet’s Great Yogi Milarepa (1928). Although Evans-Wentz’s notes and prefaces to these works contain many fanciful elements, Kazi Dawa Samdup’s translations are generally well regarded.

kechimyaku sōjō. (血脈相承). In Japanese, “transmission of the bloodline”; a term used to refer to the unbroken transmission of the dharma from master to disciple down through the generations, which is like the bloodline in a family being passed from parents to child. The term is especially used in the ZEN (CHAN) and esoteric Buddhist sects in Japan, but later is adopted by the JŌDOSHŪ and NICHIRENSHŪ as well. Cf. XUEMO LUN.

Keizan Jōkin. (瑩山紹瑾) (1268–1325). Japanese ZEN master and putative second patriarch of the SŌTŌ Zen tradition. Keizan was a native of Echizen in present-day Fukui prefecture. Little is known of his early years, but Keizan is said to have been influenced by his mother, who was a pious devotee of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEŚVARA. Keizan went to the nearby monastery of EIHEIJI and studied under the Zen master Gikai (1219–1309), a disciple of DŌGEN KIGEN (1200–1253). He was later ordained by the monk Ejō (1198–1280). After Ejō’s death, Keizan went to the nearby monastery of Hōkyōji and continued his studies under another disciple of Dōgen, Jakuen (1207–1299). At age twenty-eight, Keizan was invited as the founding abbot (kaisan; C. KAISHAN) of the monastery of Jōmanji in Awa (present-day Tokushima prefecture). The next year, Keizan briefly visited Eiheiji to train in the conferral of bodhisattva precepts (bosatsukai; PUSA JIE; see also BODHISATTVAŚĪLA) under the guidance of the abbot Gien (d. 1313). Keizan returned to Jōmanji the very same year and began to confer precepts. Several years later, Keizan joined Gikai once more at the latter’s new temple of Daijōji in Ishikawa and became his disciple. Three years later, Keizan succeeded Gikai as abbot of Daijōji. In 1300, Keizan began his lectures on what would eventually come to be known as the DENKŌROKU. In 1311, while setting the regulations for Daijōji, Keizan composed the ZAZEN YŌJINKI and Shinjinmei nentei. He also entrusted Daijōji to his disciple Meihō Sotetsu (1277–1350) and established the monastery of Jōjūji in nearby Kaga. In 1317, Keizan established the monastery of Yōkōji on Mt. Tōkoku. Keizan also came into possession of a local temple known as Morookadera, which was renamed SŌJIJI. In 1322, Yōkōji and Sōjiji were sanctioned as official monasteries by Emperor Godaigo (r. 1318–1339). This sanction is traditionally considered to mark the official establishment of Sōtō as an independent Zen institution. Keizan later entrusted the monastery of Sōjiji to his disciple Gasan Jōseki (1276–1366) and retired to Yōkōji. In the years before his death, Keizan built a buddha hall, founder’s hall, dharma hall, and monk’s hall at Yōkōji.

Kenchōji. (建長寺). A monastery in Kamakura, Japan, which is currently headquarters (honzan) of the Kenchōji branch of the RINZAI ZEN tradition. Kenchōji was established in 1249 by the powerful regent Hōjō Tokiyori (1227–1263). The founding abbot (kaisan; C. KAISHAN) of Kenchōji was the émigré Chan master LANXI DAOLONG, whose lineage, known as the Daikakuha (along with WUXUE ZUYUAN’s Bukkōha), came to dominate the abbacy of Kenchōji. In 1293, the monastery was destroyed in a conflagration following an earthquake. In 1300, the reconstruction of Kenchōji took place. Kenchōji continued to serve as the private worship grounds for the Kamakura shōguns. In 1385, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408) placed Kenchōji as first rank of the GOZAN system. Kenchōji went through several reconstructions during the Edo period.

Kenninji. (建仁寺). A monastery in Kyōto, Japan, which is currently headquarters (honzan) of the Kenninji branch of the RINZAI ZEN tradition. Kenninji was established in 1202 by the shōgun Minamoto Yoriie (1182–1204), who appointed MYŌAN EISAI (1141–1215) its abbot and founding patriarch (kaisan; C. KAISHAN). Kenninji was one of the first Zen monasteries to be established in Japan. Although Kenninji was devastated by fire in 1246, 1256, and 1258, the influential abbot ENNI BEN’EN (1202–1280) restored it back to glory. Throughout most of the fourteenth century, Kenninji remained a high-ranking monastery in the GOZAN system.

Keqin. (C) (克勤). See YUANWU KEQIN.

Kern, Hendrik. (1833–1917). Important Dutch scholar of Sanskrit and Buddhism. Born Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern to Dutch parents in the Dutch East Indies, his family returned to the Netherlands when he was six years old. Beginning in 1851, he studied Sanskrit at Leiden and then in Berlin (with Albrecht Weber) before returning to the Netherlands as a lecturer in Greek. In 1863, he accepted an invitation to teach Sanskrit in Benares, returning in 1865 to become professor of Sanskrit at Leiden University, a position that he held until his retirement in 1903. He commanded a remarkable array of languages and published on a wide range of topics, mostly writing in his native Dutch. In 1884, he published the first English-language translation of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”) as part of MAX MÜLLER’s Sacred Books of the East series; a French translation of the sūtra by EUGÈNE BURNOUF had been published in 1852. Kern published an edition of the Nepalese manuscript in 1912. His chief contribution to Buddhist Studies was his two-volume Geschiedenis van het Buddhisme in Indië (History of Buddhism in India) published in 1882–1884, in which he put forward the view that the Buddha was a solar god, with the twelve NIDĀNAS, representing the twelve months, etc. In this work, he also argued for the influence of the Yoga school on early Buddhism.

Kerouac, Jack. (1922–1969). American novelist influenced by Buddhism. Kerouac was born in Lowell, Massachusetts, to a working-class Quebecois family. His first language was the Quebecois French dialect; he learned English from nuns at the local parish school. An outstanding student and athlete in high school, he accepted an athletic scholarship to Columbia University in 1940 and became a star football player, before a broken leg ended his career. Kerouac left the university and enlisted in the Navy but was discharged. He served as a merchant seaman before returning to Columbia in 1944, where he met ALLEN GINSBERG and began to gather a group of companions that Kerouac would later dub the “Beat Generation.” His friend Neal Cassady’s enthusiasm for the psychic Edgar Cayce (1877–1945) prompted Kerouac to want to learn something about Asian religions. Finding DWIGHT GODDARD’s A Buddhist Bible in the public library in San Jose, California, he studied the book carefully and memorized sections of it. Although Kerouac considered himself to be a Roman Catholic throughout his life, his interest in Buddhism grew, in part due to the influence of the poet GARY SNYDER, whom he met in San Francisco. At Snyder’s urging, Kerouac wrote a Buddhist scripture, The Scripture of the Golden Eternity, as well as a life of the Buddha. His best-known works, however, are On the Road (1957) and The Dharma Bums (1958). Kerouac died in his mother’s home in Florida at the age of forty-seven of complications resulting from alcoholism.

ketu. (T. rgyal mtshan; C. chuang; J. dō; K. tang 幢). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “banner”; symbolizing the victory of a buddha’s teachings and the vanquishing of Buddhism’s ideological opponents. See FACHUANG.

Kevaṭṭasutta. (C. Jiangu jing; J. Kengokyō; K. Kyŏn’go kyŏng 堅固經). In Pāli, “Sermon to Kevaṭṭa” [alt. Kevaddhasuttanta]; eleventh sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the twenty-fourth sūtra in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA), preached by the Buddha to the householder Kevaṭṭa [alt. Kevaddha] in the Pāvārika mango grove at NĀLANDĀ. According to the Pāli account, Kevaṭṭa approached the Buddha and asked him to order a monk disciple to perform a miracle in order to inspire faith among the Buddha’s followers dwelling in Nālandā. The Buddha responded that there are three kinds of wonder, the wonder of supranormal powers (iddhipāṭihāriya), the wonder of manifestation (ādesanāpāṭihāriya), and the wonder of education (anusāsanīpāṭihāriya). The wonder of supranormal powers is composed of the ability to make multiple bodies of oneself, to become invisible, to pass through solid objects, to penetrate the earth, to walk on water, to fly through the sky, to touch the sun and moon, and to reach the highest heaven of BRAHMĀ. The wonder of manifestation is the ability to read the thoughts and feelings of others. The Buddha declared all these wonders to be trivial and disparages their display as vulgar. Far superior to these, he says, is the wonder of education, which leads to awakening to the teaching and entering the Buddhist order, training in the restraint of action and speech, observance of minor points of morality, guarding the senses, mindfulness, contentment with little, freedom from the five hindrances, joy and peace of mind, the four meditative absorptions, insight (ñāṇadassana; JÑĀNADARŚANA) into the conditioned nature and impermanence of body and mind, knowledge of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni), and the destruction of the contaminants (āsavakkhaya; S. ĀSRAVAKṢAYA).

