A

A. The first vowel and letter in the Sanskrit alphabet. The phoneme “a” is thought to be the source of all other phonemes and its corresponding letter the origin of all other letters. As the basis of both the Sanskrit phonemic system and the written alphabet, the letter “a” thus comes to be invested with mystical significance as the source of truth, nondifferentiation, and emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ), or even of the universe as a whole. The PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSARVATATHĀGATAMĀTĀ-EKĀKṢARĀ, the shortest of the perfection of wisdom scriptures, also describes how the entirety of the perfection of wisdom is subsumed by this one letter. The letter in the Sanskrit SIDDHAM alphabet gained special significance within the esoteric Buddhist traditions in Japan (MIKKYŌ), such as Shingon (see SHINGONSHŪ), which considered it to be the “seed” (BĪJA) of MAHĀVAIROCANA, the central divinity of esoteric Buddhism, and used it in a distinctive type of meditation called AJIKAN (“contemplation of the letter ‘a’”). The letter “a,” which is said to be originally uncreated (AJI HONPUSHŌ), is interpreted to be the essence of all phenomena in the universe and the DHARMAKĀYA of the buddha Mahāvairocana. In the East Asian CHAN traditions, the letter “a” is also sometimes understood to represent the buddha-nature (FOXING, S. BUDDHADHĀTU) of all sentient beings.

abhabbaṭṭhāna. (S. *abhavyasthāna; T. *mi rung ba’i gnas; C. buwei; J. fui; K. purwi 不爲). In Pāli, “condition of being incapable” or “impossibility”; referring to nine immoral acts or inadequacies of character that an ARHAT is incapable of performing or possessing. Because he has destroyed the four ĀSRAVA, or contaminants—of sensuality (KĀMA), becoming (BHAVA), ignorance (AVIDYĀ), and wrong views (DṚṢṬI)—he is rendered forever “incapable” of engaging in the following acts: (1) deliberately killing any living being; (2) theft; (3) sexual intercourse; (4) deliberately lying; (5) accumulating personal possessions for sensual indulgence, as would a layperson; or performing wrong actions prompted by (6) attachment; (7) hatred; (8) stupidity; or (9) fear.

ābhāsvaracitta. In Sanskrit, “mind of clear light.” See PRABHĀSVARACITTA.

ābhāsvarāloka. (P. ābhassaraloka; T. ’od gsal ba; C. jiguangjing tian/guangyintian; J. gokukōjōten/kōonten; K. kŭkkwangjŏng ch’ŏn/kwangŭmch’ŏn 極光淨天/光音天). In Sanskrit, the “heaven of radiant light” (in Chinese, the name is also parsed as the “heaven of radiant sound”), the highest of the three heavens associated with the second concentration (DHYĀNA) of the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU). As the BRAHMĀ divinities dwelling in this realm perpetually experience this profound state of meditation, they are described as subsisting on bliss (PRĪTI) and abiding in ease (SUKHA). Their bodies radiate light in all directions like lightning or like flames from a torch. While the bodies of the divinities of this realm are uniform, their perceptions are diverse, and there is no assurance that they will not be reborn in a lower realm of existence after their death. At the beginning of a world cycle, when the physical world (BHĀJANALOKA) of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) has not yet been formed, and at the end of a world cycle when that physical world has been destroyed, many beings are reborn into the ābhāsvarāloka. A BODHISATTVA is never reborn in the immaterial realm (ĀRŪPYADHĀTU) even if he has achieved meditative states consistent with that realm, but he may be reborn in the ābhāsvarāloka. The Buddha once disabused a Brahmā god dwelling in that realm of the mistaken view that he was eternal. This god, whose name was Baka, had been the first living being born in the ābhāsvarāloka after a period of world dissolution, and presumed that no one had existed before him. When the divinities (DEVA) of the ābhāsvarāloka are first reborn in the realm of human beings (MANUṢYA), they may retain their divine attributes for a time, being spontaneously generated rather than born viviparously, and possessing bodies made from subtle materiality rather than gross matter. However, as time passes and they take on the physical and mental characteristics of ordinary human beings, they lose their luminosity, develop sexual characteristics, and come to subsist on solid foods.

abhayadāna. (T. mi ’jigs pa sbyin pa; C. wuwei [bu]shi/shi wuwei; J. mui[fu]se/semui; K. muoe[bo]si/si muoe 無畏[布]施/施無畏). In Sanskrit, the “gift of fearlessness”; said to be one of the expanded list of three (sometimes four) forms of giving/gifts (DĀNA), along with the “gift of dharma” (DHARMADĀNA) and the “gift of material goods” (ĀMIṢADĀNA). This particular type of gift is typically offered by BODHISATTVAs, whose encouragement, consolation, teaching of the dharma, and so forth relieve the fears, worries, and tribulations of the beneficiary. The common Buddhist practice of purchasing animals from butchers in order to save them from slaughter (see FANGSHENG) is considered to be a form of abhayadāna.

Abhayadattaśrī. (T. Mi ’jigs pa sbyin pa dpal). Indian author of the early twelfth century to whom the text of tantric hagiographies entitled *CATURAŚĪTISIDDHAPRAVṚTTI (“Lives of the Eighty-Four Siddhas”) is ascribed. According to the colophon of this work, the author is known as “the great guru from Campara in India.”

Abhayagiri. A Sri Lankan monastery built at the capital of ANURĀDHAPURA in first century BCE. The monastery was constructed for the elder Mahātissa by the Sinhala king VAṬṬAGĀMAṆI ABHAYA in gratitude for the monk’s assistance during the king’s political exile and his struggle for the throne. According to medieval Pāli historical chronicles, Mahātissa was said to have been unrestrained and base in his behavior, which eventually prompted the monks of the MAHĀVIHĀRA to pass an act of banishment (PRAVRĀJANĪYAKARMAN, P. pabbājanīyakamma) against him. Mahātissa thereafter conducted ecclesiastical ceremonies (SAṂGHAKARMAN, P. saṅghakamma) separately, and the Abhayagiri fraternity eventually seceded from the Mahāvihāra as a separate order of Sri Lankan Buddhism. The Abhayagiri flourished during the eleventh century, but, with the abandonment of Anurādhapura in the thirteenth century, ceased to exist as an active center. The site is today known for the massive Abhayagiri Thūpa (STŪPA), one of the largest in Sri Lanka, which was rediscovered deep in a forest at the end of the nineteenth century.

Abhayākaragupta. (T. ’Jigs med ’byung gnas sbas pa) (d. c. 1125). Indian tantric Buddhist master who was born into a brāhmaṇa family in either Orissa or northeast India near Bengal. Sources vary regarding his dates of birth and death, although most agree that he was a contemporary of the Pāla king Rāmapāla, who began his reign during the final quarter of the eleventh century. Abhayākaragupta became a Buddhist monk in response to a prophetic vision and trained extensively in the esoteric practices of TANTRA, while nevertheless maintaining his monastic discipline (VINAYA). Abhayākaragupta was active at the monastic university of VIKRAMAŚĪLA in Bihar and became renowned as both a scholar and a teacher. He was a prolific author, composing treatises in numerous fields of Buddhist doctrine, including monastic discipline and philosophy as well as tantric ritual practice and iconography. Many Sanskrit manuscripts of his works have been preserved in India, Nepal, and Tibet, and his writings were influential both in India and among Newari Buddhists in Nepal. Translations of his works into Tibetan were begun under his supervision, and more than two dozen are preserved in the Tibetan canon. To date, Abhayākaragupta’s writings best known in the West are his treatises on tantric iconography, the Vajrāvalī and Niṣpannayogāvalī, and his syncretistic ABHIDHARMA treatise Munimatālaṃkāra.

abhayamudrā. (T. mi ’jigs pa’i phyag rgya; C. shiwuwei yin; J. semuiin; K. simuoe in 施無畏印). In Sanskrit, “the gesture of fearlessness” or “gesture of protection”; also sometimes called the gesture of granting refuge. This gesture (MUDRĀ) is typically formed with the palm of the right hand facing outward at shoulder height and the fingers pointing up, although both hands may simultaneously be raised in this posture in a double abhayamudrā. Occasionally, the index, second, or third finger touches the thumb, with the remaining fingers extended upward. This gesture is associated with ŚĀKYAMUNI Buddha immediately following his enlightenment, and standing buddha images will often be depicted with this mudrā, portraying a sense of the security, serenity, and compassion that derive from enlightenment. This gesture is also commonly associated with AMOGHASIDDHI.

Abheda. (T. Mi phyed pa). One of “the sixteen elders” or senior ARHATs in the Tibetan enumeration. See ṢOḌAŚASTHAVIRA.

abhibhvāyatana. (P. abhibhāyatana; T. zil gyis gnon pa’i skye mched; C. shengchu; J. shōsho; K. sŭngch’ŏ 勝處). In Sanskrit, “sphere of sovereignty” or “station of mastery”; eight stages of transcendence over the sense spheres (ĀYATANA), which are conducive to the development of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). By recognizing from various standpoints that material forms are external, one trains oneself to let go of attachments to material objects and focus exclusively on the meditation subject. The standard list of eight is as follows. When one perceives forms internally (viz., on one’s own person), one sees forms external to oneself that are (1) limited and beautiful or ugly (viz., pure and impure colors) or (2) unlimited, and beautiful or ugly, and masters them so that one is aware that one knows and sees them; when one does not perceive forms internally, one sees external forms that are (3) limited or (4) unlimited. When one does not perceive forms internally, one sees external forms that are (5) blue, (6) yellow, (7) red, or (8) white and masters them so that one is aware that one knows and sees them. In the Pāli meditative literature, the earth and the color devices (KASIṆA) are said to be especially conducive to developing these spheres of sovereignty. Progress through these spheres weans the mind from its attraction to the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) and thus encourages the advertence toward the four meditative absorptions (DHYĀNA; RŪPĀVACARADHYĀNA) associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU), wherein the mind becomes temporarily immune to sensory input and wholly absorbed in its chosen object of meditation.

abhicāra. [alt. abhicara] (T. mngon spyod). In Sanskrit, “magic” or “wrathful action”; in ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, the fourth of the four activities (CATURKARMAN) of the Buddhist tantric adept. Abhicāra is broken down into māraṇa “killing,” mohana “enchanting,” stambhana “paralyzing,” vidveṣaṇa “rendering harm through animosity,” uccāṭana “removing or driving away,” and vaśīkaraṇa “subduing.” After initiation (ABHIṢEKA), adepts who keep their tantric commitments (SAMAYA) properly and reach the requisite yogic level are empowered to use four sorts of enlightened activity, as appropriate: these four types of activities are (1) those that are pacifying (S. ŚĀNTICĀRA); (2) those that increase prosperity, life span, etc. (PAUṢṬIKA), when necessary for the spread of the doctrine; (3) those that subjugate or tame (S. VAŚĪKARAṆA) the unruly; and finally (4) those that are violent or drastic measures (abhicāra) such as war, when the situation requires it. In the MAÑJUŚRĪNĀMASAṂGĪTI, Cānakya, Candragupta’s minister, is said to have used abhicāra against his enemies, and because of this misuse of tantric power was condemned to suffer the consequences in hell. Throughout the history of Buddhist tantra, the justification of violence by invoking the category of abhicāra has been a contentious issue. PADMASAMBHAVA is said to have tamed the unruly spirits of Tibet, sometimes violently, with his magical powers, and the violent acts that RWA LO TSĀ BA in the eleventh century countenanced against those who criticized his practices are justified by categorizing them as abhicāra.

Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha. In Pāli, “Summary of the Meaning of Abhidharma”; a synoptic manual of Pāli ABHIDHARMA written by the Sri Lankan monk ANURUDDHA (d.u.), abbot of the Mūlasoma Vihāra in Polonnaruwa, sometime between the eighth and twelfth centuries CE, but most probably around the turn of the eleventh century. (Burmese tradition instead dates the text to the first century BCE.) The terse Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha Has been used for centuries as an introductory primer for the study of abhidharma in the monasteries of Sri Lanka and the THERAVĀDA countries of Southeast Asia; indeed, no other abhidharma text has received more scholarly attention within the tradition, especially in Burma, where this primer has been the object of multiple commentaries and vernacular translations. The Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha includes nine major sections, which provide a systematic overview of Pāli Buddhist doctrine. Anuruddha summarizes the exegeses appearing in BUDDHAGHOSA’s VISUDDHIMAGGA, though the two works could hardly be more different: where the Visuddhimagga offers an exhaustive exegesis of THERAVĀDA abhidharma accompanied by a plethora of historical and mythical detail, the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha is little more than a list of topics, like a bare table of contents. Especially noteworthy in the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha is its analysis of fifty-two mental concomitants (CETASIKA), in distinction to the forty-six listed in SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA and the ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA. There is one major Pāli commentary to the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha still extant, the Porāṇaṭīkā, which is attributed to Vimalabuddhi (d.u.). The Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha appears in the Pali Text Society’s English translation series as Compendium of Philosophy.

Abhidhammāvatāra. In Pāli, “Introduction to Abhidhamma”; a primer of Pāli ABHIDHAMMA attributed to BUDDHADATTA (c. fifth century CE), who is said to have been contemporaneous with the premier Pāli scholiast BUDDHAGHOSA; some legends go so far as to suggest that the two ABHIDHAMMIKAS might even have met. The book was written in south India and is the oldest of the noncanonical Pāli works on abhidhamma. It offers a systematic scholastic outline of abhidhamma, divided into twenty-four chapters called niddesas (S. nirdeśa; “expositions”), and displays many affinities with Buddhaghosa’s VISUDDHIMAGGA. These chapters include coverage of the mind (CITTA) and mental concomitants (CETASIKA), the various types of concentration (SAMĀDHI), the types of knowledge (JÑĀNA) associated with enlightenment, and the process of purification (visuddhi, S. VIŚUDDHI). The work is written in a mixture of prose and verse.

abhidhammika. [alt. Ābhidhammika]. In Pāli, “specialist in the ABHIDHAMMA”; scholarly monks who specialized in study of the abhidhamma (S. ABHIDHARMA) section of the Buddhist canon. In the Pāli tradition, particular importance has long been attached to the study of abhidharma. The AṬṬHASĀLINĪ says that the first ABHIDHAMMIKA was the Buddha himself, and the abhidhammikas were presumed to be the most competent exponents of the teachings of the religion. Among the Buddha’s immediate disciples, the premier abhidhammika was Sāriputta (S. ŚĀRIPUTRA), who was renowned for his systematic grasp of the dharma. Monastic “families” of abhidhamma specialists were known as abhidhammikagaṇa, and they passed down through the generations their own scholastic interpretations of Buddhist doctrine, interpretations that sometimes differed from those offered by specialists in the scriptures (P. sutta; S. SŪTRA) or disciplinary rules (VINAYA) . In medieval Sri Lanka, the highest awards within the Buddhist order were granted to monks who specialized in this branch of study, rather than to experts in the scriptures or disciplinary rules. Special festivals were held in honor of the abhidhamma, which involved the recital of important texts and the granting of awards to participants. In contemporary Myanmar (Burma), where the study of abhidhamma continues to be highly esteemed, the seventh book of the Pāli ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA, the PAṬṬHĀNA (“Conditions”), is regularly recited in festivals that the Burmese call pathan pwe. Pathan pwe are marathon recitations that go on for days, conducted by invited abhidhammikas who are particularly well versed in the Paṭṭhāna, the text that is the focus of the festival. The pathan pwe serves a function similar to that of PARITTA recitations, in that it is believed to ward off baleful influences, but its main designated purpose is to forestall the decline and disappearance of the Buddha’s dispensation (P. sāsana; S. ŚĀSANA). The Theravāda tradition considers the Paṭṭhāna to be the Buddha’s most profound exposition of ultimate truth (P. paramatthasacca; S. PARAMĀRTHASATYA), and according to the Pāli commentaries, the Paṭṭhāna is the first constituent of the Buddha’s dispensation that will disappear from the world as the religion faces its inevitable decline. The abhidhammikas’ marathon recitations of the Paṭṭhāna, therefore, help to ward off the eventual demise of the Buddhist religion. This practice speaks of a THERAVĀDA orientation in favor of scholarship that goes back well over a thousand years. Since at least the time of BUDDHAGHOSA (c. fifth century CE), the life of scholarship (P. PARIYATTI), rather than that of meditation or contemplation (P. PAṬIPATTI), has been the preferred vocational path within Pāli Buddhist monasticism. Monks who devoted themselves exclusively to meditation were often portrayed as persons who lacked the capacity to master the intricacies of Pāli scholarship. Even so, meditation was always recommended as the principal means by which one could bring scriptural knowledge to maturity, either through awakening or the realization (P. paṭivedha; S. PRATIVEDHA) of Buddhist truths. See also ĀBHIDHARMIKA.

