The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism

Da banniepan jing jijie. (J. Daihatsunehangyō juge; K. Tae panyŏlban kyŏng chiphae 大般涅槃經集解). In Chinese, “Compilation and Explanation of the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA”; compiled by the monk Baoliang (444–509); the oldest and most comprehensive collection of commentaries on the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra, in a total of seventy-one rolls. The Da banniepanjing jijie explicates the title and content of each chapter of the sūtra by quoting the words and sayings of different commentators, of whom Baoliang is but one. The influential Chinese commentaries on the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra by JIZANG and GUANDING rely heavily upon this work.

Dabei zhou. (J. Daihiju; K. Taebi chu 大悲咒). In Chinese, “Great Compassion Spell,” also known as the Qianshou zhou; an esoteric code (DHĀRAṆĪ) associated with the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEŚVARA in his guise as MAHĀKARUṆIKA, which is widely used liturgically in East Asian Buddhism, especially in funeral ceremonies. See the extensive treatment of this dhāraṇī in QIANSHOU JING, s.v.

Daci’ensi. (J. Daijionji; K. Taejaŭnsa 大慈恩寺). In Chinese, the “Beneficence of Great Compassion Monastery” or “Great Maternal Grace Monastery”; a major scholastic center during the Sui and Tang dynasties, located in the imperial capital of Chang’an (present-day Xi’an). Originally founded in 589 CE during the Sui dynasty as Wulousi (Free of Contaminants Monastery), it was later rebuilt in 648 CE during the Tang by the prince who would later become the Gaozong emperor (r. 649–683). The monastery was rebuilt to honor the prince’s deceased mother, Empress Wende (601–636 CE), in whose memory it was given its new name. The monastery became best known as the base for the translation bureau established by the pilgrim and scholar XUANZANG (600/602–664 CE) and his collaborators, including WŎNCH’ŬK (C. Yuance) and KUIJI. At the monastery, Xuanzang and his team translated much of the scholastic literature of Indian Buddhism, including the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀṢĀ, *ABHIDHARMANYĀYĀNUSĀRA, NYĀYAMUKHA, and CHENG WEISHI LUN. In 652 CE, Xuanzang commissioned a pagoda, named the DAYAN TA (Great Wild Goose Pagoda), in order to house the numerous Sanskrit manuscripts and Buddhist images he had brought back with him from his sojourn in India; the originally five-story stone pagoda is still a major tourist attraction in Xi’an.

dade. (J. daitoku; K. taedŏk 大德). In Chinese, “great virtue”; a reference to spiritual virtuosi, such as buddhas, BODHISATTVAs, and eminent monks. During the Tang dynasty, the special title dade was given periodically to ten worthy monks. The term dade also was used as a second-person pronoun in certain periods. Elderly monks were also sometimes referred to as dade, especially in the CHAN tradition. In Korea, the term continues to be used to designate an official monastic office that is occupied by the most senior monks of the CHOGYE CHONG, whose only primary duty is to advise the order through their “great virtue” and help in the selection of the most senior members of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. See also SŬNGKWA.

Daguan Zhenke. (J. Takkan Shinka; K. Talgwan Chin’ga 達觀眞可) (1543–1603). Chinese CHAN master of the Ming dynasty, also known as ZIBO. Daguan was a native of Jugu prefecture in Jiangsu province. He was ordained at age sixteen and is said to have attained awakening after reading the following verse by the layman Zhang Zhuo (d.u.), a disciple of the Chan master SHISHUANG QINGZHU: “Cutting off deluded thoughts increases maladies ever more,/ Heading out toward true suchness is also heresy” (duanji wangxiang zhongzeng bing,/ quxiang zhenru yishi xie). Like his influential contemporaries HANSHAN DEQING and YUNQI ZHUHONG, he was renowned for his advocacy of NIANFO Chan, in which Chan meditative practice was combined with the invocation or recitation of the name of the buddha AMITĀBHA. Daguan was known as one of the four great monks of the Ming dynasty along with Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623), Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615), and OUYI ZHIXU (1599–1655). Daguan’s teachings are recorded in the Zibo zunzhe quanji and Zibo laoren shiji.

Dahong Bao’en. (J. Daikō Hōon; K. Taehong Poŭn 大洪報恩) (1058–1111). Chinese CHAN master of the CAODONG lineage. Dahong was a native of Liyang in present-day Henan province. Raised in a traditional family, he became an official at an early age, but later abandoned the position, with the court’s permission, in order to ordain as a monk. He studied under the Chan master TOUZI YIQING and became his disciple. Dahong was later invited by the prime minister to lecture at the famed monastery of SHAOLINSI. In response to still another request, he moved to Mt. Dahong in Suizhou prefecture (present-day Hubei province), whence he acquired his toponym, and became the first Chan monk to convert a VINAYA monastery into a Chan center, which he named Chongning Baoshou Chanyuan. Dahong also became close friends with the powerful and outspoken statesman ZHANG SHANGYING (1043–1122). Dahong is known to have composed several texts including a history of the Caodong tradition, Caodong zongpai lu, and manuals for conferring the precepts, such as the Shou puti xinjie wen and Luofa shoujie yiwen; none of these texts are extant.

Dahong Shousui. (J. Daikō Shusui; K. Taehong Susu 大洪守遂) (1072–1147). Chinese CHAN master in the CAODONG lineage. Dahong was a native of Suining in present-day Sichuan province. He was ordained at the age of twenty-seven and became the student of DAHONG BAO’EN of Mt. Dahong and acquired the same toponym. In 1118, the title Great Master Jingyan (Pure and Strict) was bestowed upon him. After the invasion of Jin dynasty troops, Dahong moved south and became the abbot of the monastery Shuinan Chanyuan. Later he moved back to Mt. Dahong where he and his seven hundred disciples devoted themselves to its restoration.

Dahui Pujue chanshi shu. (J. Daie Fukaku zenji sho; K. Taehye Pogak sŏnsa sŏ 大慧普覺禪師書). In Chinese, “CHAN Master Dahui Pujue’s Letters”; also known as the Dahui shumen, DAHUI SHUZHUANG, SHUZHUANG, and Dahui shu. Its colophon is dated to 1166. In reply to the letters he received from his many students, both ordained and lay, the Chan master DAHUI ZONGGAO wrote back with detailed instructions on meditation practice, especially his signature training in “observing the meditative topic,” or more freely “questioning meditation” (KANHUA CHAN); after his death, his letters were compiled and edited in two rolls by his disciples Huiran and Huang Wenchang. Numerous editions of this collection were subsequently printed in China, Korea, and Japan. Many practitioners of Chan, SŎN, and ZEN favored the Dahui Pujue chanshi shu for its clarity, intelligibility, and uniquely personal tone. The text was especially influential in the writings of the Korean Sŏn master POJO CHINUL (1158–1210), who first learned about the Chan meditative technique of kanhua Chan from its pages and who attributed one of his three awakenings to his readings of Dahui. Dahui’s letters were formally incorporated into the Korean Sŏn monastic curriculum by at least the seventeenth century, as one of books in the “Fourfold Collection” (SAJIP), where it is typically known by its abbreviated title of “Dahui’s Letters” (K. TAEHYE SŎJANG) or just “Letters” (K. SŎJANG; C. Shuzhuang). The Japanese monk and historian MUJAKU DŌCHŪ (1653–1744) also wrote an important commentary to the text, known as the Daiesho kōrōju.