Kewen. (C) (克文). See ZHENJING KEWEN.

Kha ba dkar po. (Kawagarbo). A famous mountain on the Tibetan plateau and the toponym of the deity embodied there; currently located in the Chinese province of Yunnan on the border with the Tibet Autonomous Region, close to Bde chen (Diqin). It is one of the eight famous mountains and mountain ranges, including Mount KAILĀSA in western Tibet and Dag pa shel ri (the Crystal Mountain) in the TSA RI, on the borders of eastern Nepal on the pilgrimage circuit (see GNAS SKOR BA). The mountain (22,113 ft) is an important site for a two-week pilgrimage circuit.

Kha char gtsug lag khang. (Kachar tsuklakang). A temple, known also as Kho char and Kho chags, built at the end of the tenth century near Spu rang (Purang), the eastern capital of the Tibetan GU GE kingdom. It was built by Kho re, a brother of YE SHES ’OD, and housed a special silver statue. Two other images were later added, which together were called “the three silver brothers” (dngul sku mched gsum). They were generally thought to be AVALOKITEŚVARA, MAÑJUŚRĪ, and VAJRAPĀṆI, although which was the original and central image is unknown. Kho re took over the kingdom after Ye shes ’od renounced the throne to take up the religious life in 988. The temple, the full name of which is Kha char Yid bzhin lhun gyi grub pa’i gtsug lag khang, was built during the same phase of temple building as TA PHO GTSUG LAG KHANG.

khaḍgaviṣāṇa. (P. khaggavisāṇa; T. bse ru; C. linjiao; J. ringaku; K. in’gak 麟角). In Sanskrit, “rhinoceros”; the solitary way of life pursued by the rhinoceros is a metaphor commonly found in the sūtras to refer to the life of solitude that monks should follow. The Buddha acknowledged the value of living together with a community of like-minded religious colleagues (KALYĀṆAMITRA), but rather than keep the company of “bad friends,” it was instead preferable to live “like a rhinoceros” (KHAḌGAVIṢĀṆAKALPA). As but one of many examples in the literature, the Khaggavisāṇasutta (“Discourse on the Rhinoceros”) in the SUTTANIPĀTA (I.13) is a series of verses that all end with the repeated refrain that monks should “wander alone, like a rhinoceros.” Since the term khaḍga (P. khagga) by itself means a “rhinoceros,” the Pāli commentaries parsed the compound khaḍgaviṣāṇa (khaggavisāṇa) to mean “rhinoceros horn,” a rendering sometimes found in English translations, and the metaphor was then interpreted to mean “solitary” like the single horn of a rhinoceros. The standard Chinese translation for this term as “rhinoceros horn” (linjiao) also reflects this traditional understanding.

khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa. (P. khaggavisāṇakappa; T. bse ru lta bu; C. linjiaoyu; J. ringakuyu; K. in’gagyu 麟角喩). In Sanskrit, “like a rhinoceros”; a metaphor for the life of solitude that monks should follow (see KHAḌGAVIṢĀṆA). The term is also used to refer to one of the two types of solitary buddhas (PRATYEKABUDDHA): the khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa type, who live in solitude “like a rhinoceros,” and the “congregators” (VARGACĀRIN).

khakkhara. (T. ’khar bsil; C. xizhang; J. shakujō; K. sŏkchang 錫杖). In Sanskrit, a “mendicant’s staff” that monks carried during their itinerant wandering; written variously as khakharaka, khaṅkharaka, etc. The staff was one on a list of eighteen requisites (NIŚRAYA) of a monk, along with robes, alms bowl, etc. The mendicant carried the staff during his wanderings to scare away wild animals and to ward off any small animals in his path. It could also serve as a means of letting his presence be known to the laity when begging for alms (PIṆḌAPĀTA). This is because the staff was topped by a round metal cap usually made of brass, while the staff itself was made of wood or iron. As the onomatopoeic Sanskrit word suggests, the metal cap has small rings dangling from it that made a jingling sound when shaken. This cap was often decorated with symbols of the teachings and virtues of the Buddha, such as a CINTĀMAṆI, a dragon (NĀGA), a five-wheeled STŪPA (C. wulunta; J. gorinta; K. oryunt’ap 五輪塔), or a buddha triad. Depending on the number of rings that hung symmetrically from each side of the metal cap, the staff could also be referred to as a four-, six-, or twelve-ring staff. KṢITIGARBHA statues are often depicted holding such a staff; it is also one of the attributes of eleven-headed AVALOKITEŚVARA (EKĀDAŚAMUKHĀVALOKITEŚVARA).

Khams sprul incarnations. (Kamtrül). A revered Tibetan lineage of incarnate masters (SPRUL SKU) belonging to the ’BRUG PA BKA’ BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The fourth, Bstan ’dzin chos kyi nyi ma (Tendzin Chökyi Nyima, 1730–1780), composed an important description of the sacred sites of the Kathmandu Valley. The lineage includes

1. Karma bstan ’phel (Karma Tenpel, 1598–1638)

2. Kun dga’ bstan ’phel (Kunga Tenpel, 1639–1679)

3. Kun dga’ bstan ’dzin (Kunga Tendzin, 1680–1729)

4. Bstan ’dzin chos kyi nyi ma (Tendzin Chökyi Nyima, 1730–1780)

5. Grub brgyud nyi ma (Drupgyü Nyima, 1781–1847)

6. Bstan pa’i nyi ma (Tenpe Nyima, 1848–1907)

7. Sangs rgyas bstan ’dzin (Sangye Tendzin, 1908–1929)

8. Don brgyud nyi ma (Dongyü Nyima, b. 1930)

Khandhaka. In Pāli “Collections”; the second major division of the Pāli basket of discipline (VINAYAPIṬAKA), which is subdivided between the MAHĀVAGGA (“Great Chapter”) and the CŪḶAVAGGA (“Lesser Chapter”). This division covers the early history of the SAṂGHA and the institution of formal rules and procedures governing monastic life. Whereas the PRĀTIMOKṢA offers extensive sets of rules regarding the individual conduct of monks or nuns, the Khandhaka largely deals with their roles as members of the monastic community. See also SKANDHAKA.

khanikasamādhi. In Pāli, “momentary concentration”; a type of rudimentary concentration ancillary to UPACĀRASAMĀDHI and APPANĀSAMĀDHI, which is used with reference to meditators who are developing insight (vipassanā; S. VIPAŚYANĀ) practice. Although a meditator specializing in insight techniques may not be developing advanced forms of meditative absorption (JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA), he still requires a modicum of concentration in order to maintain his intensive analysis of experience. Hence, the commentators posit that even insight practice requires “momentary concentration” in order to succeed.

khapuṣpa. (T. nam mkha’i me tog; C. konghua/xukonghua; J. kūge/kokūge; K. konghwa/hŏgonghwa 空華/空華). In Sanskrit, lit. “flower in the sky,” a common metaphor in Buddhist texts for something illusory. Just as a person with macular degeneration might believe that the “flowers” he perceives floating in the sky are real, when in fact they are actually a symptom of his disease, so too might an ignorant sentient being believe that he possesses a perduring soul (ĀTMAN) or self-nature (SVABHĀVA) that exists in reality, when in fact this notion is simply a misperception of the reality of nonself (ANĀTMAN); or that the afflictions (KLEŚA) affecting his mind are real, when in fact they are a product of attachment and are thus emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ).

Kharoṣṭhī. An ancient Indic script used in northwest India between the third century BCE and the third century CE to write Sanskrit and GĀNDHĀRĪ. It was used in the GANDHĀRA region, as well as KUṢANA and SOGDIANA. Its alphabet follows the order of ARAPACANA. Several of the edicts of AŚOKA from northwest India are in Kharoṣṭhī script; these were deciphered by James Prinsep. In the late twentieth century, numerous birch-bark Buddhist manuscripts written in Kharoṣṭhī were discovered in Afghanistan; dating from as early as the first century CE, they represent the oldest extant Buddhist manuscripts.

khaṭvāṅga. (T. khri shing; C. chuangzu; J. shōsoku; K. sangjok 床足). In Sanskrit, lit. “the foot of a bedstead,” a staff topped by a skull that was thought to be the weapon of Śiva. This type of staff was one of the requisites commonly carried by Indian ascetics, SIDDHAs, and tāntrikas.