Abhidhānappadīpikā. A Pāli dictionary of synonyms attributed to the twelfth-century Sinhalese scholar–monk Moggallāna, which, in style and method, is similar to the Sanskrit lexicon the Amarakośa. The text is arranged into three sections, dealing with celestial, terrestrial, and miscellaneous topics. The three sections are further subdivided into various chapters, each composed of groups of synonyms arranged in verse for ease of memorization. For example, the first section of the thesaurus includes 179 different entries, each of which offers multiple entries: e.g., thirty-two different epithets for the Buddha and forty-six synonyms for nibbāna (S. NIRVĀṆA). The second section has six different chapters, which include twenty-four synonyms for a house, ten for man, fifteen for woman, etc. The third section has four chapters on miscellaneous topics. A Sinhalese paraphrase and commentary on this dictionary were produced in Sri Lanka by Caturaṅgabala (d.u.), while a Burmese commentary was composed by Ñāṇāvāsa (d.u.) in the fourteenth century during the reign of King Kittisīhasūra (c. 1351); a Burmese vernacular translation was subsequently made during the eighteenth century.

Abhidhānottaratantra. [alt. Avadānastotratantra] (T. Mngon par brjod pa’i rgyud bla ma). In Sanskrit, “Continuation of the Explanation [of the CAKRASAṂVARATANTRA]”; an Indian text describing the invocation of numerous tantric deities together with their seed syllables (BĪJA) and ritual meditations. The work was originally translated into Tibetan and edited by ATIŚA DĪPAṂKARAŚRĪJÑĀNA and RIN CHEN BZANG PO in the eleventh century.

abhidharma. (P. abhidhamma; T. chos mngon pa; C. apidamo/duifa; J. abidatsuma/taihō; K. abidalma/taebŏp 阿毘達磨/對法). In Sanskrit, abhidharma is a prepositional compound composed of abhi- + dharma. The compound is typically glossed with abhi being interpreted as equivalent to uttama and meaning “highest” or “advanced” DHARMA (viz., doctrines or teachings), or abhi meaning “pertaining to” the dharma. The SARVĀSTIVĀDA Sanskrit tradition typically follows the latter etymology, while the THERAVĀDA Pāli tradition prefers the former, as in BUDDHAGHOSA’s gloss of the term meaning either “special dharma” or “supplementary dharma.” These definitions suggest that abhidharma was conceived as a precise (P. nippariyāya), definitive (PARAMĀRTHA) assessment of the dharma that was presented in its discursive (P. sappariyāya), conventional (SAṂVṚTI) form in the SŪTRAS. Where the sūtras offered more subjective presentations of the dharma, drawing on worldly parlance, simile, metaphor, and personal anecdote in order to appeal to their specific audiences, the abhidharma provided an objective, impersonal, and highly technical description of the specific characteristics of reality and the causal processes governing production and cessation. There are two divergent theories for the emergence of the abhidharma as a separate genre of Buddhist literature. In one theory, accepted by most Western scholars, the abhidharma is thought to have evolved out of the “matrices” (S. MĀTṚKĀ; P. mātikā), or numerical lists of dharmas, that were used as mnemonic devices for organizing the teachings of the Buddha systematically. Such treatments of dharma are found even in the sūtra literature and are probably an inevitable by-product of the oral quality of early Buddhist textual transmission. A second theory, favored by Japanese scholars, is that abhidharma evolved from catechistic discussions (abhidharmakathā) in which a dialogic format was used to clarify problematic issues in doctrine. The dialogic style also appears prominently in the sūtras where, for example, the Buddha might give a brief statement of doctrine (uddeśa; P. uddesa) whose meaning had to be drawn out through exegesis (NIRDEŚA; P. niddesa); indeed, MAHĀKĀTYĀYANA, one of the ten major disciples of the Buddha, was noted for his skill in such explications. This same style was prominent enough in the sūtras even to be listed as one of the nine or twelve genres of Buddhist literature (specifically, VYĀKARAṆA; P. veyyākaraṇa). According to tradition, the Buddha first taught the abhidharma to his mother MAHĀMĀYĀ, who had died shortly after his birth and been reborn as a god in TUṢITA heaven. He met her in the heaven of the thirty-three (TRĀYASTRIṂŚA), where he expounded the abhidharma to her and the other divinities there, repeating those teachings to ŚĀRIPUTRA when he descended each day to go on his alms-round. Śāriputra was renowned as a master of the abhidharma. Abhidharma primarily sets forth the training in higher wisdom (ADHIPRAJÑĀŚIKṢĀ) and involves both analytical and synthetic modes of doctrinal exegesis. The body of scholastic literature that developed from this exegetical style was compiled into the ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA, one of the three principal sections of the Buddhist canon, or TRIPIṬAKA, along with sūtra and VINAYA, and is concerned primarily with scholastic discussions on epistemology, cosmology, psychology, KARMAN, rebirth, and the constituents of the process of enlightenment and the path (MĀRGA) to salvation. (In the MAHĀYĀNA tradition, this abhidharmapiṭaka is sometimes redefined as a broader “treatise basket,” or *ŚĀSTRAPIṬAKA.)

Abhidharmadharmaskandha[pādaśāstra]. (C. Apidamo fayun zu lun; J. Abidatsuma hōunsokuron; K. Abidalma pŏbon chok non 阿毘達磨法蘊足論). See DHARMASKANDHA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA].

Abhidharmadhātukāya[pādaśāstra]. (C. Apidamo jieshen zu lun; J. Abidatsuma kaishinsokuron; K. Abidalma kyesin chok non 阿毘達磨界身足論). See DHĀTUKĀYA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA].

Abhidharmadīpa. In Sanskrit, “Lamp of ABHIDHARMA”; an Indian scholastic treatise probably composed between 450 and 550 CE. Only fragments of the treatise (sixty-two of 150 folios) are extant; these were discovered in Tibet in 1937. The treatise is composed of two parts—the Abhidharmadīpa, written in verse (kārikā), and a prose autocommentary, the Vibhāṣāprabhāvṛtti—both of which were probably composed by the same anonymous author. The author, who refers to himself merely as the “Dīpakāra” (“author of the Dīpa”) may be Vimalamitra (d.u.), an otherwise-unknown disciple of SAṂGHABHADRA. The structure of the text is modeled on that of the influential ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, and almost half of the kārikā verses included in the Abhidharmadīpa are virtually identical to those found in the Abhidharmakośa. Although borrowing freely from the Kośa, the Dīpakāra launches a harsh critique of VASUBANDHU’s (whom he calls the “Kośakāra,” or “author of the Kośa”) Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, from the standpoint of SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma. Vasubandhu is criticized for the SAUTRĀNTIKA tendencies betrayed in his doctrinal analyses and also for being a Mahāyānist adherent of the teachings of the “three natures” (TRISVABHĀVA). As such, the Abhidharmadīpa’s author seems to have been a follower of SAṂGHABHADRA’s *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA, and the text helps to clarify the positions of Saṃghabhadra and the orthodox VAIBHĀṢIKAs. The Dīpakāra shares the latter’s concern with providing both a systematic exegesis of abhidharma theory and a vigorous polemical defense of Sarvāstivāda doctrinal positions. Since it presents theories of other thinkers not covered in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, the Abhidharmadīpa serves as an important source for studying the history of Indian abhidharma. For example, in his discussion of the eponymous Sarvāstivāda position that “everything exists” throughout all three time periods (TRIKĀLA) of past, present, and future, the Dīpakāra also critiques three rival positions: the VIBHAJYAVĀDA and Dārṣṭāntikas, who maintain that only “part” exists (viz., the present); the Vaitulika and Ayogaśūnyatāvāda, who say that nothing exists; and the PUDGALAVĀDA, who presume that existence is indeterminate (AVYĀKṚTA).

*Abhidharmahṛdaya. (C. Apitan xin lun; J. Abidon shinron; K. Abidam sim non 阿毘曇心論). In Sanskrit, “Heart of ABHIDHARMA”; one of the first attempts at a systematic presentation of abhidharma according to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school; the treatise is attributed to Dharmaśreṣṭhin (Fasheng, c. 130 BCE), who hailed from the GANDHĀRA region of Central Asia. The text is no longer extant in Sanskrit but survives only in a Chinese translation made sometime during the fourth century (alt. 376, 391) by Saṃghadeva and LUSHAN HUIYUAN. The treatise functions essentially as a handbook for meditative development, focusing on ways of overcoming the negative proclivities of mind (ANUŚAYA) and developing correct knowledge (JÑĀNA). The meditative training outlined in the treatise focuses on the four absorptions (DHYĀNA) and on two practical techniques for developing concentration: mindfulness of breathing (ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI) and the contemplation of impurity (AŚUBHABHĀVANĀ). The text is also one of the first to distinguish the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA), which involves the initial insight into the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, and the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA), which eliminates all the remaining proclivities so that the adept may experience the stage of the worthy one (ARHAT).

Abhidharmajñānaprasthāna. (C. Apidamo fazhi lun; J. Abidatsuma hotchiron; K. Abidalma palchi non 阿毘達磨發智論). See JÑĀNAPRASTHĀNA.

Abhidharmakośa. See ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA.

Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. (T. Chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi bshad pa; C. Apidamo jushe lun; J. Abidatsuma kusharon; K. Abidalma kusa non 阿毘達磨倶舎論). In Sanskrit, “A Treasury of ABHIDHARMA, with Commentary”; an influential scholastic treatise attributed to VASUBANDHU (c. fourth or fifth century CE). The Abhidharmakośabhāṣya consists of two texts: the root text of the Abhidharmakośa, composed in verse (kārikā), and its prose autocommentary (bhāṣya); this dual verse-prose structure comes to be emblematic of later SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma literature. As the title suggests, the work is mainly concerned with abhidharma theory as it was explicated in the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀṢĀ, the principal scholastic treatise of the VAIBHĀṢIKAĀBHIDHARMIKAs in the Sarvāstivāda school. In comparison to the Mahāvibhāṣā, however, the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya presents a more systematic overview of Sarvāstivāda positions. At various points in his expositions, Vasubandhu criticizes the Sarvāstivāda doctrine from the standpoint of the more progressive SAUTRĀNTIKA offshoot of the Sarvāstivāda school, which elicited a spirited response from later Sarvāstivāda–Vaibhāṣika scholars, such as SAṂGHABHADRA in his *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA. The Abhidharmakośabhāṣya has thus served as an invaluable tool in the study of the history of the later MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS. The Sanskrit texts of both the kārikā and the bhāṣya were lost for centuries before being rediscovered in Tibet in 1934 and 1936, respectively. Two Chinese translations, by XUANZANG and PARAMĀRTHA, and one Tibetan translation of the work are extant. The Kośa is primarily concerned with a detailed elucidation of the polysemous term DHARMA, the causes (HETU) and conditions (PRATYAYA) that lead to continued rebirth in SAṂSĀRA, and the soteriological stages of the path (MĀRGA) leading to enlightenment. The treatise is divided into eight major chapters, called kośasthānas. (1) Dhātunirdeśa, “Exposition on the Elements,” divides dharmas into various categories, such as tainted (SĀSRAVA) and untainted (ANĀSRAVA), or compounded (SAṂSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAṂSKṚTA), and discusses the standard Buddhist classifications of the five aggregates (SKANDHA), twelve sense fields (ĀYATANA), and eighteen elements (DHĀTU). This chapter also includes extensive discussion of the theory of the four great elements (MAHĀBHŪTA) that constitute materiality (RŪPA) and the Buddhist theory of atoms or particles (PARAMĀṆU). (2) Indriyanirdeśa, “Exposition on the Faculties,” discusses a fivefold classification of dharmas into materiality (rūpa), thought (CITTA), mental concomitants (CAITTA), forces dissociated from thought (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAṂSKĀRA), and the uncompounded (ASAṂSKṚTA). This chapter also has extensive discussions of the six causes (HETU), the four conditions (PRATYAYA), and the five effects or fruitions (PHALA). (3) Lokanirdeśa, “Exposition on the Cosmos,” describes the formation and structure of a world system (LOKA), the different types of sentient beings, the various levels of existence, and the principle of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) that governs the process of rebirth, which is discussed here in connection with the three time periods (TRIKĀLA) of past, present, and future. (4) Karmanirdeśa, “Exposition on Action,” discusses the different types of action (KARMAN), including the peculiar type of action associated with unmanifest materiality (AVIJÑAPTIRŪPA). The ten wholesome and unwholesome “paths of action” (KUŚALA-KARMAPATHA and AKUŚALA-KARMAPATHA) also receive a lengthy description. (5) Anuśayanirdeśa, “Exposition on the Proclivities,” treats the ninety-eight types of ANUŚAYA in relation to their sources and qualities and the relationship between the anuśayas and other categories of unwholesome qualities, such as afflictions (KLEŚA), contaminants (ĀSRAVA), floods (OGHA), and yokes (yoga). (6) Mārgapudgalanirdeśa, “Exposition on the Path and the [Noble] Persons,” outlines how either insight into the four noble truths and carefully following a series of soteriological steps can remove defilements and transform the ordinary person into one of the noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA). (7) Jñānanirdeśa, “Exposition on Knowledge,” offers a detailed account of the ten types of knowledge and the distinctive attributes of noble persons and buddhas. (8) Samāpattinirdeśa, “Exposition on Attainment,” discusses different categories of concentration (SAMĀDHI) and the attainments (SAMĀPATTI) that result from their perfection. (9) Appended to this main body is a ninth section, an independent treatise titled the Pudgalanirdeśa, “Exposition of the Notion of a Person.” Here, Vasubandhu offers a detailed critique of the theory of the self, scrutinizing both the Buddhist PUDGALAVĀDA/VĀTSĪPUTRĪYA “heresy” of the inexpressible (avācya) “person” (PUDGALA) being conventionally real and Brahmanical theories of a perduring soul (ĀTMAN). Numerous commentaries to the Kośa, such as those composed by VASUMITRA, YAŚOMITRA, STHIRAMATI, and Pūrṇavardhana, attest to its continuing influence in Indian Buddhist thought. The Kośa was also the object of vigorous study in the scholastic traditions of East Asia and Tibet, which produced many indigenous commentaries on the text and its doctrinal positions.

Abhidharmakośavyākhyā Sphuṭārthā. See SPHUṬĀRTHĀ ABHIDHARMAKOŚAVYĀKHYĀ.

Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā. (T. Chos mngon pa bye brag bshad pa chen po; C. Apidamo dapiposha lun; J. Abidatsuma daibibasharon; K. Abidalma taebibasa non 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論). In Sanskrit, “Great Exegesis of ABHIDHARMA,” also commonly known as Mahāvibhāṣā; a massive VAIBHĀṢIKA treatise on SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma translated into Chinese by the scholar–pilgrim XUANZANG and his translation bureau between 656 and 659 at XIMINGSI in the Tang capital of Chang’an. Although no Sanskrit version of this text is extant, earlier Chinese translations by Buddhavarman and others survive, albeit only in (equally massive) fragments. The complete Sanskrit text of the recension that Xuanzang used was in 100,000 Ślokas; his translation was in 200 rolls, making it one of the largest single works in the Buddhist canon. According to the account in Xuanzang’s DA TANG XIYU JI, four hundred years after the Buddha’s PARINIRVĀṆA, King KANIṢKA gathered five hundred ARHATs to recite the Buddhist canon (TRIPIṬAKA). The ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA of this canon, which is associated with the Sarvāstivāda school, is said to have been redacted during this council (see COUNCIL, FOURTH). The central abhidharma treatise of the Sarvāstivāda school is KĀTYĀYANĪPUTRA’s JÑĀNAPRASTHĀNA, and the Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā purports to offer a comprehensive overview of varying views on the meaning of that seminal text by the five hundred arhats who were in attendance at the convocation. The comments of four major ĀBHIDHARMIKAs (Ghoṣa, DHARMATRĀTA, VASUMITRA, and Buddhadeva) are interwoven into the Mahāvibhāṣā’s contextual analysis of Kātyāyanīputra’s material from the Jñānaprasthāna, making the text a veritable encyclopedia of contemporary Buddhist scholasticism. Since the Mahāvibhāṣā also purports to be a commentary on the central text of the Sarvāstivāda school, it therefore offers a comprehensive picture of the development of Sarvāstivāda thought after the compilation of the Jñānaprasthāna. The Mahāvibhāṣā is divided into eight sections (grantha) and several chapters (varga), which systematically follow the eight sections and forty-three chapters of the Jñānaprasthāna in presenting its explication. Coverage of each topic begins with an overview of varying interpretations found in different Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, detailed coverage of the positions of the four major Sarvāstivāda Ābhidharmikas, and finally the definitive judgment of the compilers, the Kāśmīri followers of KātyāyanĪputra, who call themselves the Vibhāṣāśāstrins. The Mahāvibhāṣā was the major influence on the systematic scholastic elaboration of Sarvāstivāda doctrine that appears (though with occasional intrusions from the positions of the Sarvāstivāda’s more-progressive SAUTRĀNTIKA offshoot) in VASUBANDHU’s influential ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, which itself elicited a spirited response from later Sarvāstivāda–Vaibhāṣika scholars, such as SAṂGHABHADRA in his *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA. The Mahāvibhāṣa was not translated into Tibetan until the twentieth century, when a translation entitled Bye brag bshad mdzod chen mo was made at the Sino-Tibetan Institute by the Chinese monk FAZUN between 1946 and 1949. He presented a copy of the manuscript to the young fourteenth DALAI LAMA on the Dalai Lama’s visit to Beijing in 1954, but it is not known whether it is still extant.