Dahui Pujue chanshi zongmen wuku. (J. Daie Fukaku zenji shūmon muko; K. Taehye Pogak sŏnsa chongmun mugo 大慧普覺禪師宗門武庫). In Chinese, “CHAN Master Dahui Pujue’s Arsenal of the Tradition,” edited in one roll by the monk Daoqian (d.u.); also known by the abbreviated titles Dahui wuku and Zongmen wuku. The preface to the text is dated 1186. Daoqian edited together over a hundred of his teacher DAHUI ZONGGAO’s stories, anecdotes, inscriptions, and poems. The wide range of material that appears in the Dahui Pujue chanshi zongmen wuku serves as an important source for the study of the lives and thoughts of eminent monks and laymen, some of whom would otherwise no longer be known to us. Most of the stories, however, concern the deeds and words of Dahui’s teachers YUANWU KEQIN and Dantang Wenzhun (1061–1115), Yuanwu’s teacher WUZU FAYAN, and Dantang’s teacher ZHENJING KEWEN.

Dahui Zonggao. (J. Daie Sōkō; K. Taehye Chonggo 大慧宗杲) (1089–1163). Influential Song-dynasty Chinese CHAN master in the LINJI ZONG; also known as Miaoxi, Yunmen, Tanhui, or more typically just Dahui (J. Daie; K. Taehye). Dahui was a native of Ningguo in Xuanzhou (present-day Anhui province). After studying at LUSHAN and Mt. Dong, Dahui became the student of the Chan master DANTANG WENZHUN; in 1115, aware of his impending death, Dantang encouraged Dahui to continue his studies under YUANWU KEQIN. Before approaching Yuanwu, Dahui visited the Chan master JUEFAN HUIHONG, at which time he also met the powerful statesman and layman ZHANG SHANGYING. In 1124, while Yuanwu was serving under imperial orders as abbot of the monastery of Tianningsi in Dongjing, Dahui became his disciple and later inherited his Linji lineage. At the recommendation of the current grand councilor, Dahui was given the title Fori Dashi (Great Master Buddha Sun). After Yuanwu returned to his home province of Sichuan, Dahui moved to the hermitage of Yunmen’an in Haihun (present-day Jiangxi province) to avoid the invading forces of the Jin dynasty. In 1134, Dahui moved again to the hermitage of Yangyuan in Fujian province, where he launched a harsh critique against the practice of “silent-illumination Chan” (MOZHAO CHAN), championing instead the “investigation of the meditative topic” (KANHUA CHAN) method of meditation. Dahui later served as abbot of the powerful monastery Nengren Chanyuan on Mt. Jing (see WANSHOUSI) and revitalized the teachings of the Chan master LINJI YIXUAN. While a truce with the rival Jin dynasty was being negotiated, Dahui was accused of collaborating with Jin forces, for which he was exiled to Hengzhou in present-day Hunan province. During this period, Dahui composed his magnum opus, ZHENGFAYANZANG. After he was absolved of his alleged crime of treason, Dahui began his residence on Mt. Ayuwang and befriended the CAODONG ZONG Chan master HONGZHI ZHENGJUE, who was the preemiment advocate of the “silent-illumination” technique that Dahui so harshly criticized, suggesting that this professional disagreement did not affect their personal ties. Dahui later returned to his post at Nengren Chanyuan and became the teacher of Emperor Xiaozong (r. 1162–1189), who gave him the title Chan Master Dahui (Great Wisdom). He was also given the posthumous title Chan Master Pujue (Universal Enlightenment), the name typically used in his publications. Dahui’s teachings are recorded in his Dahui chanshi yulu, DAHUI PUJUE CHANSHI SHU, and DAHUI PUJUE CHANSHI ZONGMEN WUKU.

Daianji. (大安寺). In Japanese, “Great Peace Monastery”; one of the seven great monasteries of the ancient Japanese capital of Nara (NANTO SHICHIDAIJI). Daianji was founded in the Asuka area and, according to internal monastery records, was originally the Kudara no Ōdera (Great Paekche Monastery) that was founded by Emperor Jomei in 639. When this monastery burned down in 642, Empress Kōgyoku had it rebuilt and renamed it Daianji. If this identification with Kudara no Ōdera is correct, Daianji has the distinction of being the first monastery in Japan founded by the court. The monastery moved to Nara in 716, following the relocation of the capital there in 710. The Koguryŏ monk Tohyŏn (J. Tōgen, fl. c. seventh century) lived at Daianji during the seventh century, where he wrote the Nihon segi, an early historical chronicle, which is no longer extant. Daianji was also the residence of the Indian monk BODHISENA (704–760), who lived and taught there until the end of his life. Bodhisena performed the “opening the eyes” (C. KAIYAN; J. KAIGEN; NETRAPRATIṢṬHĀPANA) ceremony for the 752 dedication of the great buddha image of Vairocana (NARA DAIBUTSU; Birushana Nyorai) at TŌDAIJI, another of the great Nara monasteries. Daianji was also home to the Korean monk SIMSANG (J. Shinjō, d. 742) from the Silla kingdom, who was instrumental in introducing the teachings of the Kegon (C. HUAYAN; K. Hwaŏm) school of Buddhism to Japan. Since the time of another famous resident, KŪKAI (774–835), Daianji has been associated with the SHINGONSHŪ of Japanese Buddhism. Daianji was at times quite grand, with two seven-story pagodas and many other buildings on its campus. After a fire destroyed much of the monastery in the 1200s, rebuilding was slow and the renovated structures were damaged once again by an earthquake in 1449. Daianji’s fireproof treasury holds nine wooden images from the eighth century, including three different representations of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEŚVARA, including both his representations as AMOGHAPĀŚA (J. Fukū Kenjaku) and his thousand-armed manifestation (SĀHASRABHUJASĀHASRANETRĀVALOKITEŚVARA), as well as two of the four heavenly kings (S. CĀTURMAHĀRĀJAKĀYIKA; J. shitennō). The monastery also retains two famous images that are brought out for display for one month each year: in March, HAYAGRĪVA, and in October, the eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara (Jūichimen Kannon).

daibutsu. (大佛). In Japanese, “great buddha”; referring to colossal wooden or cast-bronze buddha images, such as the forty-eight-foot-high image of VAIROCANA enshrined at TŌDAIJI and the image of AMITĀBHA in Kāmakura. As a specific example, see NARA DAIBUTSU.

dai-gohonzon. (大御本尊). In Japanese, lit. “great object of devotion”; the most important object of worship in the NICHIREN SHŌSHŪ school of Japanese Buddhism. The dai-gohonzon is a plank of camphor wood that has at its center an inscription of homage to the title of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”)—NAMU MYŌHŌ RENGEKYŌ, as well as the name of NICHIREN (1222–1282), surrounded by a cosmological chart (MAṆḌALA) of the Buddhist universe, written in Nichiren’s own hand in 1279. By placing namu Myōhōrengekyō and his name on the same line, the school understands that Nichiren meant that the teachings of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra and the person who proclaimed those teachings (Nichiren) are one and the same (ninpō ikka). The dai-gohonzon has been enshrined at TAISEKIJI, the administrative head temple of Nichiren Shōshū, since the temple’s foundation in 1290; for this reason, the temple remains the major pilgrimage center for the school’s adherents. The dai-gohonzon itself, the sanctuary (kaidan) where it is enshrined at Kaisekiji, and the teaching of namu Myōhōrengekyō, are together called the “three great esoteric laws” (SANDAI HIHŌ), because they were hidden between the lines of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra until Nichiren discovered them and revealed them to the world. Transcriptions of the maṇḍala, called simply GOHONZON, are inscribed on wooden tablets in temples or on paper scrolls when they are enshrined in home altars. See also DAIMOKU.