Khemā, Ayya. (1923–1997). Prominent THERAVĀDA Buddhist nun, meditation teacher, and advocate of women’s rights, born Ilse Ledermann to Jewish parents in Germany. In 1938, she fled from Nazi Germany to Scotland along with two hundred child refugees and two years later was reunited with her parents, who had escaped to Shanghai, China. The family was subsequently interned by the Japanese in World War II. She immigrated to the United States in 1949, where she married and had two children. In the early 1960s, she toured Asia with her husband and children, and it was at this time that she learned Buddhist meditation. She began teaching meditation in the 1970s and established Wat Buddha Dhamma, a Theravāda forest monastery near Sydney, Australia, in 1978. Soon thereafter, she was ordained a Buddhist nun by Nārada Mahāthera in Sri Lanka in 1979, receiving the name Khemā. In Colombo, she founded both the International Buddhist Women’s Center as a training center for Sri Lankan nuns and the Parappuduwa Nuns’ Island Hermitage at Dodanduwa. In 1987, Ayya Khemā organized the first international conference of Buddhist nuns held in BODHGAYĀ, India, and helped found Sakyadhita, the first global Buddhist women’s organization. Also in 1987, she was the first Buddhist invited to address the United Nations. In 1989, she established Buddha Haus in Germany and served as its first director. A prolific writer, she authored over a dozen books on Buddhist meditation and teachings. She died in 1997 while in residence at Buddha Haus.

Khóa Hư Lục. (課). In Vietnamese, “Instructions on Emptiness,” composed by Trần Thái Tông (1218–1277); the first prose work on Buddhism written in Vietnamese. It is a collection of sermons and essays, most of them fragmentary, on the philosophy and practice of Buddhism from the perspective of the three trainings in morality (ŚĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). It also marks one of the earliest efforts to assimilate the worldview of the Southern school (NAN ZONG) of CHAN into Vietnamese Buddhism. The Khóa Hư Lu㈱c consists of two books. The first (lit. “upper”) book includes twenty-one short essays, which can be classified as follows according to their literary styles: one “verse” on the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS; two “general discourses” on the contemplation of the body and the Buddhist path; six “essays” on generating the thought of enlightenment (BODHICITTA), not taking life, not stealing, not indulging in sensual pleasures, not telling lies, and not using intoxicants; five “treatises” on the topics of morality, concentration, wisdom, receiving precepts, buddha-contemplation (NIANFO), sitting in meditation, and the mirror of wisdom; four “prefaces” to longer complete works (three of which are no longer extant), viz., “A Guide to the Chan School,” “A Commentary on thE VAJRASAMĀDHISŪTRA,” “Liturgy of the Six-Period Repentance,” and “An Essay on the Equality Repentance Liturgy”; “recorded encounter dialogues with disciples” that record dialogues between Trần Thái Tông and his students; a “verse commentary” on the ancient public cases (GONG’AN) of Chan; and an “afterword.” The second (lit. “lower”) book includes a complete essay entitled “Liturgy of the Six-Period Repentance,” which offers a detailed instruction on the performance of the repentance liturgy.

Khotan. (C. Yutian; J. Uten; K. Ujŏn 于闐). Indo-European oasis kingdom at the southern edge of the Taklamakhan Desert in Central Asia, along the northern slope of the Kunlun Mountains, which served as a major center of Buddhism in Central Asia and an important conduit for the transmission of Buddhism from India to China. Buddhist sources claim that Khotan was colonized first by Indians, when Kuṇāla, the eldest son of King AŚOKA, is said to have left the northwest Indian city of TAKṢAŚILĀ (Taxila) for Khotan in the third century BCE. From at least the third through the tenth centuries CE, Khotan was a major Buddhist and trade center along the southern SILK ROAD through Central Asia, where MAHĀYANA traditions associated with northwestern Indian Buddhism predominated. Indeed, through about the tenth century CE, Khotan was essentially a bastion of Indian urban culture in the Tarim Basin, which used GĀNDHĀRĪ PRAKRIT (in the KHAROṢṬHĪ script) in much of its written communications until the relatively late rise in the use of indigenous vernacular Khotanese (probably sometime after the sixth century CE). The Khotanese language, which no longer survives, belonged to the Middle Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, and fragments of Buddhist texts translated into Khotanese were discovered by SIR MARC AUREL STEIN (1862–1943) during his excavations in the region. Already by the third century CE, Chinese monks were traveling to Khotan to learn Buddhist doctrine and acquire Buddhist scriptures, and Khotanese scholars and monks were making their way to China to transmit and translate Buddhist texts (including such important Mahāyāna scriptures as the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, which was brought from Khotan early in the fifth century). The pilgrimage reports of FAXIAN and XUANZANG attest that Khotan was the home of at least four major monasteries and several smaller ones, with several tens of thousands of monks in residence. The Chinese occupied Khotan during both the first and seventh centuries CE, but throughout the first millennium they maintained close economic and cultural ties with the kingdom. By the eighth century, the continued incursions of Arabs, Turks, and Mongols inexorably led to the demise of Buddhism in the region and the people’s conversion to Islam; Khotan was finally converted to Islam in 1004. Since the mid-eighteenth century, during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), Khotan has been under the political control of China and currently is located in the Uighur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang province. See also KUCHA.

Khra ’brug. (Tradruk). The earliest of Tibet’s great geomantic temples, after the JO KHANG in LHA SA, said to have been founded by king SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO near the town of Tsetang (Rtse thang). According to traditional accounts, it was erected on the left shoulder of a great supine demoness whose body splayed across Tibet, hindering the spread of Buddhist teachings. It is therefore counted as one of the four “edge-taming temples” or “edge-pinning temples” (MTHA’ ’DUL GTSUG LAG KHANG). The site was later venerated as a royal monastery by kings KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN and Mu ne btsan po in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. After the persecution of king GLANG DAR MA, Khra ’brug was renovated and expanded in 1351, and later by the fifth DALAI LAMA, NGAG DBANG BLO BZANG RGYA MTSHO, who added a golden roof. By the late eighteenth century, the site had become a complex of twenty-one temples. Although almost completely destroyed during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, reconstruction of the temple began in the 1980s.

khregs chod. (trekchö). In Tibetan, lit. “breaking through the hard” or “breakthrough”; one of the two main practices in the SNYING THIG tradition of RDZOGS CHEN, the other being THOD RGAL, “crossing the crest” or “leap over.” Khregs chod is paired with the essential purity (ka dag) of awareness; the practice of khregs chod leads to thod rgal; it cuts through the stream of obscurations and reveals awareness (RIG PA) devoid of object–subject bifurcation (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). Sustaining this awareness uninterruptedly while involved in ordinary sense perception is the essence of the practice. It cuts the stream of past and future thought and uses the gap of the unfindable present to contact the primordial pure awareness. It is oriented toward the emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ) aspect free from conceptual proliferation (NIṢPRAPAÑCA). Both thod rgal and khregs chod are concerned with the natural light (’od gsal; PRABHĀSVARA) of pure awareness; but whereas the former leads to the total dissolution of the body into light in a vision of transcendental consciousness (ye shes; JÑĀNA), the practice of the former leaves the practitioner as a small particle of dust, as it were.

Khri srong lde btsan. (Trisong Detsen) (r. 754–799). A Tibetan ruler considered the second of three great religious kings (chos rgyal) during the Imperial Period, the other two being SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO and RAL PA CAN, and as a human incarnation of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEŚVARA. Inheriting the throne in 754 as the thirty-eighth monarch of the Yar klungs dynasty, Khri srong lde btsan directed several events that are considered milestones in Tibetan history. During the early years of his reign, he extended the boundaries of the Tibetan empire forged under his predecessors. In 763, the king’s army occupied the imperial capital of Tang China at Chang’an (present-day Xi’an), an action commemorated on a stele that was erected in front of the PO TA LA Palace. However, Khri srong lde btsan is best remembered for his patronage of Buddhism and support in founding Tibet’s first Buddhist monastery of BSAM YAS. Later chronicles record that he actively suppressed the native BON religion, as well as the aristocratic clans who were its benefactors, although he never entirely proscribed early Bon rituals. Khri srong lde btsan invited the renowned Indian Buddhist preceptor ŚĀNTARAKṢITA to oversee the project of building Bsam yas and to establish the first monastic order in Tibet. According to traditional accounts, local spirits inimical to Buddhism created obstacles that hindered the project, which prompted the Indian abbot to request Khri srong lde btsan to invite the powerful tantric master PADMASAMBHAVA to Tibet in order to aid in their subjugation, after which the establishment of the monastery was able to proceed. Khri srong lde btsan is said to have become a devotee of Padmasambhava, with one of his queens, YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL, becoming the yogin’s consort and serving as scribe for many of his GTER MA teachings. Padmasambhava also revived the king’s eight-year-old daughter PADMA GSAL after her death in order to bestow a special teaching. According to tradition, at the time of his death, ŚĀNTARAKṢITA warned in his final testament that a mistaken philosophical view would become established in Tibet and advised the king to invite KAMALAŚĪLA to come to Tibet in order to dispel it. The view was apparently that of the Northen Chan (BEI ZONG) monk Heshang Moheyan, who had developed a following at the Tibetan court. Kamalaśīla was invited and a debate was held between the Indian monk and the Chinese monk, with the king serving as judge. It is unclear whether a face-to-face debate took place or rather an exchange of documents. According to Tibetan sources, the king declared Kamalaśīla the winner, named MADHYAMAKA as the official philosophical school of his realm, and banished the Chinese party from his kingdom. (Chinese records describe a different outcome.) This event, variously known as the BSAM YAS DEBATE, the Council of Bsam yas, and the Council of Lhasa, is regarded as one of the key moments in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.