*Abhidharmanyāyānusāra. See *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA.

abhidharmapiṭaka. (P. abhidhammapiṭaka; T. chos mngon pa’i sde snod; C. lunzang; J. ronzō; K. nonjang 論藏). The third of the three “baskets” (PIṬAKA) of the Buddhist canon (TRIPIṬAKA). The abhidharmapiṭaka derives from attempts in the early Buddhist community to elucidate the definitive significance of the teachings of the Buddha, as compiled in the SŪTRAs. Since the Buddha was well known to have adapted his message to fit the predilections and needs of his audience (cf. UPĀYAKAUŚALYA), there inevitably appeared inconsistencies in his teachings that needed to be resolved. The attempts to ferret out the definitive meaning of the BUDDHADHARMA through scholastic interpretation and exegesis eventually led to a new body of texts that ultimately were granted canonical status in their own right. These are the texts of the abhidharmapiṭaka. The earliest of these texts, such as the Pāli VIBHAṄGA and PUGGALAPAÑÑATTI and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA SAṂGĪTIPARYĀYA and DHARMASKANDHA, are structured as commentaries to specific sūtras or portions of sūtras. These materials typically organized the teachings around elaborate doctrinal taxonomies, which were used as mnemonic devices or catechisms. Later texts move beyond individual sūtras to systematize a wide range of doctrinal material, offering ever more complex analytical categorizations and discursive elaborations of the DHARMA. Ultimately, abhidharma texts emerge as a new genre of Buddhist literature in their own right, employing sophisticated philosophical speculation and sometimes even involving polemical attacks on the positions of rival factions within the SAṂGHA. ¶ At least seven schools of Indian Buddhism transmitted their own recensions of abhidharma texts, but only two of these canons are extant in their entirety. The Pāli abhidhammapiṭaka of the THERAVĀDA school, the only recension that survives in an Indian language, includes seven texts (the order of which often differs): (1) DHAMMASAṄGAṆI (“Enumeration of Dharmas”) examines factors of mentality and materiality (NĀMARŪPA), arranged according to ethical quality; (2) VIBHAṄGA (“Analysis”) analyzes the aggregates (SKANDHA), conditioned origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and meditative development, each treatment culminating in a catechistic series of inquiries; (3) DHĀTUKATHĀ (“Discourse on Elements”) categorizes all dharmas in terms of the skandhas and sense-fields (ĀYATANA); (4) PUGGALAPAÑÑATTI (“Description of Human Types”) analyzes different character types in terms of the three afflictions of greed (LOBHA), hatred (DVEṢA), and delusion (MOHA) and various related subcategories; (5) KATHĀVATTHU (“Points of Controversy”) scrutinizes the views of rival schools of mainstream Buddhism and how they differ from the Theravāda; (6) YAMAKA (“Pairs”) provides specific denotations of problematic terms through paired comparisons; (7) PAṬṬHĀNA (“Conditions”) treats extensively the full implications of conditioned origination. ¶ The abhidharmapiṭaka of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school is extant only in Chinese translation, the definitive versions of which were prepared by XUANZANG’s translation team in the seventh century. It also includes seven texts: (1) SAṂGĪTIPARYĀYA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA] (“Discourse on Pronouncements”) attributed to either MAHĀKAUṢṬHILA or ŚĀRIPUTRA, a commentary on the Saṃgītisūtra (see SAṄGĪTISUTTA), where śāriputra sets out a series of dharma lists (MĀTṚKĀ), ordered from ones to elevens, to organize the Buddha’s teachings systematically; (2) DHARMASKANDHA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA] (“Aggregation of Dharmas”), attributed to śāriputra or MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA, discusses Buddhist soteriological practices, as well as the afflictions that hinder spiritual progress, drawn primarily from the ĀGAMAs; (3) PRAJÑAPTIBHĀṢYA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA] (“Treatise on Designations”), attributed to Maudgalyāyana, treats Buddhist cosmology (lokaprajñapti), causes (kāraṇa), and action (KARMAN); (4) DHĀTUKĀYA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA] (“Collection on the Elements”), attributed to either PŪRṆA or VASUMITRA, discusses the mental concomitants (the meaning of DHĀTU in this treatise) and sets out specific sets of mental factors that are present in all moments of consciousness (viz., the ten MAHĀBHŪMIKA) or all defiled states of mind (viz., the ten KLEŚAMAHĀBHŪMIKA); (5) VIJÑĀNAKĀYA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA] (“Collection on Consciousness”), attributed to Devaśarman, seeks to prove the veracity of the eponymous Sarvāstivāda position that dharmas exist in all three time periods (TRIKĀLA) of past, present, and future, and the falsity of notions of the person (PUDGALA); it also provides the first listing of the four types of conditions (PRATYAYA); (6) PRAKARAṆA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA] (“Exposition”), attributed to VASUMITRA, first introduces the categorization of dharmas according to the more developed Sarvāstivāda rubric of RŪPA, CITTA, CAITTA, CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAṂSKĀRA, and ASAṂSKṚTA dharmas; it also adds a new listing of KUŚALAMAHĀBHŪMIKA, or factors always associated with wholesome states of mind; (7) JÑĀNAPRASTHĀNA (“Foundations of Knowledge”), attributed to KĀTYĀYANĪPUTRA, an exhaustive survey of Sarvāstivāda dharma theory and the school’s exposition of psychological states, which forms the basis of the massive encyclopedia of Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāṣika abhidharma, the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀṢĀ. In the traditional organization of the seven canonical books of the Sarvāstivāda abhidharmapiṭaka, the JÑĀNAPRASTHĀNA is treated as the “body” (ŚARĪRA), or central treatise of the canon, with its six “feet” (pāda), or ancillary treatises (pādaśāstra), listed in the following order: (1) Prakaraṇapāda, (2) Vijñānakāya, (3) Dharmaskandha, (4) Prajñaptibhāṣya, (5) Dhātukāya, and (6) Saṃgītiparyāya. Abhidharma exegetes later turned their attention to these canonical abhidharma materials and subjected them to the kind of rigorous scholarly analysis previously directed to the sūtras. These led to the writing of innovative syntheses and synopses of abhidharma doctrine, in such texts as BUDDHAGHOSA’s VISUDDHIMAGGA and ANURUDDHA’s ABHIDHAMMATTHASAṄGAHA, VASUBANDHU’s ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, and SAṂGHABHADRA’s *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA. In East Asia, this third “basket” was eventually expanded to include the burgeoning scholastic literature of the MAHĀYĀNA, transforming it from a strictly abhidharmapiṭaka into a broader “treatise basket” or *ŚĀSTRAPIṬAKA (C. lunzang).

Abhidharmaprakaraṇapāda. (S). See PRAKARAṆA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA].

Abhidharmasamuccaya. (T. Chos mngon pa kun las btus pa; C. Dasheng Apidamo ji lun; J. Daijō Abidatsuma jūron; K. Taesŭng Abidalma chip non 大乘阿毘達磨集論). In Sanskrit, “Compendium of Abhidharma”; an influential scholastic treatise attributed to ASAṄGA. The Abhidharmasamuccaya provides a systematic and comprehensive explanation of various categories of DHARMAs in ABHIDHARMA fashion, in five major sections. Overall, the treatise continues the work of earlier abhidharma theorists, but it also seems to uphold a MAHĀYĀNA and, more specifically, YOGĀCĀRA viewpoint. For example, unlike SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma materials, which provide detailed listings of dharmas in order to demonstrate the range of factors that perdure throughout all three time periods (TRIKĀLA) of past, present, and future, Asaṅga’s exposition tends to reject any notion that dharmas are absolute realities, thus exposing their inherent emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ). The first section of the treatise, Lakṣaṇasamuccaya (“Compendium of Characteristics”), first explains the five SKANDHA, twelve ĀYATANA, and eighteen DHĀTU in terms of their attributes (MĀTṚKĀ) and then their includedness (saṃgraha), association (saṃprayoga), and accompaniment (samanvāgama). The second section of the treatise, Satyaviniścaya (“Ascertainment of the Truths”), is generally concerned with and classified according to the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry Āryasatyāni). The third section, Dharmaviniścaya (“Ascertainment of the Dharma”), outlines the teachings of Buddhism in terms of the twelve divisions (DVĀDAŚĀṄGA[PRAVACANA]) of texts in the TRIPIṬAKA. The fourth section, Prāptiviniścaya (“Ascertainment of Attainments”), outlines the various types of Buddhist practitioners and their specific realizations (ABHISAMAYA). The fifth and last section, Sāṃkathyaviniścaya (“Ascertainment of Argumentation”), outlines specific modes of debate that will enable one to defeat one’s opponents. Fragments of the Sanskrit text of the Abhidharmasamuccaya (discovered in Tibet in 1934) are extant, along with a Tibetan translation and a Chinese translation made by XUANZANG in 652 CE. A commentary on the treatise by STHIRAMATI, known as the Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā(na), was also translated into Chinese by Xuanzang.

Abhidharmavijñānakāyapādaśāstra. See VIJÑĀNAKĀYA[PĀDAŚĀSTRA].

Ābhidharmika. (P. ABHIDHAMMIKA; T. chos mngon pa ba; C. apidamo dalunshi/duifa zhushi; J. abidatsuma daironshi/taihō shashi; K. abidalma taeronsa/taebŏp chesa 阿毘達磨大論師/對法諸師). In Sanskrit, “specialist in ABHIDHARMA”; refers to exegetes and commentators specializing in the texts and teachings of the ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA. In MAHĀYĀNA sources, Ābhidharmika may also refer more generically to “scholars,” not necessarily only to specialists in abhidharma. In Chinese Buddhism, for example, the eminent Indian scholiasts AŚVAGHOṢA, NĀGĀRJUNA, ĀRYADEVA, and Kumāralāta are said to be the four great Ābhidharmikas of the Mahāyāna tradition. See also ABHIDHAMMIKA.

abhidhyā. (P. abhijjhā; T. brnab sems; C. tan; J. ton; K. t’am 貪). In Sanskrit, “covetousness”; a synonym for greed (LOBHA) and craving (TṚṢṆĀ), abhidhyā is listed as the eighth of ten unwholesome courses of action (AKUŚALA-KARMAPATHA). Abhidhyā is a more intense form of lobha in which one’s inherent greed or lust for objects has evolved into an active pursuit of them in order to make them one’s own (“Ah, would that they were mine,” the commentaries say). The ten courses of action are divided into three groups according to whether they are performed by the body, speech, or mind. Covetousness is classified as an unwholesome mental course of action and forms a triad along with malice (VYĀPĀDA) and wrong views (MITHYĀDṚṢṬI). Only extreme forms of defiled thinking are deemed an unwholesome course of mental action (akuśalakarmapatha), such as the covetous wish to misappropriate someone else’s property, the hateful wish to hurt someone, or adherence to pernicious doctrines. Lesser forms of defiled thinking are still unwholesome (AKUŚALA), but do not constitute a course of action. The unwholesome course of bodily action is of three types: killing, stealing, and unlawful sexual intercourse. The unwholesome course of verbal action includes four: false speech, slander, abusive speech, and prattle. The list of ten wholesome and ten unwholesome courses of action occurs frequently in mainstream Buddhist scriptures.

abhijñā. (P. abhiññā; T. mngon shes; C. shentong; J. jinzū; K. sint’ong 神通). In Sanskrit, “superknowledges”; specifically referring to a set of supranormal powers that are by-products of meditation. These are usually enumerated as six: (1) various psychical and magical powers (ṚDDHIVIDHĀBHIJÑĀ [alt. ṛddhividhi], P. iddhividhā), such as the ability to pass through walls, sometimes also known as “unimpeded bodily action” (ṛddhisākṣātkriyā); (2) clairvoyance, lit. “divine eye” (DIVYACAKṢUS, P. dibbacakkhu), the ability to see from afar and to see how beings fare in accordance with their deeds; (3) clairaudience, lit. “divine ear” (DIVYAŚROTRA, P. dibbasota), the ability to hear from afar; (4) the ability to remember one’s own former lives (PŪRVANIVĀSĀNUSMṚTI, P. pubbenivāsānunssati); (5) “knowledge of others’ states of mind” (CETOPARYĀYĀBHIJÑĀNA/PARACITTAJÑĀNA, P. cetopariyañāṇa), e.g., telepathy; and (6) the knowledge of the extinction of the contaminants (ĀSRAVAKṢAYA, P. āsavakkhāya). The first five of these superknowledges are considered to be mundane (LAUKIKA) achievements, which are gained through still more profound refinement of the fourth stage of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). The sixth power is said to be supramundane (LOKOTTARA) and is attainable through the cultivation of insight (VIPAŚYANĀ) into the nature of reality. The first, second, and sixth superknowledges are also called the three kinds of knowledge (TRIVIDYĀ; P. tevijjā).

abhilāṣa. (P. abhilāsa; T. ’dod pa/mngon par ’dod pa; C. leqiu; J. gyōgu; K. nakku 樂求). In Sanskrit, “desire” or “longing”; in MAHĀYĀNA referring especially to the “longing” to remain at the level of a ŚRĀVAKA.

abhimāna. (T. mngon pa’i nga rgyal; C. man; J. man; K. man 慢). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “conceit,” “haughtiness,” or “arrogance”; an intensification of mere “pride” (MĀNA). In the YOGĀCĀRABHŪMIŚĀSTRA and Tibetan sources, abhimāna is listed as one of seven types of conceit. This conceit can refer either to views that one holds arrogantly, haughtiness regarding the status into which one is born, or arrogance regarding the extent of one’s wealth and/or knowledge.

abhimukhī. (T. mngon du ’gyur ba/mngon du phyogs pa; C. xianqian [di]; J. genzen[chi]; K. hyŏnjŏn [chi] 現前[地]). In Sanskrit, “manifest” or “evident”; used with reference to a twofold classification of phenomena as manifest (abhimukhī)—viz., those things that are evident to sense perception—and hidden (S. PAROKṢA, T. lkog gyur)—viz., those things whose existence must be inferred through reasoning. ¶ Abhimukhī, as “immediacy” or “face-to-face,” is the sixth of the ten stages (BHŪMI) of the BODHISATTVA path described in the DAŚABHŪMIKASŪTRA. The MAHĀYĀNASŪTRĀLAṂKĀRA interprets this bhūmi as “directly facing,” or “face-to-face,” implying that the bodhisattva at this stage of the path stands at the intersection between SAṂSĀRA and NIRVĀṆA. The bodhisattva here realizes the equality of all phenomena (dharmasamatā), e.g., that all dharmas are signless and free of characteristics, unproduced and unoriginated, and free from the duality of existence and nonexistence. Turning away from the compounded dharmas of saṃsāra, the bodhisattva turns to face the profound wisdom of the buddhas and is thus “face-to-face” with both the compounded (SAṂSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAṂSKṚTA) realms. This bhūmi is typically correlated with mastery of the sixth perfection (PĀRAMITĀ), the perfection of wisdom (PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ).

abhinirūpaṇāvikalpa. (T. mngon par rtog pa/rnam par rtog pa; C. jidu fenbie; J. ketaku funbetsu; K. kyet’ak punbyŏl 計度分別). In Sanskrit, “conceptualizing discrimination” or “discursive thought”; the second of the three types of conceptual discrimination (VIKALPA). See TRIVIKALPA.

Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra. (T. Mngon par ’byung ba’i mdo; C.Fo benxing ji jing; J. Butsuhongyōjukkyō; K. Pul ponhaeng chip kyŏng 佛本行集經). In Sanskrit, “Sūtra of the Great Renunciation”; this scripture relates the story of Prince SIDDHĀRTHA’s “going forth” (abhiniṣkramaṇa; P. abhinikkhamaṇa) from his father’s palace to pursue the life of a mendicant wanderer (ŚRAMAṆA) in search of enlightenment. There are no extant Sanskrit versions of the SŪTRA, but the work survives in Tibetan and in several distinct recensions available in Chinese translation, one dating to as early as the first century CE. The best-known Chinese translation is the Fo benxing ji jing, made by JÑĀNAGUPTA around 587 CE, during the Sui dynasty. The text claims to be a DHARMAGUPTAKA recension of the JĀTAKA, or past lives of the Buddha. (Franklin Edgerton has suggested that this text may instead be a translation of the MAHĀVASTU, “The Great Account,” of the LOKOTTARAVĀDA offshoot of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school.) Jñānagupta’s recension has sixty chapters, in five major parts. The first part is an introduction to the work as a whole, which relates how rare it is for a buddha to appear in the world and why people should take advantage of this opportunity. Reference is made to the various meritorious roots (KUŚALAMŪLA) that ŚĀKYAMUNI acquired throughout his many lifetimes of training, in order to prepare for this final life when he would finally attain enlightenment. The second part enumerates the entire lineage of the buddhas of antiquity, a lineage that Śākyamuni would soon join, and the third part follows with a genealogy of the ŚĀKYA clan. The fourth part describes the decisive stages in Śākyamuni’s life, from birth, through his awakening, to the first “turning of the wheel of the DHARMA” (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). The last part gives extended biographies (going even into their past lives) of his prominent disciples, of which the stories involving his longtime attendant, ĀNANDA, are particularly extensive. In 1876, SAMUEL BEAL translated this Chinese recension of the sūtra into English as The Romantic Legend of Śākya Buddha.

abhiprāya. (T. dgongs pa; C. yiqu; J. ishu; K. ŭich’wi 意趣). In Sanskrit, “hidden intention” or “purpose”; a term used in hermeneutics to refer to the concealed intent the Buddha had in mind when he made a statement that was not literally true (see also ABHISAṂDHI). In the MAHĀYĀNASŪTRĀLAṂKĀRA, there are four abhiprāyas. (1) The Buddha may say that two things are the same when in fact they are similar in only one, albeit important, feature. Thus, ŚĀKYAMUNI Buddha says that he is the past buddha VIPAŚYIN, thinking of the fact that there is not the slightest difference in their DHARMAKĀYAs. This is called the intention of sameness (samatābhiprāya). (2) The Buddha may say one thing while intending something else (arthāntarābhiprāya). This category is often invoked in YOGĀCĀRA exegesis to explain why the Buddha proclaimed the nonexistence of all phenomena in the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ sūtras when he in fact did not intend this statement to be taken literally, thinking instead of the three natures (TRILAKṢAṆA) of all phenomena propounded by the Yogācāra. (3) The buddha may make a statement intending another time (kālāntarābhiprāya) than that suggested by his words. For example, he may assure lazy persons who are incapable of any virtuous practice whatsoever that they will be reborn in SUKHĀVATĪ, the paradise of AMITĀBHA, if they will simply call on that buddha. He does this in order to encourage them to accumulate a modest amount of merit, although he knows that they will not be reborn there immediately or even in their next lifetime, but at some other time in the future. (4) The Buddha adjusts his teaching to the capacities of his students based on their dispositions (pudgalāntarābhiprāya). For example, the Buddha will extol the benefits of the practice of charity (DĀNA) to a person who is disposed toward the accumulation of merit (PUṆYA) but will underplay the importance of charity to a person who becomes complacently attached to that practice. See ABHISAṂDHI; SANDHYĀBHĀṢĀ.

abhirati. (T. mngon dga’; C. miaoxi/abiluoti; J. myōki/abiradai; K. myohŭi/abiraje 妙喜/阿比羅提). In Sanskrit, “delight,” “repose,” or “wondrous joy”; the world system (LOKADHĀTU) and buddha-field (BUDDHAKṢETRA) of the buddha AKṢOBHYA, which is said to be located in the east. Abhirati is one of the earliest of the buddha-fields to appear in Buddhist literature and is depicted as an idealized form of our ordinary SAHĀ world. As its name implies, abhirati is a land of delight, the antithesis of the suffering that plagues our world, and its pleasures are the by-products of Akṣobhya’s immense merit and compassion. In his land, Akṣobhya sits on a platform sheltered by a huge BODHI TREE, which is surrounded by row after row of palm trees and jasmine bushes. The soil is golden in color and as soft as cotton. Although abhirati, like our world, has a sun and moon, both pale next to the radiance of Akṣobhya himself. In abhirati, there are gender distinctions, as in our world, but no physical sexuality. A man who entertains sexual thoughts toward a woman would instantly see this desire transformed into a DHYĀNA that derives from the meditation on impurity (AŚUBHABHĀVANĀ), while a woman can become pregnant by a man’s glance (even though women do not experience menstruation). Food and drink appear spontaneously whenever a person is hungry or thirsty. Abhirati is designed to provide the optimal environment for Buddhist practice, and rebirth there is a direct result of an adept having planted meritorious roots (KUŚALAMŪLA), engaging in salutary actions, and then dedicating any merit deriving from those actions to his future rebirth in that land. Akṣobhya will eventually attain PARINIRVĀṆA in abhirati through a final act of self-immolation (see SHESHEN). Abhirati is described in the AKṢOBHYATATHĀGATASYAVYŪHA, an important precursor to the more famous SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHA that describes SUKHĀVATĪ, the buddha-field of AMITĀBHA.

Abhirūpā Nandā. In Pāli, “Nandā the Lovely”; one of three prominent nuns named Nandā mentioned in the Pāli canon (the others being JANAPADAKALYĀṆĪ NANDĀ and SUNDARĪ NANDĀ), all of whom share similar stories. According to Pāli sources, Abhirūpā Nandā was said to be the daughter of the Sākiyan (S. ŚĀKYA) chieftain Khemaka and lived in Kapilavatthu (S. KAPILAVASTU). She was renowned for her extraordinary beauty, for which she was given the epithet Abhirūpā (Lovely). So popular was she that her parents became vexed by the many suitors who sought her hand in marriage. As was the Sākiyan custom, Nandā was entitled to choose her future husband, but on the day she was to wed, her fiancé died and her parents forced her into the monastic order against her will. Exceedingly proud of her beauty and having no real religious vocation, she avoided visiting the Buddha lest he rebuke her for her vanity. Learning of her reluctance, the Buddha instructed Mahāpajāpatī (S. MAHĀPRAJĀPATĪ), his stepmother and head of the nuns’ order, to arrange for every nun in her charge to come to him for instruction. Nandā, in fear, sent a substitute in her place but the ruse was uncovered. When Nandā was finally compelled to appear before the Buddha, he created an apparition of lovely women standing and fanning him. Nandā was enthralled by the beauty of the conjured maidens, whom the Buddha then caused to age, grow decrepit, die, and rot, right before her eyes. The Buddha then preached to her about the fragility of physical beauty. Having been given a suitable subject of meditation (KAMMAṬṬHĀNA), Nandā eventually gained insight into the impermanence (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and lack of self (ANĀTMAN) of all conditioned things and attained arahatship. The source for the stories related to Abhirūpā Nandā is the commentarial note to verses nineteen and twenty of the Pāli THERĪGĀTHĀ, a text only known to the Pāli tradition.

abhisamācārikāsīla. (C. biqiu weiyi; J. biku igi; K. pigu wiŭi 比丘威儀). In Pāli, “virtuous (or proper) conduct”; often abbreviated simply as abhisamācārikā. The term may be used generically to refer to the basic moral codes (ŚĪLA) that are followed by all Buddhists, whether lay or monastic. More specifically, in the context of the Buddhist monastic codes (VINAYA), abhisamācārikā refers to the broad standards of behavior and norms that are expected of a monk (BHIKṢU) or nun (BHIKṢUṆĪ) living in a monastery. In the monastic tradition, we find a distinction between two kinds of moral discipline. The first is abhisamācārikāsīla, which indicates a set of more mundane, external prescriptions including how a monk should treat his superior and how a monastery should be maintained from day to day. For example, the abhisamācārikā section of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA VINAYA includes detailed instructions on how and when to hold the recitation of the monastic rules (UPOṢADHA). The text lists the spaces that are appropriate for this ritual and gives detailed instructions on how the space is to be cleaned and prepared for the recitation. As with other monastic instructions, these rules are accompanied by a story that serves as an impetus for the making of the rule. The second type of moral discipline is ĀDIBRAHMACARIYAKASĪLA, which are rules of conduct that will lead one further toward the complete eradication of suffering (DUḤKHA). Abhisamācārikāsīla is understood to be the lesser discipline with mundane ends, while ādibrahmacariyakasīla is understood to be the higher transcendent discipline.

abhisamaya. (T. mngon rtogs; C. xianguan; J. genkan; K. hyŏn’gwan 現觀). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “comprehension,” “realization,” or “penetration”; a foundational term in Buddhist soteriological theory, broadly referring to training that results in the realization of truth (satyābhisamaya; P. saccābhisamaya). This realization most typically involves the direct insight into the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvary āryasatyāni) but may also be used with reference to realization of the twelvefold chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA), the thirty-seven wings of enlightenment (BODHIPĀKṢIKADHARMA), etc., thus making all these doctrines specific objects of meditation. The Pāli PAṬISAMBHIDĀMAGGA discusses forty-four specific kinds of abhisamaya, all related to basic doctrinal lists. In the SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma, abhisamaya occurs on the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA), through a “sequential realization” (anupūrvābhisamaya) of sixteen moments of insight into the four noble truths. This gradual unfolding of realization was rejected by the THERAVĀDA school and was strongly criticized in HARIVARMAN’s *TATTVASIDDHI, both of which advocated the theory of instantaneous realization (ekakṣaṇābhisamaya). In the YOGĀCĀRA school of MAHĀYĀNA, abhisamaya is not limited to the path of vision, as in the Sarvāstivāda school, but also occurs on the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA) that precedes the path of vision through the abhisamayas of thought, faith, and discipline, as well as on the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) through two abhisamayas associated with wisdom and an abhisamaya associated with the ultimate path (NIṢṬHĀMĀRGA). The term comes to be associated particularly with the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA, attributed to MAITREYANĀTHA, which sets forth the various realizations achieved on the “HĪNAYĀNA” and MAHĀYĀNA paths. In the eight chapters of this text are delineated eight types of abhisamaya, which subsume the course of training followed by both ŚRĀVAKAs and BODHISATTVAs: (1) the wisdom of knowing all modes (SARVĀKĀRAJÑATĀ), (2) the wisdom of knowing the paths (MĀRGAJÑATĀ), (3) the wisdom of knowing all phenomena (SARVAJÑATĀ), (4) manifestly perfect realization of all (the three previous) aspects (sarvākārābhisambodha), (5) the summit of realization (mūrdhābhisamaya; see MŪRDHAN), (6) gradual realization (anupūrvābhisamaya), (7) instantaneous realization (ekakṣaṇābhisamaya), and (8) realization of the dharma body, or DHARMAKĀYA (dharmakāyābhisambodha).

Abhisamayālaṃkāra. (T. Mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan). In Sanskrit, “Ornament of Realization”; a major scholastic treatise of the MAHĀYĀNA, attributed to MAITREYANĀTHA (c. 350CE). Its full title is Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstra (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan) or “Treatise Setting Forth the Perfection of Wisdom called ‘Ornament for Realization.’” In the Tibetan tradition, the Abhisamayālaṃkāra is counted among the five treatises of Maitreya (BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA). The 273 verses of the Abhisamayālaṃkāra provide a schematic outline of the perfection of wisdom, or PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ, approach to enlightenment, specifically as delineated in the PAÑCAVIṂŚATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ (“Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines”). This detailed delineation of the path is regarded as the “hidden teaching” of the prajñāpāramitā sūtras. Although hardly known in East Asian Buddhism (until the modern Chinese translation by FAZUN), the work was widely studied in Tibet, where it continues to hold a central place in the monastic curricula of all the major sects. It is especially important for the DGE LUGS sect, which takes it as the definitive description of the stages of realization achieved through the Buddhist path. The Abhisamayālaṃkāra treats the principal topics of the prajñāpāramitā sūtras by presenting them in terms of the stages of realizations achieved via the five paths (PAÑCAMĀRGA). The eight chapters of the text divide these realizations into eight types. The first three are types of knowledge that are essential to any type of practice and are generic to both the mainstream and Mahāyāna schools. (1) The wisdom of knowing all modes (SARVĀKĀRAJÑATĀ), for the bodhisattva-adepts who are the putative target audience of the commentary, explains all the characteristics of the myriad dharmas, so that they will have comprehensive knowledge of what the attainment of enlightenment will bring. (2) The wisdom of knowing the paths (MĀRGAJÑATĀ), viz., the paths perfected by the ŚRĀVAKAs, is a prerequisite to achieving the wisdom of knowing all modes. (3) The wisdom of knowing all phenomena (SARVAJÑATĀ) is, in turn, a prerequisite to achieving the wisdom of knowing the paths. With (4) the topic of the manifestly perfect realization of all aspects (sarvākārābhisambodha) starts the text’s coverage of the path itself, here focused on gaining insight into all aspects, viz., characteristics of dharmas, paths, and types of beings. By reaching (5) the summit of realization (mūrdhābhisamaya; see MŪRDHAN), one arrives at the entrance to ultimate realization. All the realizations achieved up to this point are secured and commingled through (6) gradual realization (anupūrvābhisamaya). The perfection of this gradual realization and the consolidation of all previous realizations catalyze the (7) instantaneous realization (ekakṣaṇābhisamaya). The fruition of this instantaneous realization brings (8) realization of the dharma body, or DHARMAKĀYA (dharmakāyābhisambodha). The first three chapters thus describe the three wisdoms incumbent on the buddhas; the middle four chapters cover the four paths that take these wisdoms as their object; and the last chapter describes the resultant dharma body of the buddhas and their special attainments. The Abhisamayālaṃkāra provides a synopsis of the massive prajñāpāramitā scriptures and a systematic outline of the comprehensive path of Mahāyāna. The Abhisamayālaṃkāra spurred a long tradition of Indian commentaries and other exegetical works, twenty-one of which are preserved in the Tibetan canon. Notable among this literature are Ārya VIMUKTISEṆA’s Vṛtti and the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRĀLOKĀ and Vivṛti (called Don gsal in Tibetan) by HARIBHADRA. Later Tibetan commentaries include BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB’s Lung gi snye ma and TSONG KHA PA’s LEGS BSHAD GSER PHRENG.

Abhisamayālaṃkārakārikāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstraṫīkā-Prasphuṭapadā. (S). See PRASPHUṬAPADĀ.

Abhisamayālaṃkārālokā-vyākhyā. (T. Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi snang ba rgya cher bshad pa). In Sanskrit, “Illuminating the ‘Ornament of Realization,’” by the Indian scholiast HARIBHADRA (c. 750 CE). This long commentary, summarized in his ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRAVIVṚTI, correlates the 273 verses of MAITREYANĀTHA’s ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA with the specific corresponding sections in the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ (“Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines”). It was translated into Tibetan by RIN CHEN BZANG PO in the eleventh century and by RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB and subsequently became a central text in the curricula of many Tibetan monasteries. See AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀVYĀKHYĀBHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRĀLOKĀ.