Daigu Sōchiku. (大愚宗築) (1584–1669). Japanese ZEN master of the RINZAISHŪ lineage. Daigu was born in Mino, present-day Gifu prefecture. In his twenties, Daigu went on a pilgrimage around the country with several other young monks, including GUDŌ TŌSHOKU and Ungo Kiyō (1582–1659), in search of a teacher. In his thirties, Daigu built the monastery of Nansenji in the capital Edo, which he named after his home temple in Mino. He also founded the monasteries of Enkyōji in Kinkō (present-day Shiga prefecture) and Enichiji in Tanba (present-day Hyōgo prefecture). Daigu was active in restoring dilapidated temples. In 1656, he was invited as the founding abbot of the temple Daianji in Echizen (present-day Fukui prefecture). During the Tokugawa period, temples were mandated by the bakufu to affiliate themselves with a main monastery (honzan), thus becoming a branch temple (matsuji). The temples that Daigu built or restored became branch temples of MYŌSHINJI. Daigu’s efforts thus allowed the influence of Myōshinji, where he once served as abbot, to grow. Along with Gudō, Daigu also led a faction within Myōshinji that rejected the invitation of the Chinese Chan master YINYUAN LONGQI to serve as abbot of the main temple.

daijue ermiao. (待絶二妙). In Chinese, “marvelous in comparison and marvelous in its own right.” In the TIANTAI school’s system of doctrinal classification (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI), Buddhist teachings and scriptures were classified into four modes of instruction (according to their different doctrinal themes; see TIANTAI BAJIAO) and five periods (according to the presumed chronological order by which the Buddha propounded them; see WUSHI). The most sophisticated pedagogical mode and the culminating chronological period are called, respectively, “the perfect teaching” (YUANJIAO) and the “Fahua-Niepan period.” The teachings and scriptures associated with the highest mode and the culminating period—the paradigmatic example being the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”) and the teachings it embodied for the Tiantai school—are called truly “marvelous” for two reasons. First, they are “marvelous in comparison to the teachings and scriptures of all other ‘modes’ and ‘periods’” (xiangdai miao) because they are the definitive expressions of the Buddha’s teachings; second, they are also “marvelous in their own right” (juedai miao), i.e., they are wonderful and profound in an absolute sense, and not just comparatively.

daimoku. (題目). In Japanese, lit. “title” of a scripture; the term comes to be used most commonly in the NICHIRENSHŪ and associated schools of Japanese Buddhism to refer specifically to the title of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”). The title is presumed to summarize the gist of the entire scripture, and the recitation of its title in its Japanese pronunciation (see NAMU MYŌHŌRENGEKYŌ) is a principal religious practice of the Nichiren and SŌKKA GAKKAI schools. Recitation of the title of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra is called specifically the “diamoku of the essential teaching” (honmon no daimoku) in the Nichiren school. The Japanese reformer NICHIREN (1222–1282) advocated recitation of this daimoku as one of the “three great esoteric laws” (SANDAI HIHŌ), and he claimed it exemplified mastery of wisdom (PRAJÑĀ) in the three trainings (TRIŚIKṢĀ).

Dainichi(bō) Nōnin. (大日[房]能忍) (d.u.). Japanese monk of the late Heian and early Kamakura eras; his surname was Taira. Nōnin is the reputed founder of the short-lived ZEN sect known as the DARUMASHŪ, one of the earliest Zen traditions to develop in Japan. Nōnin was something of an autodidact and is thought to have achieved awakening through his own study of scriptures and commentaries, rather than through any training with an established teacher. He taught at the temple of Sanbōji in Suita (present-day Ōsaka prefecture) and established himself as a Zen master. Well aware that he did not have formal authorization (YINKE) from a Chan master in a recognized lineage, Nōnin sent two of his disciples to China in 1189. They returned with a portrait of BODHIDHARMA inscribed by the Chan master FOZHAO DEGUANG (1121–1203) and the robe of Fozhao’s influential teacher DAHUI ZONGGAO. Fozhao also presented Nōnin with a portrait of himself (see DINGXIANG), on which he wrote a verse at the request of Nōnin’s two disciples. Such bestowals suggested that Nōnin was a recognized successor in the LINJI lineage. In 1194, the monks of HIEIZAN, threatened by Nōnin’s burgeoning popularity, urged the court to suppress Nōnin and his teachings as an antinomian heresy. His school did not survive his death, and many of his leading disciples subsequently became students of other prominent teachers, such as DŌGEN KIGEN; this influx of Nōnin’s adherents introduced a significant Darumashū component into the early SŌTŌSHŪ tradition. Nōnin was later given the posthumous title Zen Master Shinpō [alt. Jinhō] (Profound Dharma).

Daitokuji. (大德寺). A famous Japanese ZEN monastery in Kyōto; also known as Murasakino Daitokuji. After his secluded training at the hermitage of Ungoan in eastern Kyōto in 1319, the Japanese RINZAI Zen master SŌHŌ MYŌCHŌ, or Daitō Kokushi, was invited by his uncle Akamatsu Norimura to Murasakino located in the northeastern part of Kyōto. There a dharma hall was built and inaugurated by Daitō in 1326. Daitō was formally honored as the founding abbot (kaizan; C. KAISHAN) and he continued to serve as abbot of Daitokuji until his death in 1337. In an attempt to control the influential monasteries in Kyōto, Emperor Godaigo (1288–1339), who was a powerful patron of Daitō and Daitokuji, decreed in 1313 that only those belonging to Daitō’s lineage could become abbot of Daitokuji and added Daitokuji to the official GOZAN system. Two years later, Daitokuji was raised to top rank of the gozan system, which it shared with the monastery NANZENJI. These policies were later supported by retired Emperor Hanazono (1297–1348), another powerful patron of Daitō and his monastery. Daitokuji was devastated by a great fire in 1453 and suffered further destruction during the Ōnin War (1467–1477). The monastery was restored to its former glory in 1474, largely through the efforts of its prominent abbot IKKYŪ SŌJUN. A famous sanmon gate was built by the influential tea master Sen no Rikyū. During its heyday, Daitokuji had some twenty-four inner cloisters (tatchū), such as Ikkyū’s Shinjuan and Rikyū’s Jukōin and over 173 subtemples (matsuji).

daiyu. (J. daigo; K. taeŏ 代語). In Chinese, “substitute reply.” When a CHAN master asks a question to the assembly and answers his own question before anyone else responds, his or her response is known as the “substitute reply.”

ḍāka. (T. mkha’ ’gro). In Sanskrit, a donor or sacrifice; in tantric Buddhism, another name for a VĪRA “hero”; the male counterpart of a ḌĀKINĪ, particularly in the GAṆACAKRA, a ritual tantric feast that may have originated as an actual assembly of tāntrikas engaged in antinomian behavior, including ingesting ritually impure foods and engaging in sexual relations. In Tibetan, the term dpa’ bo (vīra) or “hero” is typically used instead of mkha’ ’gro (ḍāka), although the latter term appears in traditional lists of the beings invited to the gaṇacakra (T. tshogs). In the title of such tantras as the ḌĀKĀRṆAVAMAHĀYOGINĪTANTRA and the VAJRAḌĀKATANTRA, ḍāka seems to be used as an abbreviation of ḌĀKINĪ.