Khro phu bka’ brgyud. (Trophu Kagyü). One of the four major and eight subsects of the Bka’ brgyud sect of Tibetan Buddhism (BKA’ BRGYUD CHE BZHI CHUNG BRGYAD), originating with Rgya tsha (Gyatsa, 1118–1195), Kun ldan ras pa (Kundenrepa, 1148–1217), and their nephew Khro phu lo tsā ba Byams pa dpal (Tropu lotsaba Jampapal, 1173–1228).

Khruba Si Wichai. (1878–1938). One of the most famous and revered Lānnā (northern Thai) monks of the twentieth century, who supervised the renovation of more than one hundred northern Thai monasteries; many of these projects were later criticized by art historians for their excessive use of cement and lack of attention to preserving authentic stylistic features. He also organized the construction of the road up the famous landmark mountain Doi Suthep, leading to the monastery of WAT PHRA THAT DOI SUTHEP. The road, which opened on April 10, 1935, is approximately 9.3 miles (fifteen kilometers) in length and took only slightly more than five months to complete through the labors of as many as five thousand volunteer workers. Khruba is an honorary title for a teaching monk in Thailand and usually implies that the monk is perceived to have strong charisma and sometimes supernatural powers. Statues of Khruba Si Wichai are found at Wat Phra That Doi Suthep and Wat Phra Singh.

Khuddakanikāya. (S. Kṣudrakapiṭaka; T. Phran tshegs sde; C. Xiaobu; J. Shōbu; K. Sobu 小部). In Pāli, “Miscellaneous Collection”; the fifth and last division of the PĀLI SUTTAPIṬAKA. Such miscellanies, or “mixed baskets” (S. kṣudrakapiṭaka), were known to have existed in several of the mainstream Buddhist schools, including the DHARMAGUPTAKA, MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA, and MAHĪŚĀSAKA, but none of these recensions are extant (and there is no specific analogue in the Chinese ĀGAMA translations). The Pāli miscellany is composed of fifteen independent books, some of them representing the earliest strata of the Pāli canon, others relatively late compositions. The works are generally in verse, including the KHUDDAKAPĀṬHA, DHAMMAPADA, UDĀNA, ITIVUTTAKA, SUTTANIPĀTA, VIMĀNAVATTHU, PETAVATTHU, THERAGĀTHĀ, THERĪGĀTHĀ, JĀTAKA, APADĀNA, BUDDHAVAṂSA, and CARIYĀPIṬAKA. The Khuddhakanikāya contains in addition a commentary on portions of the Suttanipāta, called the MAHĀNIDDESA and CŪḶANIDDESA, and one treatise, the PAṬISAMBHIDĀMAGGA, that conforms to the abhidhamma in style and content. The Burmese recension of the Pāli canon adds to the collection four other works: the MILINDAPAÑHA, Suttasaṅgaha, PEṬAKOPADESA, and NETTIPPAKARAṆA, making nineteen books in all.

Khuddakapāṭha. In Pāli, “Miscellaneous Readings”; first of the fifteen books contained in the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA of the Pāli SUTTAPIṬAKA and comprised of excerpts taken from earlier canonical texts. This late Pāli composition is mentioned as a canonical text only in the commentaries. The KHUDDAKAPĀṬHA appears in the Pali Text Society’s English translation series as The Minor Readings.

Khuông Việt. (匡越) (933–1011). Prominent Vietnamese monk and royal advisor, a native of Thửờng Lạc (nowadays Thanh Hóa Province, in northern Vietnam). His personal name was Ngô Chân Lưu. According to the THIỀN UYỂN TÂ̤P ANH, he was a descendent of Ngô Thuận Đế. As a young man, he studied Confucianism but later turned to Buddhism, receiving full ordination from CHAN Master Vân Phong. Khuông Việt was widely read in the Buddhist scriptures and diligently investigated the teachings of Chan. When he was in his forties, his fame reached the royal court, and King Đinh Tiên Hoàng (r. 968–979), the founder of the Đinh dynasty (968–980), summoned him to the capital city and honored him with the rank General Supervisor of Monks. The king also granted him the sobriquet Khuông Việt Thái Sư (Great Master Who Brings Order to Việt). King Lê Đại Hành (r. 980–1005), the founder of the former Lê dynasty (980–1009), invited him to participate in all military, administrative, and diplomatic affairs, and he was often appointed to receive Chinese envoys. Khuông Việt was particularly famed for his exchange of couplets and poems with the Song-dynasty envoy Li Jue, who reported favorably on Vietnam to the Song-dynasty Emperor.

Khyung po rnal ’byor Tshul khrims mgon po. (Kyungpo Naljor Tsultrim Gönpo) (c. tenth–eleventh centuries) A Tibetan scholar and adept considered the founder of the SHANGS PA BKA’ BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Although his traditional biographies are somewhat ambiguous, it is known that he traveled to India and studied under several MAHĀSIDDHA including MAITRĪPA and two female masters, Sukha and NIGUMA. From the latter, who was said to have been the wife or sister of the Indian scholar NĀROPA, Khyung pa rnal ’byor received a collection of instructions known as the six doctrines of NIGUMA (Ni gu chos drug). These ranked with the better known doctrines of NĀROPA (NA RO CHOS DRUG) and became the seminal teachings of the Shangs pa bka’ brgyud. Khyung po rnal ’byor returned to Tibet and, according to traditional accounts, founded 108 religious establishments in the region of Shangs, from which the Shangs pa bka’ brgyud takes its name. Khyung po rnal ’byor established his main seat at Zhang zhong monastery (also called Zhang zhang and Zhong zhong) and attracted a great number of disciples from all parts of Tibet. Although the Shangs pa bka’ brgyud never developed a strong centralized institution, the transmission of Khyung po rnal ’byor’s distinctive teachings spread in many directions, eventually finding their way into nearly every sect of Tibetan Buddhism.

Kihwa. (己和) (1376–1433). Korean SŎN master of the Chosŏn dynasty, also known as Hamhŏ Tŭkt’ong and Mujun. Kihwa was a native of Ch’ungju in present-day North Ch’ungch’ŏng province. The son of a diplomat, Kihwa entered the Sŏnggyun’gwan academy and received a traditional Confucian education, although even there he already showed strong interests in Buddhism. In 1396, after the death of a close friend, Kihwa decided to become a monk, eventually becoming a disciple of the eminent Sŏn master MUHAK CHACH’O (1327–1405) at the monastery of Hoeamsa. After studying kanhwa Sŏn (see KANHUA CHAN) under Chach’o, Kihwa is said to have attained his first awakening at a small hut near his teacher’s monastery. Kihwa devoted the next few years to teaching and lecturing at various monasteries around the Korean peninsula. In 1412, Kihwa began a three-year retreat at a small hermitage named Hamhŏdang near the monastery of Yŏnbongsa on Mt. Chamo in P’yŏngsan. In 1420, he made a pilgrimage to Mt. Odae, and the following year he was invited to the royal monastery of Taejaŏch’al. In 1424, King Sejong (r. 1419–1450) forcibly consolidated the different schools of Korean Buddhism into the two branches of Sŏn (CHAN; Meditation) and KYO (Doctrine), reduced the number of officially recognized monasteries, and limited the number of monks allowed to ordain. Perhaps in reaction to this increasing persecution of Buddhism, Kihwa left the royal monastery that same year. In response to the growing criticisms of Buddhism by the Confucian scholars at court, Kihwa composed his HYŎNJŎNG NON. Kihwa also composed influential commentaries on the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA (“Diamond Sūtra”) and the YUANJUE JING (“Perfect Enlightenment Sūtra”). In 1431, he began restorations on a monastery known as Pongamsa on Mt. Hŭiyang in Yongnam and died at the monastery two years later in 1433.