Abhisamayālaṃkāravivṛti. (T. [Shes rab phar phyin man ngag gi bstan bcos] mngon rtogs rgyan gyi ’grel pa). In Sanskrit, “Commentary on the Ornament of Realization” by HARIBHADRA. The work in four bundles (T. bam po) is a digest (called ’grel chung, “short commentary”) of his long detailed explanation of the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ (“Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines”), the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀVYĀKHYĀBHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRĀLOKĀ (called ’grel chen, “long commentary”). The Abhisamayālaṃkāravivṛti gained considerable importance in Tibet after RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB supplemented his translation of it with a summary (bsdus don) of its contents, beginning a tradition of PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ commentary that spread from GSANG PHU NE’U THOG monastery into all four Tibetan sects. This tradition, which continues down to the present, uses the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA and ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRAVIVṚTI as twin root texts to structure wide-ranging discussions of abhidharma, right philosophical view and proper praxis. There are two subcommentaries to the work, Dharmamitra’s PRASPHUṬAPADĀ and DHARMAKĪRTIŚRĪ’s Durbodhāloka. PRAJÑĀKARAMATI, RATNAKĪRTI, and Buddhajñāna wrote summaries of the work, all extant in Tibetan translation. See also SPHUṬĀRTHĀ.

abhisaṃdhi. (T. ldem por dgongs pa; C. miyi; J. mitchi/mitsui; K. mirŭi 密意). In Sanskrit, “implied intention,” a term used in hermeneutics to classify the types of statements made by the Buddha. In the MAHĀYĀNASŪTRĀLAṂKĀRA, there are four such abhisaṃdhi listed. (1) The first is implied intention pertaining to entrance (avatāraṇābhisaṃdhi). The Buddha recognizes that if he were to teach HĪNAYĀNA disciples that, in addition to the nonexistence of the self (ANĀTMAN), DHARMAs also did not exist (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA), they would be so terrified that they would never enter the MAHĀYĀNA. Therefore, in order to coax them toward the Mahāyāna, he teaches them that a personal self does not exist while explaining that phenomena other than the person do exist. (2) The second is implied intention pertaining to the [three] natures (lakṣaṇābhisaṃdhi). When the Buddha said that all phenomena are without own-nature, he had in mind the imaginary nature (PARIKALPITA) of phenomena. When he said that they were neither produced nor destroyed, he had in mind their dependent nature (PARATANTRA). When he said that they were inherently free from suffering, he had in mind their consummate nature (PARINIṢPANNA). (3) The third is implied intention pertaining to antidotes (pratipakṣābhisaṃdhi). In the hīnayāna, the Buddha teaches specific antidotes (PRATIPAKṢA) to various defilements. Thus, as an antidote to hatred, he teaches the cultivation of love; as an antidote to sensuality, he teaches meditation on the foul, such as a decomposing corpse; as an antidote to pride, he teaches meditation on dependent origination; and as an antidote to a wandering mind, he teaches meditation on the breath. He indicates that these faults can be completely destroyed with these antidotes, calling them a supreme vehicle (agrayāna). In fact, these faults are only completely destroyed with full insight into non-self. Thus, the Buddha intentionally overstated their potency. (4) The final type is implied intention pertaining to translation (pariṇāmanābhisaṃdhi). This category encompasses those statements that might be termed antiphrastic, i.e., appearing to say something quite contrary to the tenor of the doctrine, which cannot be construed as even provisionally true. A commonly cited example of such a statement is the declaration in the DHAMMAPADA (XXI.5–6) that one becomes pure through killing one’s parents; the commentators explain that parents are to be understood here to mean negative mental states such as sensual desire. See also ABHIPRĀYA; SANDHYĀBHĀṢĀ.

abhiṣeka. (P. abhiseka; T. dbang bskur; C. guanding; J. kanjō; K. kwanjŏng 灌頂). In Sanskrit, “anointment,” “consecration,” “empowerment,” or “initiation”; a term originally used to refer to the anointment of an Indian king or the investiture of a crown prince, which by extension came to be applied to the anointment of a BODHISATTVA as a buddha. Just as a wheel-turning monarch (CAKRAVARTIN) invests the crown prince by sprinkling the crown of his head with fragrant water from all the four seas, so too do the buddhas anoint the crown of a bodhisattva when he makes his vow to achieve buddhahood. The Chinese translation, lit. “sprinkling the crown of the head,” conveys this sense of anointment. In the MAHĀVASTU, an early text associated with the LOKOTTARAVĀDA branch of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school, the tenth and last stage (BHŪMI) of the bodhisattva path is named abhiṣeka, rather than the more commonly known DHARMAMEGHĀBHŪMI, indicating that the bodhisattva has then been initiated into the lineage of the buddhas. Abhiṣeka is used especially in tantric literature, such as the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA, to refer to an initiation ceremony that empowers disciples to “enter the MAṆḌALA,” where they are then allowed to learn the esoteric formulae (MANTRA) and gestures (MUDRĀ) and receive the instructions associated with a specific tantric deity. In ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, a series of four initiations or empowerments are described, the vase empowerment (KALAŚĀBHIṢEKA), the secret empowerment (GUHYĀBHIṢEKA), the knowledge of the wisdom empowerment (PRAJÑĀJÑĀNĀBHIṢEKA), and the word empowerment (śabdābhiṣeka), also known as the “fourth empowerment” (caturthābhiṣeka). The vase empowerment is the only one of the four that is used in the three other tantras of KRIYĀTANTRA, CARYĀTANTRA, and YOGATANTRA. A special type of consecration ceremony, called a BUDDHĀBHIṢEKA, is conducted at the time of the installation of a new buddha image, which vivifies the inert clay, metal, or wood of the image, invests the image with insight into the dharma (e.g., through reciting some version of the formula concerning causality, or PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and transforms the image into a living buddha.

abhiṣekamudrā. (T. dbang bskur phyag rgya; C. guanding yin; J. kanjōin; K. kwanjŏng in 灌頂印). In Sanskrit, “gesture of anointment.” In this particular mudrā, the palms are held together with the forefingers extended against each other. See also MUDRĀ.

abhūtaparikalpa. (T. yang dag pa ma yin pa’i kun tu rtog pa/kun rtog; C. xuwang fenbie; J. komō funbetsu; K. hŏmang punbyŏl 妄分別). In Sanskrit, “false imagining” or “construction of what is unreal”; a pivotal Yogācāra term describing the tendency of the dependent (PARATANTRA) nature (SVABHĀVA) to project false constructions of a reality that is bifurcated between self and others. Sentient beings mistakenly assume that what has been constructed through consciousness has a static, unchanging reality. This process inserts into the perceptual process an imaginary bifurcation (VIKALPA) between perceiving subject (grāhaka) and perceived object (grāhya) (see GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA), which is the basis for a continued proliferation of such mental constructions. This subject–object dichotomy is then projected onto all sensory experience, resulting in the imagined (PARIKALPITA) nature (svabhāva). By relying on these false imaginings to construct our sense of what is real, we inevitably subject ourselves to continued suffering (DUḤKHA) within the cycle of birth-and-death (SAṂSĀRA). The term figures prominently in MAITREYNĀTHA’s MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA (“Separating the Middle from the Extremes”) and VASUBANDHU’s commentary on the treatise, the Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya.

abhyāyana. (P. abbhāna; T. mngon par ’ongs; C. chuzui; J. shutsuzai; K. ch’ulchoe 出罪). In Sanskrit, the formal ecclesiastical act of “calling back” a monk into communion. In the Pāli VINAYA, for example, a monk who has committed a suspension (P. saṅghādisesa; S. SAṂGHĀVAŚEṢA) offense is required to undergo rehabilitation through either penance (P. manatta; S. MĀNATVA) or probation (PARIVĀSA) until his offense has been expiated. If he does not properly carry out his penalty, it will be reimposed until the community is satisfied with his performance. At that point, the community performs the abbhāna-kamma, the ecclesiastical act of “calling back,” which restores the monk to functional membership in the SAṂGHA. A minimum of twenty monks must be present during the abhyāyana ritual for it to be valid. No member of the twenty may himself be observing either mānapya or parivāsa at the time, although such a monk may be present as long as the minimum number of blameless monks is participating.

abhyudaya. (T. mngon par mtho ba; C. shengsheng; J. shōsho; K. sŭngsaeng 勝生). In Sanskrit, lit. “rising”; viz., a “superior rebirth.” In MAHĀYĀNA texts like NĀGĀRJUNA‘s RATNĀVALĪ, the term is typically used to refer to “rising” to a higher rebirth in the realms of the divinities (DEVA) or human beings (MANUṢYA); often paired with NIḤŚREYASA, a term for NIRVĀṆA that literally means “of which there is nothing finer.”

absorption. See DHYĀNA; JHĀNA.

acalā. (T. mi g.yo ba; C. budong di; J. fudōji; K. pudong chi 不動地). In Sanskrit, “immovable” or “steadfast”; the name for the eighth of the ten BODHISATTVA grounds or stages (BHŪMI) according to the DAŚABHŪMIKASŪTRA. At this level of the path (MĀRGA), the bodhisattva realizes the acquiescence or receptivity to the nonproduction of dharmas (ANUTPATTIKADHARMAKṢĀNTI) and is no longer perturbed by either cause or absence of cause. The eighth-stage bodhisattva is able to project different transformation bodies (NIRMĀṆAKĀYA) anywhere in the universe. This bhūmi is sometimes correlated with mastery of the eighth perfection of resolve or aspiration (PRAṆIDHĀNAPĀRAMITĀ). According to some commentators, upon reaching this bhūmi, the bodhisattva has abandoned all of the afflictive obstructions (KLEŚĀVARAṆA) and is thus liberated from any further rebirth in a realm where he would be subject to defilement; for this reason, the eighth, ninth, and tenth bhūmis are sometimes called “pure bhūmis.”

Acalanātha-Vidyārāja. (T. Mi g.yo mgon po rig pa’i rgyal po; C. Budong mingwang; J. Fudō myōō; K. Pudong myŏngwang 不動明王). In Sanskrit, a wrathful DHARMAPĀLA of the VAJRAYĀNA pantheon and the chief of the eight VIDYĀRĀJA. As described in the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA, he is the NIRMĀṆAKĀYA of VAIROCANA, a protector of boundaries and vanquisher of obstacles. A late Indian deity, Acalanātha-Vidyārāja possibly originated from the YAKṢA form of VAJRAPĀṆI, with whom he is associated in his form of Acalavajrapāṇi. Indian forms of the god from the eleventh century show him kneeling on his left leg, holding a sword (khaḍga). Vajrayāna images show him standing with one or three faces and varied numbers of pairs of hands, identified by his raised sword, snare, and ACALĀSANA. The cult of Acalanātha-Vidyārāja entered China during the first millennium CE, and was brought to Japan by KŪKAI in the ninth century, where the wrathful deity (known in Japanese as Fudō myōō) became important for the Shingon school (SHINGONSHŪ), even being listed by it as one of the thirteen buddhas. In East Asian iconography, Acalanātha-Vidyārāja holds the sword and a snare or lasso (pāśa), with which he binds evil spirits.

acalāsana. (T. mi g.yo ba’i ’dug stangs; C. budongzuo; J. fudōza; K. pudongjwa 不動坐). In Sanskrit, the “immovable posture”; a semi-kneeling position, where the left knee touches the ground, but the right knee is raised off the ground. This posture is commonly seen in figures bearing gifts, where the hands are clasped in front of the donor’s chest in AÑJALI. This pose is also characteristic of the wrathful deity ACALANĀTHA-VIDYĀRĀJA, whose hands instead hold a snare (pāśa) in the left and a raised sword in the right. Bodhisattvas are also sometimes depicted in this posture.

Acalavajrapāṇi. See ACALANĀTHA-VIDYĀRĀJA.

ācariya. (S. ācārya, Thai, āčhān; T. slob dpon; C. asheli; J. ajari; K. asari 阿闍梨). In Pāli, “teacher.” A monk takes an ācariya if he has lost his preceptor (P. upajjhāya; S. UPĀDHYĀYA) and is still in need of guidance (nissaya, S. NIŚRAYA). A preceptor is said to be lost when he goes away, disrobes, dies, joins another religion, or has expelled the monk under his guidance for wrongdoing. To act as an ācariya, a monk must possess the same qualifications as required of an upajjhāya; namely, he must be competent in DHARMA and VINAYA and be of at least ten years standing in the order since his own ordination. The monk taken under the guidance of the ācariya is called his ANTEVĀSIKA, or pupil. The relationship between teacher and pupil is compared to that of father and son. The teacher is enjoined to teach dhamma and vinaya to his pupil and to supply him with all necessary requisites, such as robes (see TRICĪVARA) and alms bowl (PĀTRA). He should tend to him if he is ill and discipline him if he commits wrongdoing. If the pupil should begin to entertain doubts about the dispensation or his abilities to practice, the teacher must try to dispel them. If the pupil should commit a grave offense against the rules of the SAṂGHA, the teacher is to prevail upon him to go before the saṃgha to seek expiation. If the pupil misbehaves or is disobedient, the teacher is enjoined to expel him. But if the pupil shows remorse and asks forgiveness, the teacher is to take him again under guidance. A monk ceases to be an ācariya when he goes away, dies, disrobes, changes religion, or expels his pupil. See also ĀCĀRYA.

ācārya. (P. ācariya; Thai āčhān; T. slob dpon; C. asheli; J. ajari; K. asari 阿闍梨). In Sanskrit, “teacher” or “master”; the term literally means “one who teaches the ācāra (proper conduct),” but it has come into general use as a title for religious teachers. In early Buddhism, it refers specifically to someone who teaches the supra dharma and is used in contrast to the UPĀDHYĀYA (P. upajjhāya) or “preceptor.” (See ĀCARIYA entry supra.) The title ācārya becomes particularly important in VAJRAYĀNA Buddhism, where the officiant of a tantric ritual is often viewed as the vajra master (VAJRĀCĀRYA). The term has recently been adopted by Tibetan monastic universities in India as a degree (similar to a Master of Arts) conferred upon graduation. In Japan, the term refers to a wise teacher, saint, holy person, or a wonder-worker who is most often a Buddhist monk. The term is used by many Japanese Buddhist traditions, including ZEN, TENDAI, and SHINGON. Within the Japanese Zen context, an ajari is a formal title given to those who have been training for five years or more.

āčhān. Thai pronunciation of the Sanskrit term ĀCĀRYA (“teacher”); also seen transcribed as AJAHN or acchan. See AJAHN.

acintya. (P. acinteyya; T. bsam gyis mi khyab pa; C. bukesiyi; J. fukashigi; K. pulgasaŭi 不可思議). In Sanskrit, “inconceivable”; a term used to describe the ultimate reality that is beyond all conceptualization. Pāli and mainstream Buddhist materials refer to four specific types of “inconceivables” or “unfathomables” (P. acinteyya): the range or sphere of a buddha, e.g., the extent of his knowledge and power; the range of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA); the potential range of moral cause and effect (KARMAN and VIPĀKA); and the range of the universe or world system (LOKA), i.e., issues of cosmogony, whether the universe is finite or infinite, eternal or transitory, etc. Such thoughts are not to be pursued, because they are not conducive to authentic religious progress or ultimately to NIRVĀṆA. See also AVYĀKṚTA.

Acintyastava. (T. Bsam gyis mi khyab par bstod pa). In Sanskrit, “In Praise of the Inconceivable One”; an Indian philosophical work by the MADHYAMAKA master NĀGĀRJUNA written in the form of a praise for the Buddha. In the Tibetan tradition, there are a large number of such praises (called STAVAKĀYA) in contrast to the set of philosophical texts (called YUKTIKĀYA) attributed to Nāgārjuna. Among these praise works, the Acintyastava, LOKĀTĪTASTAVA, NIRAUPAMYASTAVA, and PARAMĀRTHASTAVA are extant in Sanskrit and are generally accepted to be his work; these four works together are known as the CATUḤSTAVA. It is less certain that he is the author of the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA or DHARMADHĀTUSTOTRA (“Hymn to the Dharma Realm”) of which only fragments are extant in the original Sanskrit. The Acintyastava contains fifty-nine stanzas, many of which are addressed to the Buddha. The first section provides a detailed discussion of why dependently originated phenomena are empty of intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA); this section has clear parallels to the MŪLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. The forty-fifth verse makes reference to the term PARATANTRA, leading some scholars to believe that Nāgārjuna was familiar with the LAṄKĀVATĀRASŪTRA. The second section describes wisdom (JÑĀNA); the third section sets forth the qualities of the true dharma (SADDHARMA); the fourth and final section extols the Buddha as the best of teachers (ŚĀSTṚ).