Ḍākārṇavamahāyoginītantra. [alt. Dākārṇavatantra] (T. Mkha’ ’gro rgya mtsho rnal ’byor ma’i rgyud). In APABHRAṂŚA, an early medieval Indian vernacular based on Sanskrit, literally, “Ḍāk[inī] Ocean Yoginī Tantra”; the yoginī, or “mother,” tantras are a subdivision of ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA. A manuscript of the tantra is extant in the Nepalese National Archives; the Tibetan translation is by Jayasena and Dharma yon tan. It is one of the four CAKRASAṂVARATANTRA explanatory (vākhyā) tantras.

ḍākinī. (T. mkha’ ’gro ma; C. tuzhini; J. dakini; K. tojini 荼枳尼). In Sanskrit, a cannibalistic female demon, a witch; in ŚĀNTIDEVA’s BODHICARYĀVATĀRA, a female hell guardian (narakapālā); in tantric Buddhism, ḍākinīs, particularly the vajraḍākinī, are guardians from whom tāntrikas obtain secret doctrines. For example, the VAJRABHAIRAVA adept Lālitavajra is said to have received the YAMĀNTAKA tantras from vajraḍākinīs, who allowed him to bring back to the human world only as many of the texts as he could memorize in one night. The ḍākinī first appears in Indian sources during the fourth century CE, and it has been suggested that they evolved from local female shamans. The term is of uncertain derivation, perhaps having something to do with “drumming” (a common feature of shamanic ritual). The Chinese, Japanese, and Korean give simply a phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit. In Tibetan, ḍākinī is translated as “sky goer” (mkha’ ’gro ma), probably related to the Sanskrit khecara, a term associated with the CAKRASAṂVARATANTRA. Here, the ḍākinī is a goddess, often depicted naked, in semi-wrathful pose (see VAJRAYOGINĪ); they retain their fearsome element but are synonymous with the highest female beauty and attractiveness and are enlightened beings. They form the third of what are known as the “inner” three jewels (RATNATRAYA): the guru, the YI DAM, and the ḍākinīs and protectors (DHARMAPĀLA; T. chos skyong). The archetypical Tibetan wisdom or knowledge ḍākinī (ye shes mkha’ ’gro) is YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL, the consort of PADMASAMBHAVA. Ḍākinīs are classified in a variety of ways, the most common being mkha’ ’gro sde lnga, the female buddhas equivalent to the PAÑCATATHĀGATA or five buddha families (PAÑCAKULA): Buddhaḍākinī [alt. Ākāśadhātvīśvarī; Sparśavajrā] in the center of the maṇḍala, with Locanā, Māmakī, Pāṇḍaravāsinī, and TĀRĀ in the cardinal directions. Another division is into three: outer, inner, and secret ḍākinīs. The first is a YOGINĪ or a YOGIN’s wife or a regional goddess, the second is a female buddha that practitioners visualize themselves to be in the course of tantric meditation, and the last is nondual wisdom (ADVAYAJÑĀNA). This division is also connected with the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of Mahāyāna Buddhism: the NIRMĀṆAKĀYA (here referring to the outer ḍākinīs), SAṂBHOGAKĀYA (meditative deity), and the DHARMAKĀYA (the knowledge ḍākinī). The word ḍākinī is found in the title of the explanation (vākhyā) tantras of the yoginī class or mother tantras included in the Cakrasaṃvaratantra group.

Dalai Lama. (T. Dā la’i bla ma). An honorific title given to members of a prominent Tibetan incarnation (SPRUL SKU) lineage belonging to the DGE LUGS sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The Dalai Lamas are traditionally revered as earthly manifestations of AVALOKITEŚVARA, the BODHISATTVA of compassion and protector of Tibet. Although the term has become widely known outside the region, Tibetans most frequently refer to the Dalai Lama as Rgyal ba rin po che (Gyalwa Rinpoche) “Precious Conqueror,” Sku mdun (Kundun) “The Presence,” or Yid bzhin nor bu (Yishin Norbu) “Wish-fulfilling Gem.” The name originated during the sixteenth century when ALTAN KHAN, ruler of the Tümed Mongols, bestowed the title on the Dge lugs teacher BSOD NAMS RGYA MTSHO by translating the prelate’s name rgya mtsho (“ocean”) into Mongolian as dalai. The name thus approximately means “ocean teacher.” It is not the case, as is often reported, that the Dalai Lamas are so named because their wisdom is as vast as the ocean. After Bsod nams rgya mtsho, all subsequent incarnations have rgya mtsho as the second component of their name. At the time of his meeting with the Altan Khan, Bsod nams rgya mtsho was already a recognized incarnate lama of the Dge lugs. Bsod nams rgya mtsho became the third Dalai Lama and two of his previous incarnations were posthumously recognized as the first and second holders of the lineage. From that time onward, successive incarnations have all been known as the Dalai Lama. Although writings outside Tibet often describe the Dalai Lama as the head of the Dge lugs sect, that position is held by a figure called the DGA’ LDAN KHRI PA, the “Throneholder of Ganden Monastery.” The fourteen Dalai Lamas are:

1. Dge ’dun grub (Gendün Drup, 1391–1475)

2. Dge ’dun rgya mtsho (Gendün Gyatso, 1475–1542)

3. Bsod nams rgya mtsho (Sönam Gyatso, 1543–1588)

4. Yon tan rgya mtsho (Yönten Gyatso, 1589–1617)

5. Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho (Ngawang Losang Gyatso, 1617–1682)

6. Tshangs dbyangs rgya mtsho (Tsangyang Gyatso, 1683–1706?)

7. Skal bzang rgya mtsho (Kalsang Gyatso, 1708–1757)

8. ’Jam dpal rgya mtsho (Jampal Gyatso, 1758–1804)

9. Lung rtogs rgya mtsho (Lungtok Gyatso, 1805–1815)

10. Tshul khrims rgya mtsho (Tsultrim Gyatso, 1816–1837)

11. Mkhas grub rgya mtsho (Kedrup Gyatso, 1838–1855)

12. ’Phrin las rgya mtsho (Trinle Gyatso, 1856–1875)