Kim hwasang. (K) (金和尚). See CHŎNGJUNG MUSANG.

Kim Iryŏp. (金一葉) (1896–1971). In Korean, Kim “single leaf,” influential Korean Buddhist nun during the mid-twentieth century and part of the first generation of Korean women intellectuals, or “new women” (sin yŏsŏng), thanks to her preordination career as a leading feminist writer, essayist, and poet. Her secular name was Wŏnju, and her Buddhist names were Hayŏp and Paengnyŏn Toyŏp; Iryŏp is her pen name, which Yi Kwangsu (1892–1955?), a pioneer of modern Korean literature, gave her in memory of the influential Japanese feminist writer Higuchi Ichiyō (1872–1896) (J. Ichiyō = K. Iryŏp). Kim’s early years were influenced by Christianity and her father even became a Protestant minister. Her mother died when Kim was very young and her father also passed away while she was still in her teens. Kim was educated at the Ihwa Haktang, a women’s academy (later Ewha University), and later studied abroad in Japan. She and other Ihwa graduates participated in the first female-published magazine in Korea, “New Women” (Sinyŏja), which began and ended in 1920. Kim was a feminist intellectual who sought self-liberation and the elevation of women’s status through her writing. After her first marriage ended in divorce, she continued to pursue her search for her “self” and was involved in much-publicized relationships with men such as Oda Seijo and Im Nowŏl, a writer of “art-for-art’s sake.” But Kim’s ideal of female liberation based on individual self-identity appears to have undergone a profound transformation, thanks to her associations with Paek Sŏnguk (1897–1981), a Buddhist intellectual who worked to revitalize Korean Buddhism during the Japanese colonial period and eventually became a monk himself in 1929. Through her encounter with Buddhism, Iryŏp’s pursuit of self-liberation seems to have shifted from an emphasis on a self-centered identity based on feminism to the release from the self (ANĀTMAN). After Paek Sŏnguk entered into the Diamond Mountains (KŬMGANGSAN) to become a monk, she again married, seemingly in an attempt both to keep her self-identity as a female and to realize the Buddhist release of self, by combining secular life with Buddhist practice. But a few years later, in 1933, she ultimately decided to become a nun under the tutelage of the Sŏn master MAN’GONG WŎLMYŎN (1871–1946) and became a long-time resident of SUDŎKSA. There, she became an outspoken critic of secularized Japanese-style Buddhism and particularly of its sanction of married monks and eating meat. But most notable were her writings on the pursuit of self-liberation, which she expressed as “becoming one body” (ilch’ehwa) with all people and everything in the universe. Iryŏp is credited for her contributions to popularizing Buddhism through her accessible writings in the Korean vernacular, as well as for elevating the position of nuns in Korean Buddhism.

Kim Kyogak. (K) (金喬覺). See CHIJANG.

kiṃnara. (P. kinnara; T. mi ’am ci; C. jinnaluo; J. kinnara; K. kinnara 緊那羅). A class of wondrous celestial musicians in the court of KUBERA, ranking below the GANDHARVA. In Sanskrit, the name lit. means “How could this be human?” They are said to have human bodies but the heads of horses, but they also are sometimes depicted as little birds with human heads. Kiṃnara are common decorative figures in Buddhist cave and temple art. The kiṃnara is one of the eight kinds of nonhumans (AṢṬASENĀ) who protect the dharma, and they often appear in the audience of Buddhist SŪTRAs. The other seven are the DEVA, ASURA, GANDHARVA, NĀGA, YAKṢA, GARUḌA, and MAHORĀGA.

Kinkakuji. (金閣寺). In Japanese, “Golden Pavilion monastery”; a Japanese temple located in northern Kyōto, the ancient capital city of Japan, formally known as Rokuonji (Deer Park temple, cf. MṚGADĀVA). It was originally built as a retirement villa for Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), the third shōgun of the Muromachi (1337–1573) shogunate. However, following his father’s wishes, his son converted it to a ZEN temple of the RINZAI school after the shōgun’s death in 1408. The temple inspired the building of Ginkakuji (Silver Pavilion monastery), which was constructed about sixty years later on the other side of the city. The name Kinkaku derived from the pavilion’s extravagant use of gold leaf, typical of Muromachi style, which covers the entire top two stories of the three-story pavilion. The pavilion uses three different architectural styles on each floor: the first emulates the residential style of Heian aristocracy; the second, warrior aristocracy; the third, Chinese CHAN style. The second floor enshrines the image of the BODHISATTVA Kannon (AVALOKITEŚVARA), surrounded by the statues of the four heavenly kings (CĀTURMAHĀRĀJAN), the guardian divinities (DEVA) of Buddhism. The pavilion burned down several times, including twice during the Ōnin war (1467–1477) and most recently by arson in 1950; the present structure was reconstructed in 1955. Kinkakuji is currently a branch temple of the RINZAI ZEN monastery of SHŌKOKUJI.

kirigami. (切紙). In Japanese, “secret initiation documents” (lit. “strips of paper”), ; secret instructions or formulas written on individual pieces of paper, which were used in the medieval Japanese traditions, including the SŌTOSHŪ, to transmit esoteric knowledge and monastic routines. Kirigami were a central pedagogical feature in many fields involving apprenticeships in medieval Japan and were used to transmit knowledge about acting, poetic composition, martial arts, and religious practice. Sōtō Zen kirigami were also elaborations of the broader Chinese monastic codes (shingi; see QINGGUI) and focused on the secret rituals that a Zen abbot would perform in private, including consecration, funerals, and transmission of precepts or a dharma lineage. Many kirigami also provide short, targeted instruction on individual Zen cases (kōan; C. GONG’AN), such as the correct sequence of questions and answers, or the appropriate “capping phrase” (JAKUGO), that would prove mastery of a specific kōan. Because kirigami were also kept hidden away in Sōtō monasteries and were known only to the abbots, access to them was a potent symbol of the abbots’ enhanced religious authority.

kiriyavāda. In Pāli, lit. “teaching on deeds,” the philosophical position that upholds the efficacy of deeds, specifically that a distinction should be drawn between merit (puñña, S. PUṆYA) and demerit (apuñña, S. apuṇya). The term is usually seen in conjuction with the related kammavāda, viz., one who accepts the efficacy of action (KARMAN) and its fruition (VIPĀKA).

Kisā Gotamī. (S. *Kṛśā Gautamī). In Pāli, “Gotamī the emaciated”; an eminent arahant (S. ARHAT) therī, who was declared by the Buddha to be foremost among his nun disciples in the wearing of coarse robes (lūkhacīvara). The story of Kisā Gotamī is found in several places in the Pāli canon and commentaries and is one of the most beloved narratives in the THERAVĀDA world for its poignancy. Born to a poor family in the city of Sāvatthi (S. ŚRĀVASTĪ), her personal name was Gotamī, and she received the epithet Kisā (“lean,” or “emaciated”) because she was so thin. She was fortunate to marry into a wealthy family, although she was not treated with respect until she bore a son. Her happiness was short lived, however, for her son died just as he became old enough to run around and play. Driven mad with grief, Kisā Gotamī wandered about carrying her son’s body at her hip, seeking everywhere for medicine to restore him to life. She was mocked and driven away by everyone she approached, until a kind man finally took pity on her and directed her to the Buddha. In response to her pleas to revive her son, the Buddha told her he would do so if she would bring him a mustard seed from a household in which no one had died. Searching frantically from house to house and ultimately finding none that had not experienced the death of loved ones, she came to realize the inevitability of death and so was able finally to lay her child’s body to rest in the charnel ground. Returning to the Buddha, she sought admission into the nun’s order and was ordained. She promptly became a stream-enterer (sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA) and, soon afterward, an arahant (S. ARHAT). In a previous existence, she had witnessed Padumuttara Buddha declare one of his nuns foremost among those who wear coarse robes, and it was then that she vowed to one day earn that same title.

Kissa yōjōki. (喫茶養生). In Japanese, “Record of Drinking Tea for Health,” composed by the Japanese monk MYŌAN EISAI in 1211. After Eisai returned to Japan from his pilgrimage in China, he is said to have transplanted in Uji the tea seeds that he had brought back with him from the mainland. The Kissa yōjōki is a record of the method that he used to transplant and care for the tea plants. The names of different types of tea, the ideal time and techniques for harvesting the leaves, and the proper way of preparing tea are carefully explained. Eisai also discusses the health and spiritual benefits of drinking tea in the text. The Kissa yōjōki is a seminal text in the development of tea culture in Japan.