ādānavijñāna. (T. len pa’i rnam par shes pa; C. atuona shi/xiangxu shi; J. adanashiki/sōzokushiki; K. at’ana sik/sangsok sik 阿陀那識/相續識). In Sanskrit, “appropriating consciousness” or “retributory consciousness”; an alternate name for the ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA, the eighth consciousness in the YOGĀCĀRA analysis of consciousness, which serves as a repository (ālaya) of the seeds (BĪJA) of past action (KARMAN) until they can come to fruition (VIPĀKA) in the future. Because that consciousness thus links the present with the future life, the ālayavijñāna also serves as the consciousness that “appropriates” a physical body at the moment of rebirth, hence, its name ādānavijñāna.

ādarśajñāna. [alt. mahādarśajñāna] (T. me long lta bu’i ye shes; C. dayuanjing zhi; J. daienkyōchi; K. taewŏn’gyŏng chi 大圓鏡智). In Sanskrit, “mirrorlike wisdom” or “great perfect mirror wisdom”; one of the five types of wisdom (PAÑCÁJÑĀNA) exclusive to a buddha according to the YOGĀCĀRA and tantric schools, along with the wisdom of equality (SAMATĀJÑĀNA), the wisdom of discriminating awareness (PRATYAVEKṢAṆAJÑĀNA), the wisdom that one has accomplished what was to be done (KṚTYĀNUṢṬHĀNAJÑĀNA), and the wisdom of the nature of the DHARMADHĀTU (DHARMADHĀTUSVABHĀVAJÑĀNA). This specific type of wisdom is a transformation of the eighth consciousness, the ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA, in which the perfect interfusion between all things is seen as if reflected in a great mirror.

adbhutadharma. (P. abbhutadhamma; T. rmad du byung ba’i chos; C. xifa; J. kehō; K. hŭibŏp 希法). In Sanskrit, “marvelous events”; one of the nine (NAVAṄGA[PĀVACANA]) or twelve (DVĀDAŚĀṄGA[PRAVACANA]) categories (AṄGA) of scripture recognized in Pāli and Sanskrit sources, respectively, as classified according to their structure or literary style. This particular genre of SŪTRA is characterized by the presence of various miraculous or supernatural events that occur during the course of the narrative.

Adbhutadharmaparyāyasūtra. (T. Rmad du byung ba’i chos kyi rnam grangs; C. Shen xiyou jing/Weicengyou jing; J. Jinkeukyō/Mizōukyō; K. Sim hŭiyu kyŏng/Mijŭngyu kyŏng 甚希有經/未曾有經). In Sanskrit, “Discourse on the Wondrous Teachings”; a MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRA best known for advocating that the merit deriving from worshipping the Buddha, such as sponsoring the production of a buddha image or a STŪPA, surpasses that of all other activities. The sūtra states, for example, that erecting even a tiny stūpa containing the relics of a TATHĀGATA is more meritorious than building a large monastery. This text is extant only in three Chinese translations: the “Scripture on the Miraculous” (Weicengyou jing); “Scripture on the Rarest of Things” (Shen xiyou jing), translated by XUANZANG (600/602–664); and the “Chapter on Relative Merits” (Xiaoliang gongde pin), the first chapter of the “Scripture on the Unexcelled Basis” (Fo shuo wushangyi jing, S. *Anuttarāśrayasūtra), translated by PARAMĀRTHA (499–569).

adhamapuruṣa. (T. skyes bu chung ngu; C. xiashi; J. geshi; K. hasa 下士). In Sanskrit, “person of lesser capacity”; the lowest in a threefold classification of religious practitioners, together with madhyapuruṣa (“person of average capacity”) and MAHĀPURUṢA (“person of great capacity”). The person of lesser capacity seeks only happiness in SAṂSĀRA, wishing to be reborn as a human (MANUṢYA) or a divinity (DEVA) in the next life. The three categories of persons are most famously set forth in ATIŚA’s BODHIPATHAPRADĪPA and, deriving from that text, in the LAM RIM literature in Tibet. See also TRĪNDRIYA; MṚDVINDRIYA; TĪKṢṆENDRIYA.

adhigama. (T. rtogs pa; C. zheng; J. shō; K. chŭng 證). In Sanskrit, “realization,” especially in the realization of truth, either conceptually or directly. In this context, adhigama is contrasted with ĀGAMA, the received scriptural tradition, as one of the two methods of realizing truth. See also ADHIGAMADHARMA.

adhigamadharma. (T. rtogs pa’i chos; C. zhengfa; J. shōhō; K. chŭngbŏp 證法). In Sanskrit, “realized dharma”; one of the two divisions of the dharma or teaching of the Buddha, together with the “scriptural dharma” (ĀGAMADHARMA). The adhigamadharma is the practice of the dharma, often identified in this context as the training in higher morality (ADHIŚĪLAŚIKṢĀ), the training in higher meditation (ADHISAMĀDHIŚIKṢĀ), and the training in higher wisdom (ADHIPRAJÑĀŚIKṢĀ), which leads to direct realization (ADHIGAMA), rather than mere conceptual understanding. It is also identified with the truths of cessation and path within the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. See also ĀGAMA; ĀGAMADHARMA.

adhikaraṇa. (T. rtsod pa; C. zhengshi/zhengsong; J. jōji/jōshō; K. chaengsa/chaengsong 諍事/諍訟). In Pāli and Sanskrit, “legal question” or “case,” an important term in the VINAYA. Legal questions or cases are of four kinds: (1) those arising out of a dispute, (2) those arising out of censure, (3) those arising out of an offense, and (4) those arising out of an obligation. (1) Legal questions or cases arising out of a dispute are of eighteen kinds and deal primarily with what does and does not pertain to the monastic code, what is and is not sanctioned by the rules of vinaya, and what is an especially grievous offense, such as “defeat” (PĀRĀJIKA), vs. what is nongrievous. (2) Legal questions or cases arising out of censure are involved with whether or not a monk has fallen away from morality or good habits, fallen away from right view, or fallen away from right livelihood. (3) Legal questions or cases arising out of offenses deal with misdeeds classified under five headings: viz., pārājika, SAṂGHĀDIŚEṢA, PĀYATTIKA, PRATIDEŚANĪYA, or DUṢKṚTA, or under seven headings: viz., the above five plus miscellaneous grave, but unconsummated offenses (STHŪLĀTYAYA, P. thullaccaya), and mischievous talk (DURBHĀṢITA, P. dubbhāsita). (5) Legal questions or cases arising out of obligation concern the jurisdiction of resolutions and formal acts passed by the SAṂGHA. In the final section of the monastic codes of conduct (PRĀTIMOKṢA), seven specific methods of resolving disputes (ADHIKARAṆAŚAMATHA) are offered.

adhikaraṇaśamatha. (P. adhikaraṇasamatha; T. rtsod pa nye bar zhi ba; C. miezhengfa; J. metsujōhō; K. myŏlchaengpŏp 滅諍法). In Sanskrit, “settlement of a legal case,” viz., rules for settling disputes, involving either confronting ordained monks and nuns who have transgressed the rules of the order (see PRĀTIMOKṢA) or dealing with differences that have arisen within the order. The settlement of a legal question or case (ADHIKARAṆA) within the SAṂGHA may be accomplished in seven ways (SAPTĀDHIKARAṆAŚAMATHA): (1) a verdict “in the presence of,” viz., bringing disputants before a panel of competent monks or the saṃgha as a whole and rendering a verdict according to the appropriate legal procedure; (2) a verdict “of mindfulness”: declaring the accused innocent by virtue of being pure and without offense—e.g., being an ARHAT—and thus incapable of wrongdoing; (3) declaring the accused not guilty by reason of insanity; (4) adding an additional punishment to a monk who confesses to a specific type of wrongdoing only after being interrogated; (5) rendering a verdict by majority vote of the whole saṃgha when a competent monk or a panel of competent monks is unable to reach a decision; (6) resolution through an admission of guilt; and (7) a verdict of “covering over as with grass”: viz., settling a case between disputants through arbitration and compromise before bringing it before the saṃgha for a verdict. These seven methods of resolving disputes are typically placed at the end of the list of rules in the PRĀTIMOKṢA code and appear in the Pāli Pāṭimokkha in its CŪḶAVAGGA section. These seven types of verdicts are sometimes listed in different orders.

adhimāna. (T. lhag pa’i nga rgyal; C. zengshangman; J. zōjōman; K. chŭngsangman 增上慢). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “arrogance” or “haughtiness”; this term refers specifically to overestimation of oneself or boasting about one’s spiritual accomplishments. When one is mistakenly convinced that one has attained one of the superknowledges (ABHIJÑĀ), meditative absorptions (DHYĀNA), or spiritual fruitions (PHALA), when in actuality one has not, one is said to possess adhimāna. When adhimāna is expressed verbally—that is, by bragging to others that one has mastered one of the aforementioned exceptional achievements for the purpose of winning reputation and material support—this braggadocio constitutes a grave offense, especially for ordained monks and nuns. According to the VINAYA, such overestimation of one’s extraordinary spiritual achievements could constitute grounds for “defeat” (PĀRĀJIKA), the most serious transgression that can be committed by monks and nuns. In its more generic usage, adhimāna may also refer simply to particularly intense forms of “conceit” and “pride” (MĀNA).

adhimokṣa. (P. adhimokkha; T. mos pa; C. shengjie; J. shōge; K. sŭnghae 勝解). In Sanskrit, “determination,” “resolution,” or “zeal”; a general term denoting an inclination toward a virtuous object, sometimes used to indicate a preliminary stage prior to the conviction that results from direct experience; also seen written as adhimukti. The adhimukticaryābhūmi incorporates the stages of the path of accumulation (SAṂBHĀRAMĀRGA) and the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA) prior to the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA). In a more technical sense, adhimokṣa is a mental factor (CAITTA) that keeps consciousness intent on its object without straying to another object. It is listed among the ten major omnipresent mental concomitants (S. MAHĀBHŪMIKA) that are present in all in the dharma taxonomy of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, among the five determinative mental concomitants (S. VINIYATA) in the YOGĀCĀRA dharma system, and one of the six secondary (P. pakiṇṇaka) factors in the Pāli ABHIDHAMMA. Adhimokṣa is also used to describe the interests or dispositions of sentient beings, the knowledge of which contributes to a buddha’s pedagogical skills.

adhimukti. In Sanskrit, “resolution” or “resolute faith.” See ADHIMOKṢA.

adhipatiphala. (T. bdag po’i ’bras bu; C. zengshang guo; J. zōjōka; K. chŭngsang kwa 增上果). In Sanskrit, “predominant effects” or “sovereign effects”; this is one of the five effects (PHALA) enumerated in the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA and in YOGĀCĀRA. In the Sarvāstivāda–VAIBHĀṢIKA abhidharma system of six causes (HETU) and five effects (PHALA), the “predominant effect” is the result of the “efficient cause” (KĀRAṆAHETU), referring to causation in its broadest possible sense, in which every conditioned dharma serves as the generic, indirect cause for the creation of all things except itself. The kāraṇahetu provides the general background necessary for the operation of causality, and the results of the causal process it supports are the adhipatiphala.

adhipatipratyaya. (P. adhipatipaccaya; T. bdag po’i rkyen; C. zengshang yuan; J. zōjōen; K. chŭngsang yŏn 增上縁). In Sanskrit, “predominant” or “sovereign condition”; the fourth of the four types of conditions (PRATYAYA) recognized in the SARVĀSTIVĀDA–VAIBHĀṢIKA system of ABHIDHARMA and in YOGĀCĀRA; the term also appears as the ninth of the twenty-four conditions (P. paccaya) in the massive Pāli abhidhamma text, the PAṬṬHĀNA. In epistemology, the predominant condition is one of the three causal conditions necessary for perception to occur. It is the specific condition that provides the operative capability (kāraṇa) for the production of something else. In the case of sensory perception, the predominant condition for the arising of sensory consciousness (VIJÑĀNA) is the physical sense organ and the sensory object; but more generically even the seed could serve as the adhipatipratyaya for the generation of a sprout. The four primary physical elements (MAHĀBHŪTA) themselves serve as the predominant condition for the five physical sensory organs, in that they are the condition for the sensory organs’ production and development.

adhiprajñāśikṣā. (T. lhag pa’i shes rab kyi bslab pa; C. zengshanghui xue; J. zōjōegaku; K. chŭngsanghye hak 增上慧學). In Sanskrit, “training in higher wisdom”; the third of the three trainings (TRIŚIKṢĀ) required to achieve enlightenment, said to be set forth primarily in the ABHIDHARMA basket of the TRIPIṬAKA. Adhiprajñāśikṣā is primarily associated with the first two constituents of the eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA), viz., right views (SAMYAGDṚṢṬI) and right intention (SAMYAKSAṂKALPA).

adhisamādhiśikṣā. (T. lhag pa’i ting nge ’dzin gyi bslab pa; C. zengshangding xue; J. zōjōjōgaku; K. chŭngsangjŏng hak 增上定學). In Sanskrit, “training in higher meditation”; the second of the three trainings (TRIŚIKṢĀ) required to achieve enlightenment, said to be set forth primarily in the SŪTRA basket of the TRIPIṬAKA. Adhisamādhiśikṣā is primarily associated with the last three constituents of the eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA), viz., right effort (SAMYAGVYĀYĀMA), right mindfulness (SAMYAKSMṚTI), and right concentration (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI).

adhiśīlaśikṣā. (T. lhag pa’i tshul khrims kyi bslab pa; C. zengshangjie xue; J. zōjōkaigaku; K. chŭngsanggye hak 增上戒學). In Sanskrit, “training in higher morality”; the first of the three trainings (TRIŚIKṢĀ) required to achieve enlightenment, said to be set forth primarily in the VINAYA basket of the TRIPIṬAKA. Adhiśīlaśikṣā is primarily associated with the middle three constituents of the eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA), viz., right speech (SAMYAGVĀC), right action (SAMYAKKARMĀNTA), and right livelihood (SAMYAGĀJĪVA).

adhiṣṭhāna. (P. adhiṭṭhāna; T. byin gyis brlabs pa; C. jiachi; J. kaji; K. kaji 加持). In Sanskrit, lit. “determination” or “decisive resolution” and commonly translated as “empowerment.” Literally, the term has the connotation of “taking a stand,” viz., the means by which the buddhas reveal enlightenment to the world, as well as the adept’s reliance on the buddhas’ empowerment through specific ritual practices. In the former sense, adhiṣṭhāna can refer to the magical power of the buddhas and bodhisattvas, in which contexts it is often translated as “blessing” or “empowerment.” As the LAṄKĀVATĀRASŪTRA notes, it is thanks to the buddhas’ empowerment issuing from their own original vows (PRAṆIDHĀNA) that BODHISATTVAS are able to undertake assiduous cultivation over three infinite eons (ASAṂKHYEYAKALPA) so that they may in turn become buddhas. The buddhas’ empowerment sustains the bodhisattvas in their unremitting practice by both helping them to maintain tranquillity of mind throughout the infinity of time they are in training and, ultimately, once the bodhisattvas achieve the tenth and final stage (BHŪMI) of their training, the cloud of dharma (DHARMAMEGHĀ), the buddhas appear from all the ten directions to anoint the bodhisattvas as buddhas in their own right (see ABHIṢEKA). ¶ In mainstream Buddhist materials, adhiṣṭhāna refers to the first of a buddha’s six or ten psychic powers (ṚDDHI), the ability to project mind-made bodies (MANOMAYAKĀYA) of himself, viz., to replicate himself ad infinitum. In Pāli materials, adhiṭṭhāna is also used to refer to the “determination” to extend the duration of meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) and the derivative psychic powers (P. iddhi; S. ṚDDHI).

Adhyardhaśatikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra/Prajñāpāramitānayaśatapañcaśatikā. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i tshul brgya lnga bcu pa; C. Shixiang bore boluomi jing/Bore liqu fen; J. Jissō hannya haramitsukyō/Hannya rishubun; K. Silsang panya paramil kyŏng/Panya ich’wi pun 實相般若波羅蜜經/般若理趣分). In Sanskrit, “Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred and Fifty Lines.” The basic verses (in Sanskrit) and a commentary describing the ritual accompanying its recitation (originally in Khotanese), are found together as two YOGA class tantras, the Śrīparmādhya (T. Dpal mchog dang po) and Śrīvajramaṇḍalālaṃkāra (T. Dpal rdo rje snying po rgyan). In Japan, AMOGHAVAJRA’s version of the text (called the Rishukyō) came to form an integral part of the philosophy and practice of the Japanese Shingon sect (SHINGONSHŪ).

adhyāśaya. (T. lhag bsam; C. zhengzhi xin; J. shōjiki no shin, K. chŏngjik sim 正直心). In Sanskrit, “determination” or “resolution”; a term used especially to describe the commitment of the BODHISATTVA to liberate all beings from suffering. In the Tibetan mind-training (BLO SBYONG) tradition, the bodhisattva’s resolute commitment is the last in a series of six causes (preceded by recollecting that all beings have been one’s mother, recollecting their kindness, wishing to repay them, love, and compassion), which culminate in BODHICITTA or BODHICITTOTPĀDA. See also XINXIN.

adhyātmavidyā. (T. nang rig pa; C. neiming; J. naimyō; K. naemyŏng 内明). In Sanskrit, “inner knowledge,” viz. knowledge of the three trainings (TRIŚIKṢĀ) and the two stages (UTPATTIKRAMA and NIṢPANNAKRAMA) of TANTRA; the term is sometimes used to refer to knowledge of Buddhist (as opposed to non-Buddhist) subjects.

ādibrahmacariyakasīla. In Pāli, “higher rules of purity”; the more advanced of two types of moral discipline (P. sīla, S. ŚĪLA), referring to rules of conduct that will lead the practitioner further along toward the complete eradication of suffering. This type of discipline is contrasted with ABHISAMĀCĀRIKĀSĪLA, or lesser discipline, which indicates more mundane, external prescriptions, including how a monk should treat his superior and how a monastery should be maintained from day to day. While abhisamācārikāsīla is concerned with mundane ends, ādibrahmacariyakasīla is understood to be the higher, transcendent discipline.

ādibuddha. (T. dang po’i sangs rgyas/ye nas sangs rgyas; C. benchu fo; J. honshobutsu; K. ponch’o pul 本初佛). In Sanskrit, “original buddha” or “primordial buddha”; the personification of innate enlightenment. The term seems to appear for the first time in the MAHĀYĀNASŪTRĀLAṂKĀRA, where the existence of such a primordial buddha is refuted on the grounds that the achievement of buddhahood is impossible without the accumulation of merit (PUṆYA) and wisdom (JÑĀNA). However, the term reemerges in tantric literature, most prominently in the KĀLACAKRATANTRA. There, the term has two meanings, based on the reading of the term ādi. According to the first interpretation, ādi means “first” such that the ādibuddha was the first to attain buddhahood. According to the second interpretation, ādi means “primordial,” which suggests an eternal and atemporal state of innate buddhahood. However, when the commentators on this tantra use the term in this second sense, they appear to be referring not to a person but to an innate wisdom that is present in the minds of all sentient beings and which is the fundamental basis of SAṂSĀRA and NIRVĀṆA. In Tibetan Buddhism, the term ādibuddha is often used to describe the buddha SAMANTABHADRA (according to the RNYING MA sect) or VAJRADHARA (for the GSAR MA sects); in East Asia, by contrast, the ādibuddha is typically considered to be VAIROCANA.

ādikarmika. (P. ādikammika; T. las dang po pa; C. shiye; J. shigō; K. siŏp 始業). In Sanskrit, “beginner” or “neophyte”; a term used to refer to someone who is a novice on the path (MĀRGA). More technically, it refers to a practitioner on the path of accumulation (SAṂBHĀRAMĀRGA), where the initial tools necessary for spiritual development are first beginning to be gathered.

ādīnava. (T. nyes dmigs; C. guohuan; J. kagen; K. kwahwan 過患). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “dangers.” More generically, ādīnava refers to the evils that may befall a layperson who is made heedless (PRAMĀDA) by drinking, gambling, debauchery, and idleness. More specifically, however, the term comes to be used to designate a crucial stage in the process of meditative development (BHĀVANĀ), in which the adept becomes so terrified of the “dangers” inherent in impermanent, compounded things that he turns away from this transitory world and instead turns toward the radical nonattachment that is NIRVĀṆA. In the so-called graduated discourse (P. ANUPUBBIKATHĀ) that the Buddha used to mold the understanding of his new adherents, the Buddha would outline in his elementary discourse the benefits of giving (dānakathā), right conduct (śīlakathā), and the prospect of rebirth in the heavens (svargakathā). Once their minds were pliant and impressionable, the Buddha would then instruct his listeners in the dangers (ādīnava) inherent in sensuality (KĀMA), in order to turn them away from the world and toward the advantages of renunciation (P. nekkhamme ānisaṃsa; see NAIṢKRAMYA). This pervasive sense of danger thence sustains the renunciatory drive that ultimately will lead to nirvāṇa. See also ĀDĪNAVĀNUPASSANĀÑĀṆA.

ādīnavānupassanāñāṇa. In Pāli, “knowledge arising from the contemplation of danger (ĀDĪNAVA)”; this is the fourth of nine knowledges (ñāṇa) cultivated as part of the “purity of knowledge and vision of progress along the path” (PAṬIPADĀÑĀṆADASSANAVISUDDHI) according to the outline in the VISUDDHIMAGGA. This latter category, in turn, constitutes the sixth and penultimate purity (VISUDDHI) to be developed along the path to liberation. Knowledge arising from the contemplation of danger is developed by noting the frightfulness of conditioned formations (saṃkhāra; S. SAṂSKĀRA), that is to say, the mental and physical phenomena (NĀMARŪPA) comprising the individual and the universe. Having seen that all phenomena are fearful because they are impermanent (anicca; S. ANITYA) and destined for annihilation, the practitioner finds no refuge in any kind of existence in any of the realms of rebirth. He sees no conditioned formation or station on which he can rely or that is worth holding onto. The Visuddhimagga states that the practitioner sees the three realms of existence as burning charcoal pits, the elements of the physical world as venomous snakes, and the five aggregates (khandha; S. SKANDHA) comprising the person as murderers with drawn swords. Seeing danger in continued existence and in every kind of becoming (BHAVA), the practitioner realizes that the only safety and happiness are found in nibbāna (S. NIRVĀṆA).

Ādittapariyāyasutta. (S. *ādityaparyāyasūtra; C. Ranshao; J. Nenshō; K. Yŏnso 燃燒). In Pāli, lit. “Discourse on the Manner of Being Aflame,” usually known in English as the “Fire Sermon”; the third sermon spoken by the Buddha following his enlightenment. After his conversion of the three matted-hair ascetics Uruvela-Kassapa, Gayā-Kassapa, and Nadī-Kassapa, along with their one thousand disciples, the Buddha was traveling with them to Gayāsīsa, where he delivered this sermon. Because of his new disciples’ previous devotions to the Brahmanical fire sacrifice, once they were ordained the Buddha preached to these new monks a targeted discourse that he called the “Fire Sermon.” The Buddha explains that all of the six sense bases, six sensory objects, and six sensory consciousnesses, along with the sensory contacts (phassa; S. SPARŚA) and sensations (VEDANĀ) that accompany the senses, are burning with the fires of greed (LOBHA), hatred (P. dosa; S. DVEṢA), and delusion (MOHA) and with the fires of all the various types of suffering (dukkha; S. DUḤKHA). Only through dispassion toward the senses (see INDRIYASAṂVARA) will attachment diminish and liberation eventually be achieved. In the Pāli tradition, the sermon appears in the MAHĀVAGGA section of the Pāli VINAYAPIṬAKA, on the history of the dispensation, not in the SUTTAPIṬAKA; a parallel SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears in the Chinese translation of the SAṂYUKTĀGAMA.

Ādityabandhu. (P. ādiccabandhu; T. Nyi ma’i gnyen; C. Rizhong; J. Nisshu; K. Ilchong 日種). In Sanskrit, “Kinsman of the Sun”; one of the common epithets for ŚĀKYAMUNI or GAUTAMA Buddha, from his lineage (GOTRA) name of āditya. This epithet and gotra name led some early Western scholars, such as ÉMILE SENART, to presume (wrongly) that the Buddha was an Indian solar deity. āditya is also the name of a past buddha.

advaya. (T. gnyis su med pa; C. bu’er; J. funi; K. puri 不二). In Sanskrit, “nonduality”; one of the common synonyms for the highest teachings of Buddhism and one of the foundational principles of the MAHĀYĀNA presentation of doctrine. Nonduality refers to the definitive awareness achieved through enlightenment, which transcends all of the conventional dichotomies into which compounded existence is divided (right and wrong, good and evil, etc.). Most specifically, nondual knowledge (ADVAYAJÑĀNA) transcends the subject–object bifurcation that governs all conventional states of consciousness and engenders a distinctive type of awareness that no longer requires an object of consciousness. See also WU’AIXING.

advayajñāna. (T. gnyis su med pa’i ye shes; C. bu’erzhi; J. funichi; K. puriji 不二智). In Sanskrit, “nondual knowledge”; referring to knowledge that has transcended the subject-object bifurcation that governs all conventional states of sensory consciousness, engendering a distinctive type of awareness that is able to remain conscious without any longer requiring an object of consciousness. See also WU’AIXING.

Advayavajra. (S). See MAITRĪPA/MAITRĪPĀDA.

adveṣa. (P. adosa; T. zhe sdang med pa; C. wuchen; J. mushin; K. mujin 無瞋). In Sanskrit, “absence of ill will” or “absence of hatred.” One of the forty-six mental concomitants (CAITTA) according to the VAIBHĀṢIKA–SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA, one of the fifty-one according to the YOGACĀRA school and one of the fifty-two in the Pāli ABHIDHAMMA, “absence of ill will” is the opposite of “ill will” or “aversion” (DVEṢA). The SARVĀSTIVĀDA exegetes posited that this mental quality accompanied all wholesome activities, and it is therefore classified as one of the ten omnipresent wholesome factors (KUŚALAMAHĀBHŪMIKA). “Absence of ill will” is listed as one of the three wholesome faculties (KUŚALAMŪLA), is one of the states of mind comprising right intention (SAMYAKSAṂKALPA) in the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬAṄGIKAMĀRGA), and is traditionally presumed to be a precondition for the cultivation of loving-kindness (MAITRĪ).

afflictions. See KLEŚA.

āgama. (T. lung; C. ahan jing; J. agongyō; K. aham kyŏng 阿含經). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “text” or “scripture”; a general term for received scriptural tradition. The term āgama is commonly paired with two other contrasting terms: āgama and YUKTI (reasoning) are the means of arriving at the truth; āgama and ADHIGAMA (realization) are the two divisions of the BUDDHADHARMA—the verbal or scriptural tradition and that which is manifested through practice. In its Sanskrit usage, the term āgama is also used to refer more specifically to the four scriptural collections of the mainstream tradition (now lost in Sanskrit but preserved in Chinese translation), attributed to the Buddha and his close disciples, which correspond to the four Pāli NIKĀYAs: (1) DĪRGHĀGAMA or “Long Discourses,” belonging to the DHARMAGUPTAKA school and corresponding to the Pāli DĪGHANIKĀYA; (2) MADHYAMĀGAMA or “Medium Discourses,” associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school and corresponding to the Pāli MAJJHIMANIKĀYA; (3) SAṂYUKTĀGAMA or “Connected Discourses,” belonging to the Sarvāstivāda school (with a partial translation perhaps belonging to the KĀŚYAPĪYA school) and corresponding to the Pāli SAṂYUTTANIKĀYA; and (4) EKOTTARĀGAMA or “Numerically Arranged Discourses,” variously ascribed to the Dharmaguptakas, or less plausibly to the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school or its PRAJÑAPTIVĀDA offshoot, and corresponding to the Pāli AṄGUTTARANIKĀYA. Despite the similarities in the titles of these collections, there are many differences between the contents of the Sanskrit āgamas and the Pāli nikāyas. The KHUDDAKANIKĀYA (“Miscellaneous Collection”), the fifth nikāya in the Pāli canon, has no equivalent in the extant Chinese translations of the āgamas; such miscellanies, or “mixed baskets” (S. kṣudrakapiṭaka), were however known to have existed in several of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, including the Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṃghika, and MAHĪŚĀSAKA.

āgamadharma. (T. lung gi chos; C. jiaofa, J. kyōhō, K. kyobŏp 教法). In Sanskrit, “scriptural dharma”; one of the two divisions of the dharma or teaching of the Buddha, together with the “realized dharma” (ADHIGAMADHARMA). This term refers to the scriptural dharma as the teaching of the Buddha in its verbal form and is often identified with the TRIPIṬAKA or with the twelve divisions (DVĀDAŚĀṄGA[PRAVACANA]) of the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA).

āgantukakleśa. (P. āgantukakilesa; T. glo bur gyi nyon mongs; C. kechen fannao; J. kyakujin bonnō; K. kaekchin pŏnnoe 客塵煩惱). In Sanskrit, “adventitious afflictions” or “adventitious defilements”; indicating that the KLEŚA are accidental and extrinsic qualities of the mind, rather than natural and intrinsic. This notion builds on an ancient strand in Buddhist thought, such as in the oft-quoted passage in the Pāli AṄGUTTARANIKĀYA: “The mind, O monks, is luminous but defiled by adventitious defilements” (pabhassaraṃ idaṃ bhikkave cittaṃ, tañ ca kho āgantukehi upakkilesehi upakkiliṭṭham). Since defilements are introduced into the thought processes from without, the intrinsic purity of the mind (CITTA) can be restored through counteracting the influence of the kleśa and overcoming the inveterate tendency toward attachment and its concomitant craving (LOBHA) and ill will (DVEṢA), which empower them.This concept of āgantukakleśa is critical to the MAHĀYĀNA doctrine of TATHĀGATAGARBHA (embryo of buddhahood), where the mind is presumed to be innately enlightened, but that enlightenment is temporarily obscured or concealed by defilements (KLEŚA) that are extrinsic to it.

Aggaññasutta. (C. Xiaoyuan jing; J. Shōengyō; K. Soyŏn kyŏng 小經). In Pāli, “Discourse on Origins” or “Sermon on Things Primeval”; the twenty-seventh sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the fifth SŪTRA in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA); the sūtra provides a Buddhist account of the origins of the world and of human society. The Buddha preached the sermon at Sāvatthi (ŚRĀVASTĪ) to two ordinands, Vāsettha and Bhāradvāja, to disabuse them of the belief that the priestly brāhmaṇa caste was superior to the Buddha’s khattiya (KṢATRIYA), or warrior, caste. The Buddha describes the fourfold caste system of traditional Indian society as a by-product of the devolution of sentient beings. In the beginning of the eon (KALPA), beings possess spiritual bodies that are luminous, able to travel through the air, and feed on joy. But out of greed for sensual gratification, they degenerate into physical beings with ever grosser propensities: e.g., the coarser the food they eat (first a cream on the surface of water, then creepers, then eventually rice), the coarser their bodies become, until the beings develop sex organs, begin to have intercourse, and in turn build dwellings in order to conceal their debauchery. As their bodies become ever more physical, their life spans in turn also decrease. Immorality, strife, and violence ensue until people finally realize they need a leader to save them from anarchy. They elect the first human king, named Mahāsammata, who was also the first kṣatriya. It was out of the kṣatriya lineage deriving from this first king that the other three classes—brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, and Śūdra—also evolved. This account challenges the mainstream Indian belief that the brāhmaṇa caste is congenitally superior (descending, it claims, from the mouth of the god Brahmā himself) and posits that the effort of moral and spiritual perfection, not the accident of birth, is the true standard of human superiority. Although the Buddhist tradition presumes that this sermon offers a distinctively Buddhistic account of the origin and development of both the universe and society, many of the topoi adopted in the story derive from Brahmanical cosmogonies, perhaps employed here as a satire of Brahmanical pretensions in Indian society. The scripture has also been treated by modern interpreters as offering an incipient Buddhist “environmentalism,” wherein human actions, motivated by greed and lust, cause deleterious effects on the physical world, turning, for example, naturally growing rice into a rice that must be cultivated.

Aggavaṃsa. A twelfth-century scholar monk of the Pāli tradition who wrote the Saddanīti, an important Pāli grammar, in 1154. Although some texts describe him as hailing from JAMBUDVĪPA (viz., India), he seems instead to have lived north of Pagan (Bagan), present-day Myanmar (Burma).

aggregates. See SKANDHA.

Agni. (T. Me lha; C. Huoshen; J. Kashin; K. Hwasin 火神). The Vedic fire deity adopted into the Buddhist pantheon as the guardian of the southeast. In the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŮTRA, he is identified as an incarnation of VAIROCANA; in Tibet, he is associated with HEVAJRA. Agni is depicted riding a goat, with one face and two hands, the right holding a rosary, the left a vase full of the nectar of immortality (AMṚTA). The term also refers to a class of pre-Buddhist fire deities absorbed into the Tibetan Buddhist pantheon.