13. Thub bstan rgya mtsho (Tupten Gyatso, 1876–1933)

14. Bstan ’dzin rgya mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, b. 1935)

The first Dalai Lama, DGE ’DUN GRUB, was known as a great scholar and religious practitioner. A direct disciple of TSONG KHA PA, he is remembered for founding BKRA SHIS LHUN PO monastery near the central Tibetan town of Shigatse. The second Dalai Lama, Dge ’dun rgya mtsho, was born the son of a RNYING MA YOGIN and became a renowned tantric master in his own right. ¶ It is with the third Dalai Lama, BSOD NAMS RGYA MTSHO, that the Dalai Lama lineage actually begins. Recognized at a young age as the reincarnation of Dge ’dun rgya mtsho, he was appointed abbot of ’BRAS SPUNGS monastery near LHA SA and soon rose to fame throughout central Asia as a Buddhist teacher. He served as a religious master for the Mongol ruler Altan Khan, who bestowed the title “Dalai Lama,” and is credited with converting the Tümed Mongols to Buddhism. Later in life, he traveled extensively across eastern Tibet and western China, teaching and carrying out monastic construction projects. ¶ The fourth Dalai Lama, Yon tan rgya mtsho, was recognized in the person of the grandson of Altan Khan’s successor, solidifying Mongol-Tibetan ties. ¶ While the first four Dalai Lamas served primarily as religious scholars and teachers, the fifth Dalai Lama, NGAG DBANG BLO BZANG RGYA MTSHO, combined religious and secular activities to become one of Tibet’s preeminent statesmen. He was a dynamic political leader who, with the support of Gushi Khan, defeated his opponents and in 1642 was invested with temporal powers over the Tibetan state, in addition to his religious role, a position that succeeding Dalai Lamas held until 1959. A learned and prolific author, he and his regent, SDE SRID SANGS RGYAS RGYA MTSHO, were largely responsible for the identification of the Dalai Lamas with the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. The construction of the PO TA LA palace began during his reign (and was completed after this death). He is popularly known as the “Great Fifth.” ¶ The sixth Dalai Lama, TSHANGS DBYANGS RGYA MTSHO, was a controversial figure who chose to abandon the strict monasticism of his predecessors in favor of a life of society and culture, refusing to take the vows of a fully ordained monk (BHIKṢU). He is said to have frequented the drinking halls below the Po ta la palace. He constructed pleasure gardens and the temple of the NĀGAs, called the KLU KHANG, on the palace grounds. He is remembered especially for his poetry, which addresses themes such as love and the difficulty of spiritual practice. Tibetans generally interpret his behavior as exhibiting an underlying tantric wisdom, a skillful means for teaching the dharma. His death is shrouded in mystery. Official accounts state that he died while under arrest by Mongol troops. According to a prominent secret biography (GSANG BA’I RNAM THAR), however, he lived many more years, traveling across Tibet in disguise. ¶ The seventh Dalai Lama, SKAL BZANG RGYA MTSHO, was officially recognized only at the age of twelve, and due to political complications, did not participate actively in affairs of state. He was renowned for his writings on tantra and his poetry. ¶ The eighth Dalai Lama, ’Jam dpal rgya mtsho (Jampal Gyatso, 1758–1804), built the famous NOR BU GLING KHA summer palace. ¶ The ninth through twelfth Dalai Lamas each lived relatively short lives, due, according to some accounts, to political intrigue and the machinations of power-hungry regents. According to tradition, from the death of one Dalai Lama to the investiture of the next Dalai Lama as head of state (generally a period of some twenty years), the nation was ruled by a regent, who was responsible for discovering the new Dalai Lama and overseeing his education. If the Dalai Lama died before reaching his majority, the reign of the regent was extended. ¶ The thirteenth Dalai Lama, THUB BSTAN RGYA MTSHO, was an astute and forward-looking political leader who guided Tibet through a period of relative independence during a time of foreign entanglements with Britain, China, and Russia. In his last testament, he is said to have predicted Tibet’s fall to Communist China. ¶ The fourteenth and present Dalai Lama, Bstan ’dzin rgya mtsho, assumed his position several years prior to reaching the age of majority as his country faced the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950. In 1959, he escaped into exile, establishing a government-in-exile in the Himalayan town of Dharamsala (DHARMAŚĀLĀ) in northwestern India. Since then, he has traveled and taught widely around the world, while also advocating a nonviolent solution to Tibet’s occupation. He was born in the A mdo region of what is now Qinghai province in China to a farming family, although his older brother had already been recognized as an incarnation at a nearby important Dge lugs monastery (SKU ’BUM). On his becoming formally accepted as Dalai Lama, his family became aristocrats and moved to Lha sa. He was educated traditionally by private tutors (yongs ’dzin), under the direction first of the regent Stag brag rin po che (in office 1941–1950), and later Gling rin po che Thub bstan lung rtogs rnam rgyal (1903–1983) and Khri byang rin po che Blo bzang ye shes (1901–1981). His modern education was informal, gained from conversations with travelers, such as the Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer. When the Chinese army entered the Khams region of eastern Tibet in 1951, he formally took over from the regent and was enthroned as the head of the DGA’ LDAN PHO BRANG government. In the face of Tibetan unrest as the Chinese government brought Tibet firmly under central control, the Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959; the Indian government accorded the Dalai Lama respect as a religious figure but did not accept his claim to be the head of a separate state. In 1989, the Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, an event that increased his prominence around the world. He is the author of many books in English, most of them the written record of lectures and traditional teachings translated from Tibetan.

ḍamaru. (T. ḍa ma ru). In Sanskrit, the name of an hourglass-shaped, two-sided hand drum, used in tantric liturgy. Two small strikers are attached to strings at the drum’s waist, making a rattling sound as they strike the alternate faces when the drum is rotated back and forth in the upraised right hand. This type of drum appears in pictograms from as early as the Indus Valley civilization and is commonly used by street performers in India. The Śaivite ḍamaru, slightly extended in the middle, is called cang te’u in Tibetan. The Buddhist ḍamaru comes in a number of sizes, from the small drum about four inches in diameter, up to the large drum used in GCOD (severance) practice, which is up to sixteen inches in diameter. The true KAPĀLA (skull) ḍamaru used by tāntrikas is fashioned from two human craniums facing outward and joined together by human bone; an ornate tail made of brocade with the five colors signifying the PAÑCATATHĀGATA is attached to the waist of the drum and hangs down when the drum is played. The large gcod rnga used in gcod practice is made of wood; it is shaken slowly and rhythmically while chanting, accompanied by intermittent blasts through a rkang gling (kangling), a trumpet-like instrument ideally fashioned from a human leg bone. See also DRUM.

dam can. (damchen). In Tibetan, “bound by oath”; a term for the pre-Buddhist Tibetan deities, also called ordinary or mundane (LAUKIKA) deities, who have been subjugated and made to take a solemn oath (SAMAYA) to protect Buddhism. According to traditional accounts, the Tibetan king KHRI SRONG SDE BTSAN encountered many hindrances during the construction of the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet at BSAM YAS. The Indian teacher ŚĀNTARAKṢITA advised the king to invite PADMASAMBHAVA to subdue the malevolent spirits; these spirits, referred to generally as the “eight classes of gods and demons” (lha srin sde brgyad; see AṢṬASENĀ), include the BRTAN MA BCU GNYIS, various local deities (yul lha) inhabiting mountain passes, plains, and peaks, and the spirits of powerful deceased persons (rgyal po). Illustrative is the account of the subjugation of the powerful rgyal po spirit RDO RJE GRAGS LDAN (in some accounts the emissary of a powerful spirit called PE HAR RGYAL PO), who becomes an important protector, particularly of the RNYING MA sect, and through the GNAS CHUNG oracle a protector of the Tibetan state.

Đàm Lựu. (曇榴) (1933–1999). A prominent Vietnamese nun, born on April 8, 1933, in Hà Đông province (in northern Vietnam). At the age of two, she visited Cự Đà Temple with her parents but refused to leave and so spent her childhood there. In 1948, she took novice precepts and was sent to study Buddhism at various temples in North Vietnam. In 1951, she received full ordination as a nun and, in 1952, followed her teacher to South Vietnam when he was appointed abbot of Dược Sư Temple in Gò Vấp. After completing her baccalaureate degree, she moved to Phước Hòa Temple in Saigon. In 1964, she earned a scholarship to study social work in West Germany. While in Freiburg, she divided her time between her studies and assisting Vietnamese orphans in Germany. After returning to South Vietnam in 1969, she was appointed director of Lumbini Orphanage in Saigon. In 1977, she escaped from Vietnam and, in 1979, settled in San José, California. In 1991, she founded Đức Viên Temple, which has subsequently served as a site for Buddhist practice and a center for many Vietnamese cultural activities. Until her death in 1999, Đàm Lựu oversaw the training of many young nuns and encouraged them to enroll in colleges and universities in North America, as well as in India and Taiwan. She also gave financial assistance to various Buddhist colleges in Vietnam.