Kiyomizudera. (清水寺). In Japanese, “Pure Water Monastery”; an important monastery of the Japanese HŌSSŌ school of YOGĀCĀRA Buddhism, located in the Higashiyama (Eastern Mountains) District of Kyōto. The monastery claims to have been founded in 778 by a monk named Enchin and the general Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, who stopped on the site for a drink from a waterfall fed by a natural spring, where he met the monk. Together, they contracted to create a magnificent image of an eleven-faced and forty-armed Kannon (AVALOKITEŚVARA), which was enshrined in 798 in a temporary hall that was given the name Kiyomizudera. The monastery became a state shrine in 810 and a focus of state-protection Buddhism (see HUGUO FOJIAO) in Japan. The current buildings date from the latest reconstruction of the monastery in 1633. The monastery is perhaps best known for its long veranda that juts over the hillside in front of the main shrine hall; there is a folk tradition dating back to the Edo period that anyone who survives a plunge off the veranda is granted whatever one wishes. The monastery was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994.

Kiyozawa Manshi. (清沢満之) (1863–1903). Meiji-era Japanese Buddhist leader in the HIGASHI-HONGANJIHA of JŌDO SHINSHŪ. Kiyozawa was born into a poor warrior class family in a small town east of Nagoya and ordained in 1878 as a Higashi-Honganji priest. After studying Western philosophy at college and graduate school in Tokyo, he served his sect as an educator. In 1888, he was appointed principal of a Higashi-Honganji middle school in Kyōto and taught Western philosophy at a Higashi-Honganji seminary. In 1890, however, Kiyozawa left his position as principal to lead a rigorous ascetic life, wearing Buddhist robes, separating himself from his family, and living on simple food. Around this time, Kiyozawa launched a reform movement within Higashi-Honganji to return the school to the spirit of its founder, SHINRAN (1173–1262), and to make its ecclesiastical structure conform better to modern secular society, such as by having its deacons elected democratically. However, his movement failed and he was excommunicated in 1897. After being reinstated a year later, Kiyozawa again played an important role in the sect’s education, serving in 1901 and 1902 as a dean of Higashi-Honganji’s newly founded college (present-day Ōtani University). He died at the age of forty from the tuberculosis he had contracted during his practice of asceticism. Kiyozawa is credited with popularizing the TANNISHŌ, a short collection of Shinran’s sayings that previously were not widely known. Kiyozawa emphasized individual religious experience, in which the adherent’s self-awareness of his or her incapacity for moral perfection would instead prompt the adept to realize the truth of salvation through absolute reliance on the infinite. Kiyozawa argued that such individual spiritual realization could contribute to the welfare of society at large. Although Kiyozawa’s thought was not widely accepted during his own age, it influenced a younger generation of Higashi-Honganji scholars, such as Akegarasu Haya (1877–1967), Sōga Ryōjin (1875–1971), and Kaneko Dai’ei (1881–1976), who later became leading intellectual figures in the sect.

Kizil. [alt. Qizil]. A complex of some 230 Buddhist caves from the ancient Central Asian kingdom of KUCHA, located about seventy kilometers northwest of the present-day city of Kucha on the bank of the Muzat River in Baicheng County, in the Uighur Autonomous Region of China’s Xinjiang province. The Kizil caves represent some of the highest cultural achievements of the ancient Indo-European petty kingdom of Kucha, an important oasis along the northern SILK ROAD connecting China to the bastions of Buddhist culture in the greater Indian cultural sphere. Construction at the site perhaps began as early as the third century CE and lasted for some five hundred years, until the region succumbed in the ninth century to Islamic control. Given the importance of the Kucha region in the development and transmission of Buddhism along the ancient Silk Road, scholars believe that the DUNHUANG murals were influenced by the art of Kizil. Although no statuary remains at the Kizil site, many wall paintings are preserved depicting events from the life of the Buddha; indeed, Kizil is second only to the Mogao caves of Dunhuang in the number of wall paintings it contains. The layout of many of the intact caves includes a central pillar, forming both a front chamber and a rear chamber, which often contains a PARINIRVĀṆA scene. The first modern studies of the site were conducted in the early twentieth century by the German explorers Alfred Grünwedel and Alfred von Le Coq. The nearby site of Kumtura contains over a hundred caves, forty of which contain painted murals or inscriptions. Other cave sites near Kucha include Subashi, Kizilgaha, and Simsim.

kleśa. (P. kilesa; T. nyon mongs; C. fannao; J. bonnō; K. pŏnnoe 煩腦). In Sanskrit, “afflictions,” or “defilements”; mental factors that disturb the mind and incite unwholesome (AKUŚALA) deeds of body, speech, and/or mind. In order to be liberated from rebirth, the kleśa and the actions they incite must be controlled and finally eliminated. A typical standard list of kleśa includes the so-called three poisons (TRIVIṢA) of greed or sensuality (RĀGA or LOBHA), hatred or aversion (DVEṢA), and delusion (MOHA). According to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, there are six “fundamental afflictions” or “defiled factors of wide extent” (KLEŚAMAHĀBHŪMIKA) that are associated with all defiled thoughts: delusion (MOHA), heedlessness (PRAMĀDA), lassitude (KAUSĪDYA), lack of faith (ĀŚRADDHYA), sloth (STYĀNA), and restlessness (AUDDHATYA). There are similarly ten “defiled factors of limited extent” (upakleśaparīttabhūmika), which may be associated with defiled thoughts: anger (KRODHA), hypocrisy (MRAKṢA), selfishness (MĀTSARYA), envy (ĪRṢYĀ), agitation or competition (PRADĀSA), harmfulness (VIHIṂSĀ), enmity (UPANĀHA), trickery or guile (ŚĀṬHYA), and arrogance (MADA). In the YOGĀCĀRA school, there are typically enumerated six fundamental kleśa—greed (rāga), aversion (PRATIGHA), stupidity (mūḍhi), pride (MĀNA), skeptical doubt (VICIKITSĀ), and the five wrong views (DṚṢṬI), viz., (1) presuming that the five aggregates (SKANDHA) possess a self, (2) the two extreme views of eternalism and annihilationism, (3) rejection of the law of causality, (4) maintaining wrong views and presuming them superior to all other views, (5) misconceiving wrong types of conduct or morality to be conducive to enlightenment—and twenty derivative ones (UPAKLEŚA).

kleśamahābhūmika. (T. nyon mongs chen po’i sa; C. da fannaodi fa; J. daibonnōjihō; K. tae pŏnnoeji pŏp 大煩惱地法). In Sanskrit, “defiled factors of wide extent”; the six principal factors (DHARMA) that ground all afflictions (KLEŚA) or defiled activities, according to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA: (1) confusion (MOHA), (2) heedlessness (APRAMĀDA), (3) lassitude (KAUSĪDYA), (4) lack of faith (ĀŚRADDHYA), (5) sloth (STYĀNA), and (6) restlessness (AUDDHATYA). See KLEŚA.

kleśāvaraṇa. (T. nyon mongs kyi sgrib pa; C. fannao zhang; J. bonnōshō; K. pŏnnoe chang 煩腦障). In Sanskrit, “afflictive obstructions,” or, more literally, the obstructions that are the afflictions. This is the first of the two categories of obstructions (ĀVARAṆA), together with the cognitive or noetic obstructions (JÑEYĀVARAṆA), that the MAHĀYĀNA holds must be overcome in order to complete the BODHISATTVA path and achieve buddhahood. In the YOGĀCĀRA system, based on the mistakes in understanding generated by the cognitive obstructions, the individual engages in defiled actions, such as anger, envy, etc., which constitute the afflictive obstructions. The afflictive obstructions may be removed by followers of the ŚRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and beginning BODHISATTVA paths, by applying various antidotes or counteragents to the afflictions (KLEŚA); overcoming these types of obstructions will lead to freedom from further rebirth (and specifically the PARICCHEDAJARĀMARAṆA, or “determinative birth-and-death”). The cognitive obstructions, however, can be overcome only by advanced bodhisattvas who aspire instead to achieve buddhahood.

kliṣṭamanas. [alt. kliṣṭamanovijñāna] (T. nyon yid; C. ranmona/mona shi; J. zenmana/manashiki; K. yŏmmalla/malla sik 染末那/末那識). In Sanskrit, “afflicted mentality”; refers to the seventh of the eight categories of consciousnesses set forth in the YOGĀCĀRA school and enumerated by ASAṄGA. The first six consciousnesses are the six sensory consciousnesses of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mentality; the eighth is the foundational consciousness, the “storehouse consciousness” (ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA), which serves as the repository of the seeds (BĪJA) of past actions. The seventh “afflicted mentality” observes the foundational consciousness and mistakenly conceives it to be the self. Upon the achievement of buddhahood, the afflicted mentality is transformed into the wisdom of equality (SAMATĀJÑĀNA).

kliṣṭamanovijñāna. (S). See KLIṢṬAMANAS.

klong chen snying thig. (longchen nyingtik). In Tibetan, the “Heart Essence of the Great Expanse,” one of the most important cycles of “treasure texts” (GTER MA) of the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. They are RDZOGS CHEN teachings revealed by ’JIGS MED GLING PA in 1757. The teachings were a dgongs gter, or “mind treasure,” discovered by him in his own mind. They are considered to embody the two major snying thig lineages, the BI MA SNYING THIG brought to Tibet by VIMALAMITRA and the MKHA’ ’GRO SNYING THIG brought to Tibet by PADMASAMBHAVA. The revelation eventually encompassed three volumes, including dozens of individual treatises, SĀDHANAS, and prayers.