Agonshū. (阿含宗). In Japanese, “ĀGAMA School”; a Japanese “new religion” structured from elements drawn from esoteric Buddhism (MIKKYŌ) and indigenous Japanese religions; founded in 1970 by Kiriyama Seiyū (born Tsutsumi Masao in 1921). Kiriyama’s teachings are presented first in his Henshin no genri (“Principles of Transformation”; 1975). Kiriyama believed he had been saved by the compassion of Kannon (AVALOKITEŚVARA) and was told by that BODHISATTVA to teach others using the HOMA (J. goma) fire rituals drawn from Buddhist esoteric (MIKKYŌ) traditions. Later, while Kiriyama was reading the āgama (J. agon) scriptures, he realized that Buddhism as it was currently constituted in Japan did not correspond to the original teachings of the Buddha. In 1978, Kiriyama changed the name of his religious movement to Agon, the Japanese pronunciation of the transcription of āgama, positing that his teachings derived from the earliest scriptures of Buddhism and thus legitimizing them. His practices are fundamentally concerned with removing practitioners’ karmic hindrances (KARMĀVARAṆA). Since many of these hindrances, he claims, are the result of neglecting one’s ancestors or are inherited from them, much attention is also paid in the school to transforming the spirits of the dead into buddhas themselves, which in turn will also free the current generation from their karmic obstructions. Spiritual power in the school derives from the shinsei busshari (true ŚARĪRA [relics] of the Buddha), a sacred reliquary holding a bone fragment of the Buddha himself, given to Kiriyama in 1986 by the president of Sri Lanka. Individual adherents keep a miniature replica of the Śarīra in their own homes, and the relic is said to have the transformational power to turn ancestors into buddhas. A “Star Festival” (Hoshi Matsuri) is held in Kyōto on each National Foundation Day (February 11), at which time two massive homa fires are lit, one liberating the spirits of the ancestors (and thus freeing the current generation from inherited karmic obstructions), the other helping to make the deepest wishes of its adherents come true. Adherents write millions of prayers on wooden sticks, which are cast into the two fires.

Agvaandandar. (T. Ngag dbang bstan dar a.k.a. Bstan dar lha ram pa) (1759–1830). Mongolian scholar of the DGE LUGS sect of Tibetan Buddhism. He was born into a nomad family in the Eastern Qoshot banner of Alashan, entering the monastery at the age of seven. He was sent to ’BRAS SPUNGS monastery in LHA SA at the age of nineteen, where he completed the Dge lugs curriculum and received the highest rank of DGE BSHES, that of lha ram pa, around 1800. In Tibetan, he is often referred to as Bstan dar lha ram pa. He returned to his native Mongolia shortly thereafter where he was appointed to a high position at Eastern Monastery, before leaving again, this time for A mdo and the great Dge lugs monasteries of SKU ’BUM and BLA BRANG. He traveled extensively, visiting monasteries in both Inner and Outer Mongolia, and going also to China, where he visited Beijing and WUTAISHAN. He was regarded as one of the leading Dge lugs scholars of his generation. Agvaandandar returned to his native Alashan at the end of his life, where he died in 1830. His tomb at Sharil Chindar is still a place of worship. His collected works fill two volumes, comprising thirty-six titles, all written in Tibetan (two are bilingual Tibetan and Mongolian). He wrote on a wide range of topics in Buddhist philosophy, logic, poetics (based on Daṇḍin’s Kāvyādarśa), and grammar (both Tibetan and Mongolian), including a Tibetan–Mongolian dictionary. His philosophical work included commentaries on the Hetucakra and the ĀLAMBANAPARIKṢĀ of DIGNĀGA, the Saṃtānāntarasiddhi of DHARMAKĪRTI, and on the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASŪTRA (“Heart Sūtra”).

agyo. (C. xiayu; K. haŏ 下語). In Japanese, “appended words” or “granted words.” Although the term is now used generally to refer to the instructions of a ZEN master, agyo can also more specifically refer to a set number of stereotyped sayings, often a verse or phrase, that were used in KŌAN (C. GONG’AN) training. Unlike the literate monks of the medieval GOZAN monasteries, monks of the RINKA, or forest, monasteries were usually unable to compose their own Chinese verses to express the insight that they had gained while struggling with a kōan. The rinka monks therefore began to study the “appended words” or “capping phrases” (JAKUGO) of a kōan text such as the BIYAN LU, which summarized or explained each segment of the text. The agyo are found in kōan manuals known as MONSAN, or Zen phrase manuals, such as the ZENRIN KUSHŪ, where they are used to explicate a kōan.

Agyō. (J) (阿形). See NIŌ.

ahaṃkāra. (T. ngar ’dzin; C. wozhi/woman; J. gashū/gaman; K. ajip/aman 我執/我慢). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “conception of I,” “egotism,” or “arrogance”; a synonym of ĀTMAGRĀHA (attachment to a conception of self). See ĀTMAGRĀHA.

āhāra. (T. zas; C. shi; J. jiki; K. sik 食) In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. “food,” i.e., “nutriment” in the broadest sense, which nourishes everything associated with the body and mind. Four types of nutriment are commonly listed in mainstream materials: (1) food (āhāra; P. kabaliṅkārāhāra) of both coarse and fine varieties, which nourishes the physical body; (2) sensory contact or impression (SPARŚA, P. phassa), which nourishes pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral sensations (VEDANĀ; see PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA); (3) intention (CETANĀ; P. manosañcetanā), which nourishes actions (KARMAN) performed via body, speech, and mind; and (4) consciousness (VIJÑĀNA; P. viññāṇa), which nourishes mentality and corporeality (NĀMARŪPA), specifically at the moment of conception in the next rebirth (see pratītyasamutpāda).

ahiṃsā. (T. ’tshe ba med pa; C. buhai; J. fugai; K. purhae 不害). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “absence of harmful intentions,” “harmlessness,” “noninjury,” or “nonviolence.” The religious ideal and ethical injunction of “harmlessness” toward all living beings was shared in some fashion by several of the Indian ŚRAMAṆA traditions, including the Buddhists as well as the JAINAs, who made it a central tenet of their religion. Some of the corollaries of this idea included the precept against killing, the injunction to refrain from physically and verbally abusing sentient beings, and vegetarianism. The Jainas were especially stringent in their interpretation of “harmlessness” toward all living creatures, demanding strict vegetarianism from their followers in order to avoid injuring sentient creatures, a requirement that the Buddha rejected when his rival in the order, DEVADATTA, proposed it in his list of austerities (see DHUTAṄGA). The Buddha’s view was that monks were a “field of merit” (PUṆYAKṢETRA) for the laity and should accept all offerings made to them, including meat, unless the monk knew that the animal had been killed specifically to feed him, for example. The voluntary vegetarianism that is now prevalent in both Mahāyāna Buddhism and wider Indian Hindu culture is almost certainly a result of Jaina influence and constitutes that religion’s most enduring contribution to Indian religion. Buddhism treated “absence of harmful intentions” as one of the forty-six mental factors (CAITTA) according to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA–VAIBHĀṢIKA school of ABHIDHARMA, one of the fifty-one according to the YOGACĀRA school, and one of the fifty-two CETASIKAs in the Pāli ABHIDHAMMA. It is the opposite of “harmful intention” or “injury” (VIHIṂSĀ, and is sometimes seen written as avihiṃsā) and one of the states of mind comprising right intention (S. samyaksaṃkalpa; P. sammāsaṅkappa) in the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGIKAMĀRGA). “Absence of harmful intentions” is also traditionally taken to be a precondition for the cultivation of “compassion” (KARUṆĀ). See VIHIṂSĀ.

aiśvarya. (T. dbang phyug; C. zizai; J. jizai; K. chajae 自在). In Sanskrit, lit. “sovereignty”; referring to the “self-mastery” or “autonomy” that is a product of religious training and/or related superknowledges (ABHIJÑĀ) that are gained thereby, such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, telepathy, the ability to manifest transformation bodies, and erudition.

Aizen Myōō. (愛染明王) (S. Rāgavidyārāja). In Japanese, lit. “Bright King of the Taint of Lust”; an esoteric deity considered to be the destroyer of vulgar passions. In stark contrast to the traditional Buddhist approach of suppressing the passions through various antidotes or counteractive techniques (PRATIPAKṢA), this VIDYĀRĀJA is believed to be able to transform attachment, desire, craving, and defilement directly into pure BODHICITTA. This deity became a principal deity of the heretical Tachikawa branch (TACHIKAWARYŪ) of the SHINGONSHŪ and was considered the deity of conception. As an emanation of the buddha MAHĀVAIROCANA or the bodhisattva VAJRASATTVA, Aizen Myōō was favored by many followers of Shingon Buddhism in Japan and by various esoteric branches of the TENDAISHŪ. Aizen Myōō was also sometimes held to be a secret buddha (HIBUTSU) by these traditions. The NICHIRENSHŪ was the last to adopt him as an important deity, but he played an important role in the dissemination of its cult. Aizen Myōō is well known for his fierce appearance, which belies the love and affection he is presumed to convey. Aizen Myōō usually has three eyes (to see the three realms of existence) and holds a lotus in his hand, which is symbolic of the calming of the senses, among other things. Other attributes of this deity are the bow and arrows, VAJRAs, and weapons that he holds in his hands.

ajahn. Thai pronunciation of the Sanskrit term ĀCĀRYA (“teacher”); also transcribed as āčhān.

Ajahn Chah Bodhiñāṇa. (1918–1992). A prominent Thai monk who was one of the most influential Thai forest-meditation masters (PHRA PA) of the twentieth century. Born in the village of Baan Gor in the northeastern Thai province of Ubon Ratchathani, he was ordained as a novice at his local temple, where he received his basic education and studied the Buddhist teachings. After several years of training, he returned to lay life to attend to the needs of his parents, but motivated by his religious calling, at the age of twenty, he took higher ordination (UPASAṂPADĀ) as a BHIKṢU and continued his studies of Pāli scripture. His father’s death prompted him to travel to other monasteries in an effort to acquire a deeper understanding of Buddhist teaching and discipline under the guidance of different teachers. During his pilgrimage, he met AJAHN MUN BHŪRIDATTA, the premier meditation master of the Thai forest-dwelling (ARAÑÑAVĀSI) tradition. After that encounter, Ajahn Chah traveled extensively throughout the country, devoting his energies to meditation in forests and charnel grounds (ŚMAŚĀNA). As his reputation grew, he was invited to establish a monastery near his native village, which became known as Wat Pa Pong after the name of the forest (reputed to be inhabited by ghosts) in which it was located. Ajahn Chah’s austere lifestyle, simple method of mindfulness meditation, and straightforward style of teaching attracted a large following of monks and lay supporters, including many foreigners. In 1966, he established Wat Pa Nanachat, a branch monastery specifically for Western and other non-Thai nationals, next to Wat Pa Pong. In 1976, he was invited to England, which led to the establishment of the first branch monastery of Wat Pa Pong there, followed by others in Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, and Italy. He also visited the United States, where he spoke at retreats at the Insight Meditation Center in Barre, Massachusetts. Ajahn Chah died in 1992, after several years in a coma.

Ajahn Mun Bhūridatta. (1870–1949). Thai monk who revitalized the Thai forest-monk tradition (Thai PHRA PA), and the subject of a celebrated Thai hagiography by Ajahn Mahā Boowa ñāṇasampaṇṇo (b. 1913). Born in 1870, in Ban Khambong village in the province of Ubon Ratchathani, Mun was ordained in 1893 at Wat Liab and began studying insight practice (VIPAŚYANĀ) under the guidance of Ajahn Sao Kantasīla (1861–1941). Through developing the meditation on foulness (AŚUBHABHĀVANĀ), he eventually had an experience of calmness (ŚAMATHA), and in order to enhance his practice, he embarked on the life of asceticism (P. DHUTAṄGA) as a forest dweller (P. ARAÑÑAVĀSI) in northeast Thailand and southern Laos. After every rains’ retreat (VARṢĀ) was over, he would travel into the forests, staying just close enough to a few small villages in order to perform his alms round (PIṆḌAPĀTA) each morning. According to the hagiography, after first experiencing the fruition of the state of the nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), he eventually achieved the stage of a worthy one (ARHAT) in Chiang Mai, an experience that he said shook the entire universe and brought a roar of accolades from the heavenly hosts. Ajahn Mun became a widely known and respected meditator and teacher, who was invited to dwell in monasteries throughout much of Thailand. The hagiography compiled by Ajahn Mahā Boowa is filled with exuberantly told tales of his meditative visions, prophetic dreams, lectures and instructions, and encounters with other eminent monks, laypeople, and even with deceased arhats and divinities (DEVA) such as ŚAKRA with his 100,000 strong retinue. Ajahn Mun’s many prominent disciples helped revive the Thai forest-monk tradition, especially in the northeast, and defined its austere practices (Thai, THUDONG; P. DHUTAṄGA) in their contemporary context.

Ajaṇṭā. A complex of some thirty caves and subsidiary structures in India, renowned for its exemplary Buddhist artwork. Named after a neighboring village, the caves are carved from the granite cliffs at a bend in the Wagurna River valley, northeast of AURANGĀBĀD, in the modern Indian state of Maharashtra. The grottoes were excavated in two phases, the first of which lasted from approximately 100 BCE to 100 CE, the second from c. 462 to 480, and consist primarily of monastic cave residences (VIHĀRA) and sanctuaries (CAITYA). The sanctuaries include four large, pillared STŪPA halls, each enshrining a central monumental buddha image, which renders the hall both a site for worship and a buddha’s dwelling (GANDHAKUṬĪ), where he presides over the activities of the monks in residence. The murals and sculpture located at Ajaṇṭā include some of the best-preserved examples of ancient Buddhist art. Paintings throughout the complex are especially noted for their depiction of accounts from the Buddha’s previous lives (JĀTAKA). Despite the presence of some AVALOKITEŚVARA images at the site, it is Sanskrit texts of mainstream Buddhism, and especially the MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA school, that are the source and inspiration for the paintings of Ajaṇṭā. Indeed, almost all of Ajaṇṭā’s narrative paintings are based on accounts appearing in the MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA, as well as the poems of Āryaśūra and AŚVAGHOṢA. On the other hand, the most common type of sculptural image at Ajaṇṭā (e.g., Cave 4) is a seated buddha making a variant of the gesture of turning the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAMUDRĀ), flanked by the two bodhisattvas AVALOKITEŚVARA and VAJRAPĀṆI. The deployment of this mudrā and the two flanking bodhisattvas indicates that these buddha images are of VAIROCANA and suggests that tantric elements that appear in the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA and the MAÑJUŚRĪMŪLAKALPA, both of which postdate the Ajaṇṭā images, developed over an extended period of time and had precursors that influenced the iconography at Ajaṇṭā. Inscriptions on the walls of the earliest part of the complex, primarily in Indian Prakrits, attest to an eclectic, even syncretic, pattern of religious observance and patronage. Later epigraphs found at the site associate various patrons with Hariṣeṇa (r. 460–477), the last known monarch of the Vākāṭaka royal family. Varāhadeva, for example, who patronized Cave 16, was one of Hariṣeṇa’s courtiers, while Cave 1 was donated by Hariṣeṇa himself, and Cave 2 may have been patronized by a close relative, perhaps one of Hariṣeṇa’s wives. Cave 16’s central image, a buddha seated on a royal throne with legs pendant (BHADRĀSANA), is the first stone sculpture in this iconographic form found in western India. Introduced to India through the tradition of KUSHAN royal portraiture, the bhadrāsana has been interpreted as a position associated with royalty and worldly action. This sculpture may thus have functioned as a portrait sculpture; it may even allegorize Hariṣeṇa as the Buddha. In fact, it is possible that Varāhadeva may have originally intended to enshrine a buddha seated in the cross-legged lotus position (VAJRAPARYAṄKA) but changed his plan midway in the wake of a regional war that placed Hariṣeṇa’s control over the Ajaṇṭā region in jeopardy. Around 480, the constructions at Ajaṇṭā came to a halt with the destruction of the Vākāṭaka family. The caves were subsequently abandoned and became overgrown, only to be discovered in 1819 by a British officer hunting a tiger. They quickly became the object of great archaeological and art historical interest, and were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.