Damoduoluo chan jing. (J. Darumatara zenkyō; K. Talmadara sŏn kyŏng 達摩多羅禪經). In Chinese, the “Dhyāna Sūtra of Dharmatrāta”; a scripture on meditation (DHYĀNA) attributed to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA teacher DHARMATRĀTA (c. fourth century CE) and translated into Chinese by BUDDHABHADRA in the early fifth century. Buddhabhadra arrived in the Chinese capital of Chang’an in 406 and briefly stayed at LUSHAN HUIYUAN’s (334–416) monastery on LUSHAN, where he translated the text at the latter’s request. The Damoduoluo chan jing describes the transmission of the oral teachings of the Buddha from master to disciple and details the various practices of meditation (GUAN) such as mindfulness of breathing (S. ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI; P. ānāpānasati) and meditation on the foul (AŚUBHABHĀVANĀ), as well as the categories of, SKANDHA, ĀYATANA, and DHĀTU. The text includes a listing of patriarchs of the tradition before and after Dharmatrāta, which begins with MAHĀKĀŚYAPA and ĀNANDA, continues through MADHYĀNTIKA, ŚĀṆAKAVĀSIN, UPAGUPTA, VASUMITRA, and Saṃgharakṣa, leading up to Dharmatrāta, who is then followed in turn by Puṇyamitra. This lineage seems to derive from the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school in the KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA region and suggests that the notion of a teaching geneaology as a central part of Buddhist religious identity has its start in the Indian tradition. Prefaces to the Damoduoluo chan jing by Lushan Huiyuan and Huiguan subsequently connect versions of this lineage to BODHIDHARMA, the putative founder of the CHAN school in East Asia, suggesting this text exerted some influence in the rise of transmission lineages within the early Chan tradition.

dāna. (T. sbyin pa; C. bushi; J. fuse; K. posi 布施). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “giving,” “generosity,” or “charity”; one of the most highly praised of virtues in Buddhism and the foundational practice of the Buddhist laity, presumably because of its value in weaning the layperson from attachment to material possessions while providing essential material support to the SAṂGHA. It is the chief cause of prosperity in future lives and rebirth as a divinity (DEVA) in one of the heavens of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU). There are numerous stories in the AVADĀNA and JĀTAKA literatures that illustrate the virtues of giving, the most famous being that of Prince Viśvaṃtara (P. VESSANTARA), whose generosity was so profound that he gave away not only all his worldly possessions but even his wife and children. In other stories, BODHISATTVAs often give away their body or parts of their body (see DEHADĀNA; SHESHEN). The immediate karmic result of the practice of giving is said to be wealth in the future, especially as a divinity in one of the heavens. Giving, especially to the SAṂGHA, is presumed to generate merit (PUṆYA) that will accrue to the benefit of the donor in both this and future lifetimes; indeed, giving is the first in a standard list of meritorious acts, along with morality (ŚĪLA) and religious development (BHĀVANĀ). In the “graduated discourse” (S. ANUPŪRVIKATHĀ; P. ANUPUBBIKATHĀ) that the Buddha commonly used in instructing the laity, the discourse on giving (dānakathā) was even more fundamental than the succeeding discourses on right conduct (śīlakathā) and the joys of rebirth in the heavens (svargakathā). Eight items are typically presumed to make appropriate offerings: food, water, clothing, vehicles, garlands, perfume, beds and dwellings, and lights. In yet another enumeration, there are three kinds of dāna: the “gift of material goods” (ĀMIṢADĀNA); the gift of fearlessness (ABHAYADĀNA), and the “gift of the dharma” (DHARMADĀNA). Of all gifts, however, the greatest was said to be the “gift of the dharma” (dharmadāna), viz., spiritual instruction that will lead not just to better rebirths but to liberation from SAṂSĀRA; it is this gift that the saṃgha offers reciprocally to the laity. In MAHĀYĀNA soteriology, giving is listed as the first of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) cultivated on the bodhisattva path (see DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ). According to the Pāli tradition, dāna is the first of ten perfections (P. pāramī). In some schools, a being who is incapable of even the modicum of detachment that is required to donate one’s possessions through charity is thought to have eradicated his wholesome spiritual faculties (SAMUCCHINNAKUŚALAMŪLA; see also ICCHANTIKA) and to have lost for an indeterminate period any prospect of enlightenment.

dānapāramitā. (P. dānapāramī; T. sbyin pa’i pha rol tu phyin pa; C. bushi boluomi; J. fuseharamitsu; K. posi paramil 布施波羅蜜). In Sanskrit, the “perfection of giving”; the first of the six [or ten] perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) cultivated on the BODHISATTVA path. According to the Pāli tradition, dāna is the first of ten perfections (P. PĀRAMĪ). Three kinds of DĀNA are often enumerated in this context: the “gift of material goods” (ĀMIṢADĀNA); the “gift of fearlessness” (ABHAYADĀNA) and the “gift of the dharma” (DHARMADĀNA). Giving (DĀNA) is perfected on the first of the ten stages (DAŚABHŪMI) of the bodhisattva path, PRAMUDITĀ (joyful), where the bodhisattva’s vision into the emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ) of all things motivates him to perfect the practice of giving, learning to give away those things most precious to him, including his wealth, his wife, and family, and even his very body (see DEHADĀNA; SHESHEN). Thanks to his understanding of emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ), the bodhisattva masters the perfection of giving by realizing there is no donor, no recipient, and no gift. It is with this insight that ordinary giving becomes perfected giving. The perfection of giving brings an end to the obstruction of the common illusions of the unenlightened (pṛthagjanatvāvaraṇa; C. yishengxing zhang), leading in turn to the awareness of universal suchness (sarvatragatathatā; C. bianxing zhenru). See DAŚABHŪMI, VESSANTARA.

dānapati. (T. sbyin pa’i bdag po/sbyin bdag; C. tanyue/shizhu; J. dan’otsu/seshu; K. tanwŏl/siju 檀越/施主). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. “master of giving,” viz., a “generous donor”; a “patron” of individual monks and nuns, or of the SAṂGHA as a whole. Being a willing dānapati is also one of the expectations of a wise ruler. Among the disciples of the Buddha, the most famous dānapati was ANĀTHAPIṆḌADA. In Tibet, the denotation of the term is extended to include those who commission prayers, rituals, and particularly public discourses by well-known teachers. For large public discourses there is a primary sbyin bdag (jindak), who at the start ritually offers to the teacher a small statue of the Buddha, a religious book, and a STŪPA (together called the maṇḍal rten gsum) representing the body, speech, and mind of the Buddha, while holding a white scarf (kha btags), along with a small gift. The primary sbyin bdag is the person who originally asked the teacher to give the discourse, and whose request was accepted; it is not necessarily the person who actually sponsored the event. At the end of the teaching, the primary sbyin bdag heads a line of all those who have contributed (also called sbyin bdag) who give gifts to the teacher. The Chinese use both the translation shizhu (lit. “master of giving”) and the transcription tanyue, which transcribes a Prakrit form of the Indic term.