Klong chen rab ’byams. (Longchen Rabjam) (1308–1364). Also known as Klong chen pa (Longchenpa). An esteemed master and scholar of the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism known especially for his promulgation of RDZOGS CHEN. Klong chen pa is believed to be the direct reincarnation of PADMA LAS ’BREL RTSAL, who revealed the Rdzogs chen snying thig, and also of PADMA GSAL, who first received those teachings from the Indian master PADMASAMBHAVA. Born in the central Tibetan region of G.yo ru (Yoru), he received ordination at the age of twelve. At nineteen, he entered GSANG PHU NE’U THOG monastery where he engaged in a wide range of studies, including philosophy, numerous systems of SŪTRA and TANTRA, and the traditional Buddhist sciences, including grammar and poetics. Having trained under masters as diverse as the abbots of Gsang phu ne’u thog and the third KARMA PA, RANG ’BYUNG RDO RJE, he achieved great scholarly mastery of numerous traditions, including the Rnying ma, SA SKYA, and BKA’ BRGYUD sects. However, Klong chen pa quickly became disillusioned at the arrogance and pretension of many scholars of his day, and in his mid-twenties gave up the monastery to pursue the life of a wandering ascetic. At twenty-nine, he met the great yogin Kumārarāja at BSAM YAS monastery, who accepted him as a disciple and transmitted the three classes of rdzogs chen (rdzogs chen sde gsum), a corpus of materials that would become a fundamental part of Klong chen pa’s later writings and teaching career. Klong chen pa lived during a period of great political change in Tibet, as the center of political authority and power shifted from Sa skya to the Phag mo gru pa hierarchs. Having fallen out of favor with the new potentate, TAI SI TU Byang chub rgyal mtshan (Jangchub Gyaltsen, 1302–1364), he was forced to spend some ten years as a political exile in the Bum thang region of Bhutan, where he founded eight monasteries including Thar pa gling (Tarpa ling). Among the most important and well-known works in Klong chen pa’s extensive literary corpus are his redaction of the meditation and ritual manuals of the heart essence (SNYING THIG), composed mainly in the hermitage of GANGS RI THOD DKAR. Other important works include his exegesis on the theory and practice of rdzogs chen, such as the MDZOD BDUN (“seven treasuries”) and the NGAL GSO SKOR GSUM (“Trilogy on Rest”). Klong chen pa’s writings are renowned for their poetic style and refinement. They formed the basis for a revitalization of Rnying ma doctrine led by the eighteenth-century visionary and treasure revealer (GTER STON) ’JIGS MED GLING PA.

klong sde. (long de). In Tibetan, the “expanse class,” one of the three classes of ATIYOGA in the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The atiyoga or RDZOGS CHEN teachings are traditionally divided into three classes: the mind section (SEMS SDE), which emphasizes the luminosity of the mind (RIG PA) in its natural state; the expanse section, which emphasizes the expansive or spacious mind in its natural state; and the instruction section (MAN NGAG SDE), which emphasizes the indivisibility of luminosity and expansiveness. The root tantra of the klong sde is traditionally said to be the Klong chen rab ’byams rgyal po’i rgyud, a long text in which the term klong figures prominently. Some of the texts ascribed to this class may date from as early as the ninth century, but the genre seems to have taken shape in the twelfth century; an important tantra for this class is the Rdo rje sems dpanam mkha’i mtha’ dang mnyam pa’i rgyud chen po, where an important theme is the four signs (brda). According to tradition, klong sde is traced back to the late eighth-century Tibetan master VAIROCANA.

klu. (lu). A class of Tibetan pre-Buddhist subteranean deities associated with water and infectious diseases such as leprosy. With the arrival of Buddhism, the klu were subsumed with the Indian NĀGA. They have the head and torso of humans but the tails of snakes. The klu are possibly related to the Chinese long, or dragon: long fly in the air, klu remain submerged in subterranean lakes, but both are associated with water. The klu must be propitiated before the construction of monasteries and other buildings in Tibet, in rituals that involve both peaceful offerings and displays of violent power. The klu combine with other classes of Tibetan deities to create composite entities: klu bdud, klu sman, klu btsan, klu srin, and the like.

Klu’i rgyal mtshan. (Lui Gyaltsen). (fl. late eighth–early ninth century) A translator (LO TSĀ BA) during the early spread of Buddhism in Tibet. Perhaps a native of Spiti, his clan name is Cog ro. He is known for his collaboration with Jinamitra in translating basic VINAYA texts into Tibetan and for his collaboration with JÑĀNAGARBHA on a translation of BHĀVAVIVEKA’s PRAJÑĀPRADĪPA. See also YE SHES SDE; DPAL BRTSEGS.

Klu khang. (Lukang). In Tibetan, the “NĀGA Temple”; a small temple located in the middle of an artificial lake behind the PO TA LA Palace in LHA SA, Tibet, reached by a stone bridge. Its full name is Rdzong rgyab klu khang, the “Nāga Temple Behind the Fortress [i.e., the Po ta la].” According to legend, the regent of the fifth DALAI LAMA, SDE SRID SANGS RGYAS RGYA MTSHO, negotiated an agreement with the king of the nāgas at the time of construction of the Po ta la, receiving the king’s permission to dig up the soil in return for building a temple in honor of the nāga king in the center of the lake that formed in the pit from groundwater. The temple was constructed around 1700 during the reign of the sixth Dalai Lama, who is said to have used the upper chamber for romantic assignations. The temple is a small three-storied pavilion in the shape of a MAṆḌALA, with doors in each of the cardinal directions. The temple was rebuilt by the eighth Dalai Lama in 1791 and restored by the thirteenth Dalai Lama, who used it as a retreat. The temple is renowned for a magnificent set of murals on the second and third floors. The murals depict the eighty-four MAHĀSIDDHAs, PADMASAMBHAVA and his chief disciples, illustrations of the human body drawn from Tibetan medicine, a wide arrary of RDZOGS CHEN practices, scenes from the life of the renowned treasure revealer (GTER STON) PADMA GLING PA, and the peaceful and wrathful deities of the BAR DO.

koan. Romanization of the Japanese term kōan, now entered into the English language to refer (not quite correctly) to an impenetrable or even nonsensical “question” or “paradox.” See GONG’AN.

Kōben. (J) (高辨/弁). See MYŌE KŌBEN.

Kōbō Daishi. (J) (弘法大師). See KŪKAI.

Ko brag pa Bsod nams rgyal mtshan. (Godrakpa Sönam Gyaltsen) (1170–1249). A meditator of uncertain lineage, but best known for instruction manuals on the SA SKYALAM ’BRAS (path and result) practice; his instructions are representative of the mo rgyud (female transmission) of the Ma gcig Zhwa ma (1062–1149) line; he is also known for a lineage of the KĀLACAKRATANTRA six-branched yoga (ṣaḍaṅgayoga). One of his teachers, Chos kyi gzi brjid (1164–1224), was a student of ’JIG RTEN MGON PO, the founder of the ’BRI GUNG BKA’ BRGYUD subsect. He is known for his Gegs sel ha dmigs rgya mtsho and a collection of songs.

Kōfukuji. (興福寺). In Japanese, “Flourishing Merit Monastery”; an ancient monastery in Nara, Japan, which is currently the headquarters (honzan) of the Hossō (see YOGĀCĀRA) tradition. Kōfukuji was first established in Yamashina (present-day Kyōto) in 669 as the merit cloister of the Fujiwara clan and was moved to the old capital of Fujiwarakyō in 672. When the new capital Heijōkyō was established, Kōfukuji was moved to its current location in Nara. After the death of Fujiwara no Fuhito (659–720), maternal grandfather of Emperor Shōmu (r. 724–749), Kōfukuji was formally designated an official state monastery. Under Fujiwara patronage, Kōfukuji came to dominate the early Buddhist community in Japan and has been traditionally considered one of the six great temples of Nara. Kōfukuji was destroyed during the war between the Taira and Minamoto clans in the twelfth century, and there were periodic attempts to rebuild the temple. Following the Meiji persecution of Buddhism (HAIBUTSU KISHAKU), major restorations on the monasteries were made. Kōfukuji is famous for its exquisite five-story pagoda and ancient icons, which testify to the aesthetic glory of Nara Buddhism.