danka seido. (檀家制度). In Japanese, “parish-household system”; danka (parish household) is synonymous with DANNA, and the more common form after the mid-Tokugawa period. See DANNA.

danna. (檀那). This Japanese term is originally a transcription of the Sanskrit term DĀNA, or “giving.” When referring to a patron of a monk, nun, or monastery, the term danna is used with reference to a “donor” (J. dan’otsu, dan’ochi, dannotsu; S. DĀNAPATI) or “parish temple” (DANKA). During the Tokugawa period (1603–1868), the Japanese shogunate required every family to register at and support a local temple, called the DANNADERA, which in turned entitled that family to receive funerary services from the local priest. The dannadera, also called the BODAIJI and dankadera, thus served as a means of monitoring the populace and preventing the spread in Japan of subversive religions, such as Christianity and the banned Nichiren–Fuju–Fuse sect of the NICHIREN school. By requiring each Japanese family to be registered at a specific local temple and obligating them to provide for that temple’s economic support and to participate in its religious rituals, all Japanese thus became Buddhist in affiliation for the first time in Japanese history.

dannadera. (J) (檀那寺). In Japanese, “parish temple”; a Japanese Buddhist institutional system that reached its apex in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. See DANNA.

dao. (J. dō; K. to 道). In Chinese, Lit. “way” or “path”; a polysemous term in Chinese, which in Buddhist texts is used variously as the translation for terms related to “path” (MĀRGA) and “awakening” (BODHI); thus, “cultivating the way” (xiudao) means “practicing Buddhism” and “entering the way” (rudao) comes to be used as the equivalency in Chinese Buddhist texts for the idea of attaining enlightenment. But dao also has numerous other usages, including as a translation for the DHARMA as teachings (dao or daofa), the dharmas as factors (e.g., daopin for the BODHIPĀKṢIKADHARMA), and the realms of rebirth (e.g., edao as one of the translations of unfortunate destinies, viz., DURGATI or APĀYA). In the premodern period, dao is also one of the closer Chinese equivalents for what in the West would simply be called “religion,” so that the compound DAOREN (“person of the way”) refers more generally to an accomplished adherent of a religion; in DAOSU, the term refers generically to a “religious” (dao) or renunciant, especially in distinction to a layperson (su), etc. The term is still often seen transcribed in English as tao or Tao, using the older Wade–Giles transcription. In East Asian Buddhist texts, dao only rarely refers to the religious tradition of Daoism/Taoism.

Dao’an. (J. Dōan; K. Toan 道安) (312–385). In Chinese, “Peace of the Way”; monk-exegete and pioneer of Buddhism during the Eastern Jin dynasty. A native of Fuliu in present-day Hebei province, at the age of eleven he became a student of the famous Kuchean monk and thaumaturge FOTUDENG. Fleeing from the invasions of the so-called northern barbarians, Dao’an and his teacher relocated frequently, with Dao’an finally settling down in the prosperous city of Xiangyang in Hubei province, where he taught for fifteen years. Learning of Dao’an’s great reputation, the Former Qin ruler Fu Jian (338–385) amassed an army and captured Xiangyang. After the fall of Xiangyang, Fu Jian invited Dao’an to the capital of Chang’an and honored him as his personal teacher. Dao’an later urged Fu Jian to invite the eminent Central Asian monk KUMĀRAJĪVA to China. In order to determine the authenticity and provenance of the various scriptural translations then being made in China, Dao’an compiled an influential catalogue of scriptures known as the ZONGLI ZHONGJING MULU, which was partially preserved in the CHU SANZANG JIJI. He also composed various prefaces and commentaries, and his exegetical technique of dividing a scripture into three sections (SANFEN KEJING)—“preface” (xufen), “text proper” (zhengzongfen), and “dissemination section” (liutongfen)—is still widely used even today in East Asian scriptural exegesis. In Dao’an’s day, the Indian VINAYA recensions had not yet been translated into Chinese, so Dao’an took it upon himself to codify an early set of indigenous monastic regulations known as the Sengni guifan fofa xianzhang (no longer extant) as a guide for Chinese monastic practice. Also traced to Dao’an is the custom of monks and nuns abandoning their secular surnames for the surname SHI (a transcription of the Buddha’s clan name ŚĀKYA; J. Shaku; K. Sŏk; V. Thích), as a mark of their religious ties to the Buddha’s lineage. Among his many disciples, LUSHAN HUIYUAN is most famous.

daochang. (J. dōjō; K. toryang 道場). In Chinese, literally “place of the way”; daochang is the Chinese translation for the Sanskrit technical term BODHIMAṆḌA, the “seat of enlightenment” or “platform of enlightenment,” viz., the place under the BODHI TREE where the Buddha sat when he achieved enlightenment. The term is now used more generally by various religious and secular groups to refer to a place of worship, practice, and training. In Korean monasteries, the toryang typically refers to the large open courtyard in front of the main shrine hall (TAEUNG CHŎN).

Daochuo. (J. Dōshaku; K. Tojak 道綽) (562–645). Chinese monk and putative second patriarch of the JINGTU (pure land) tradition; also known as Chan Master Xihe (West River). Daochuo was a native of Bingzhou in present-day Shanxi province. He left home at an early age and studied the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA. According to legend, in 609, Daochuo is said to have been inspired by TANLUAN’s epitaph to continue the latter’s efforts to further PURE LAND thought and practice. Daochuo is then said to have devoted himself to the practice of NIANFO, the invocation of the name of the buddha AMITĀBHA, and the daily recitation of the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA. Daochuo is perhaps more famous than even Tanluan for advocating the practice of recitation of the Buddha’s name (NIANFO) over all other practices. He is also known for using small beans (xiaodou) to keep count of the number of recitations; some believe his habit of using counting beans is the origin of rosaries (JAPAMĀLĀ) in China. The influential pure land treatise ANLE JI is attributed to Daochuo.

daofeng. (J. tōfū; K. top’ung 刀風). In Chinese, lit. “knife wind”; an allegory for the disintegrating forces that cause the dissolution of the world at the end of an eon according to Buddhist cosmology (see KALPA), or the end of a person’s physical life (when the “primary elements,” the MAHĀBHŪTA, from which the body is believed to be composed, disintegrate).

Đạo Hạnh. (道行) (died 1117). Vietnamese monk, popularly known as Từ Đạo Hạnh; CHAN master and thaumaturge, whose miraculous exploits have captured the imagination of Vietnamese Buddhists for centuries. His personal name was Từ Lộ. The Thiền Uyển Tập Anh relates that as a young man he was a free spirit who harbored great aspirations. He befriended people of various social backgrounds and was a serious student, passing the royal examination for tăng quan (monk officers). After his father was killed by a sorcerer, Đạo Hạnh went to Mount Từ Sơn to live in seclusion and devoted himself to chanting the “Great Compassion” DHĀRAṆĪ (see DABEI ZHOU) daily. After chanting it 108,000 times, he gained magical powers and avenged his father’s death. He later began to wander to various Buddhist monasteries in search of enlightenment; eventually, under the guidance of Sùng Phạm (1004–1087), he gained realization. He is said to have tamed mountain snakes and wild beasts, burned his finger to pray for rain, and blessed water with mantras to cure disease. It is believed that Đạo Hạnh used his magical powers to reincarnate himself as the son of King Lý Nhân Tông (r. 1072–1127) and was eventually enthroned as King Lý Thần Tông (r. 1128–1138). In northern Vietnam, the story of Đạo Hạnh is still reenacted during festivals.