Kōhō Kennichi. (高峰顯日) (1241–1316). Japanese ZEN master of the RINZAI ZEN tradition, who is known to have been the son of Emperor Gosaga (r. 1242–1246). Kennichi was ordained by the Japanese monk ENNI BEN’EN at the monastery of Tōfukuji. In 1260, when the émigré CHAN master Wu’an Puning (1197–1276) was appointed abbot of the monastery of KENCHŌJI in Kamakura, Kennichi visited the master and became his student. Later, his patrons built the monastery of Unganji in Nasu and invited him to serve as abbot. In 1279, he also visited the émigré Chan master WUXUE ZUYUAN and continued to study under him at Kenchōji. Kennichi eventually received transmission (YINKE) from Wuxue and inherited his Rinzai (LINJI ZONG) lineage. With the support of the powerful regents Hōjō Sadatoki (1271–1311) and Takatoki (1303–1333), Kennichi also came to serve as abbot of the influential monasteries Jōmyōji, Manjuji, and Kenchōji. See also MUGAI NYODAI.

kokubunji. (國分寺). In Japanese, lit. “nationally distributed monasteries”; a network of centrally controlled provincial monasteries established during the Nara and Heian periods in Japan. During the reign of Emperor Shōmu (r. 724–749), he ordered that monasteries be established in every province of Japan, which would each have seven-story pagodas enshrining copies of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”). In 741, these provincial monasteries were organized into a national network as a means of bringing local power centers under the control of a centralized state government. The nunneries or convents that were also established as part of this same strategy were known as kokubunniji. The first headquarters of this kokubunji system was DAIANJI, which was based on the capital of Nara; the headquarters later moved to the major Kegon (HUAYAN) monastery of TŌDAIJI, which was constructed at Shōmu’s behest. By the time of Shōmu’s death in 756, there were at least twenty of these provincial monasteries already established.

Kondāne. Early Buddhist monastic cave site located in western India, which dates from the early decades of the first century CE. The highly ornamented, four-story facade of its CAITYA hall has projecting balconies supported by curved brackets and deeply recessed windows with latticed screens. Although carved in stone, the architectural form is modeled after earlier wooden designs and accords well with the real woodwork of the main arch, fragments of which are still in situ. This style of architecture is related to the slightly earlier hall at BHĀJĀ. In the third row of balconies are panels depicting pairs of dancers, who display ease of movement and considerable rhythmic grace. In this cave, there is also an inscription in BRAHMĪ script that records the name of one Balaka, a student of Kanha (or Kṛṣṇa), who constructed the cave. The record is carved near the head of a statue that probably represents Balaka.

kongji lingzhi. (J. kūjaku ryōchi; K. kongjŏk yŏngji 空寂靈知). In Chinese, “void and calm, numinous awareness.” See LINGZHI.

kong jia zhong sanguan. (C) (J. kū-ge-chū sangan; K. kong ka chung samgwan 空假中三觀). See SANGUAN.

Kongmu zhang. (J. Kumokushō; K. Kongmok chang 孔目章). In Chinese, “Items and Chapters”; the usual abbreviated title of the Huayan jingnei zhangmendeng za kongmu zhang composed by the HUAYAN master ZHIYAN. The Kongmu zhang is essentially a four-roll commentary on BUDDHABHADRA’s sixty-roll translation of the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, which discusses over 140 items and chapters from the sūtra. Zhiyan’s unique tenet classification schema (JIAOXIANG PANSHI) and his teachings on the one vehicle (C. yisheng; S. EKAYĀNA) in the Kongmu zhang have influenced other Huayan exegetes such as FAZANG.

kongōkai. (S. vajradhātu; T. rdo rje dbyings; C. jingang jie; K. kŭmgang kye 金剛界). In Japanese, “diamond realm” or “diamond world”; one of the two principal diagrams (MAṆḌALA) used in the esoteric traditions of Japan (see MIKKYŌ), along with the TAIZŌKAI (“womb realm”); the Sanskrit reconstruction for this diagram is *vajradhātumaṇḍala. The teachings of the kongōkai are said to derive in part from two seminal scriptures of the esoteric traditions, the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA and SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAṂGRAHA, but its construction as a maṇḍala relies on no known written instructions and more likely evolved pictorially. KŪKAI (774–835), the founder of the SHINGONSHŪ, used the kongōkai maṇḍala in combination with the taizōkai maṇḍala in a variety of esoteric rituals designed to awaken the individual adept. However, Japanese TENDAI Buddhism as well as various SHUGENDŌ complexes also heavily incorporated their own rituals into the two maṇḍalas. ¶ The kongōkai consists of nine smaller, nearly square-shaped maṇḍalas, or “assemblies” (J. e), some of which are sometimes isolated for worship and visualized independently. It is said that, by visualizing the maṇḍala, the kongōkai ultimately demonstrates that the universe as a whole is coextensive with the body of the DHARMAKĀYA or cosmic buddha, Mahāvairocana (SEE VAIROCANA). In the center of the maṇḍala, Mahāvairocana sits on a lotus flower, surrounded by four female figures, who symbolize the four perfections. Immediately outside are four discs, each encompassing a directional buddha: AMITĀBHA to the west, AKṢOBHYA to the east, AMOGHASIDDHI to the north, and RATNASAMBHAVA to the south. Each is, in turn, surrounded by four BODHISATTVAs. This ensemble of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and female figures is repeated in the first four maṇḍala of outward trajectory and its structure repeated in the lower six. Below the center maṇḍala is the maṇḍala of physical objects, each representing the buddhas and bodhisattvas. The next one in outward trajectory are figures residing inside a three-pointed vajra, representing the sounds of the world. The fourth maṇḍala displays all figures (excluding buddhas) in their female form, each exhibiting specific bodily movements. Arriving next at the upper-left maṇḍala, the group is reduced to Mahāvairocana and four surrounding bodhisattvas. In the top-center maṇḍala sits only a large Mahāvairocana. The last three maṇḍalas in the outward spiral shift toward worldly affairs. The top right reveals passions and desire. In the next to last are horrific demons and deities. The last maṇḍala represents consciousness. ¶ Looking at the depictions in the kongōkai individually, the nine smaller maṇḍalas are arrayed in a clockwise direction as follows. (1) The perfected-body assembly (jōjinne) is the central assembly of the entire maṇḍala. In the center of this assembly sits Mahāvairocana, displaying the gesture (MUDRĀ) of the wisdom fist (BODHYAṄGĪMUDRĀ; J. chiken-in), surrounded by the four directional buddhas (Akṣobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitābha, and Amoghasiddhi), who embody four aspects of Mahāvairocana’s wisdom. Each of these buddhas, including Mahāvairocana, is in turn attended by four bodhisattvas. (2) The SAMAYA assembly (J. sammayae; S. samayamaṇḍala) replaces the buddhas and bodhisattvas with physical objects, such as VAJRAS and lotuses. (3) The subtle assembly (J. misaime; S. sūkṣmamaṇḍala) signifies the adamantine wisdom of Mahāvairocana. (4) In the offerings assembly (J. kuyō-e; S. pūjāmaṇḍala), bodhisattvas make offerings to the five buddhas. (5) The four-mudrās assembly (J. shiinne; S. caturmudrāmaṇḍala) depicts only Mahāvairocana and four bodhisattvas. (6) The single-mudrā assembly (J. ichiinne; S. ekamudrāmaṇḍala) represents Mahāvairocana sitting alone in the gesture of wisdom. (7) In the guiding-principle assembly (J. rishu-e; S. nayamaṇḍala), VAJRASATTVA sits at the center, surrounded by four female figures, representing craving, physical contact, sexual desire, and fulfillment. (8) In the assembly of the descent into the three realms of existence (J. gōzanze-e; S. trailokyavijayamaṇḍala), Vajrasattva assumes the ferocious appearance of Gōsanze (TRAILOKYAVIJAYA). (9) The samaya of the descent into the three-realms assembly (J. gōzanzesammayae; S. trailokyavijayasamaya maṇḍala) has the same structure as the previous one. ¶ In one distinctively Shingon usage, the maṇḍala was placed in the east and the kongōkai stood in juxtaposition across from it. The initiate would then invite all buddhas, bodhisattvas, and divinities into the sacred space, invoking all of their power and ultimately unifying with them. In SHUGENDŌ, the two maṇḍalas were often spatially superimposed over mountain geography or worn as robes on the practitioner while entering the mountain. See TAIZŌKAI.