Daojiao yishu. (J. Dōkyō gisū; K. Togyo ŭich’u 道教義樞). In Chinese, “The Pivotal Meaning of the Teachings of the DAO”; a text attributed to the Daoist priest Meng Anpai (d.u.); an encyclopedic work that provides a detailed explanation of thirty-seven matters of Daoist doctrine, five of which are now lost. Among the thirty-seven concepts explained in the text, there are concepts borrowed directly from Buddhism, such as the dharma body (DHARMAKĀYA), three jewels (RATNATRAYA), three vehicles (TRIYĀNA), three realms of existence (TRILOKA [DHĀTU]), knowledge of external objects, and the PURE LAND of SUKHĀVATĪ. The text also employs Buddhist terms, concepts, and classificatory systems throughout. The greatest Buddhist influence on this text came from the SAN LUN ZONG and especially from the teachings of the Sanlun master JIZANG. The Daojiao yishu was, in fact, written to demonstrate the sophistication of Daoist thought in response to Buddhist criticisms during the Tang dynasty. This text influenced the compilation of many later Daoist works, such as the Yunji qiqian.

daoren. (J. dōnin; K. toin 道人). In Chinese, lit. “person of the way”; a “religious adherent” or “a religious.” The term is used by many different religious and secular groups in China to refer generally to any person who has perfected a path of cultivation and training or attained a special skill or knowledge. Among Buddhists, the term has also come to refer more generally to anyone who has made some progress in following the Buddha’s path (dao; S. MĀRGA) to enlightenment. In East Asian Buddhist texts, the term daoren only rarely refers to a “Daoist adherent”; most commonly it refers to a Buddhist adherent or generically to any “religious.”

Daosheng. (J. Dōshō; K. Tosaeng 道生) (355–434). Influential Chinese monk during the Eastern Jin dynasty and renowned scholar of the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA; also known as ZHU DAOSHENG. Daosheng was a native of Julu in present-day Hebei province. He became a student of the monk Zhu Fatai (320–387), changing his surname to Zhu in his honor. Daosheng received the full monastic precepts in his nineteenth year and took up residence at the monastery of Longguangsi in Jianye. Later, he moved to LUSHAN, where he studied under the eminent monk LUSHAN HUIYUAN. Daosheng also continued his studies under the famed translator and MADHYAMAKA scholar KUMĀRAJĪVA, and was later praised as one of Kumārajīva’s four great disciples. In 409, Daosheng returned to Jianye and made the controversial claim that even incorrigibles (ICCHANTIKA) may eventually attain enlightenment and that buddhahood is attained in an instant of awakening (DUNWU). For these claims, Daosheng was harshly criticized by the community of scholars in Jianye, which prompted Daosheng to return to Lushan once more. His interpretations were eventually corroborated in subsequent Chinese translations of the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA and become emblematic of many important strands of indigenous Chinese Buddhism. Daosheng’s teachings are quoted in many of his contemporaries’ works and Daosheng himself is known to have composed numerous treatises and commentaries, including the Foxing dangyou lun (“Buddha Nature Perforce Exists”), Fashen wuse lun (“DHARMAKĀYA Lacks Form”), Fo wu jingtu lun (“The Buddha has no Pure Land”), and Fahua jing yishu (a commentary on the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA).

daosu. (道俗). In Chinese, “the religious and the laity.” See DAO; DAOREN.

daotong. (J. dōtsū; K. tot’ong 道通). In Chinese, lit. “penetrate the way”; a term used by many different Chinese religious and secular groups to refer generally to the act of “penetrating,” attaining, accomplishing, or completing a path of cultivation and training. Daotong can also refer to the state of perfection achieved through such practice.

daotu. (J. tōzu; K. todo 刀塗). In Chinese, lit. “destiny of knives,” viz., “butchery”; a descriptive term to refer to the realm of animals (TIRYAK). This rebirth destiny (GATI) is typically depicted in Buddhist cosmology as highly undesirable, one of the reasons being that many animals inevitably suffer the fate of being butchered to feed others. The Sanskrit tiryaggati literally means the destiny of those who go horizontally, i.e., on all four legs, rather than standing up straight.

Daoxin. (J. Dōshin; K. Tosin 道信) (580–651). Chan monk and reputed fourth patriarch of the CHAN tradition. Although Daoxin’s birthplace is not certain, some sources say he was a native of Qizhou in present-day Hubei province, while others mention Henei in Henan province. Little is known of his early training, but early Chan sources such as the LENGQIE SHIZI JI and CHUAN FABAO JI claim that Daoxin studied under SENGCAN, the putative third patriarch of Chan and supposed successor to BODHIDHARMA and HUIKE, his connection to this dubious figure is tenuous at best, however, and is probably a retrospective creation. The earliest biography of Daoxin, recorded in the XU GAOSENG ZHUAN (“Supplementary Biographies of Eminent Monks”), not only does not posit any connection of Daoxin to the preceding three patriarchs but does not even mention their names. The Chuan fabao ji states that Daoxin was fully ordained in 607, after his purported period of study under Sengcan. Daoxin is subsequently known to have resided at the monastery of Dalinsi on LUSHAN in Jiangxi province for ten years. At the invitation of the inhabitants of his native Qizhou, Daoxin moved again to Mt. Shuangfeng in Huangmei (perhaps in 624), where he remained in seclusion for about thirty years. He is therefore sometimes known as Shuangfeng Daoxin. During his residence at Mt. Shuangfeng, Daoxin is claimed to have attracted more than five hundred students, among whom HONGREN, the fifth patriarch of Chan, is most famous. The lineage and teachings attributed to Daoxin and Hongren are typically called the East Mountain Teachings (DONGSHAN FAMEN) after the easterly peak of Mt. Shuangfeng, where Hongren dwelled. Daoxin was given the posthumous title Chan Master Dayi (Great Physician) by Emperor Daizong (r. 762–779) of the Tang dynasty. According to the Lengqie shizi ji, Daoxin composed the Pusajie zuofa (“Method of Conferring the BODHISATTVA Precepts”), which is no longer extant, and the Rudao anxin yaofangbian famen (“Essentials of the Teachings of the Expedient Means of Entering the Path and Pacifying the Mind”), which is embedded in the Lengqie shizi ji. This latter text employs the analogy of a mirror from the Banzhou sanmei jing (S. PRATYUTPANNABUDDHASAṂMUKHĀVASTHITASAMĀDHISŪTRA) to illustrate the insubstantiality of all phenomena, viz., one’s sensory experiences are no more substantial than the reflections in a mirror. The text then presents the “single-practice SAMĀDHI” (YIXING SANMEI) as a practical means of accessing the path leading to NIRVĀṆA, based on the Wenshushuo bore jing (“Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra Spoken by Manjuśrī”). Single-practice samādhi here refers to sitting in meditation, the supreme practice that subsumes all other practices. In single-practice samādhi, the meditator contemplates every single aspect of one’s mental and physical existence until one realizes they are all empty, and “guards that one without deviation” (shouyi buyi).

Daoxuan. (J. Dōsen; K. Tosŏn 道宣) (596–667). Chinese VINAYA master and reputed patriarch of the Nanshan vinaya school (NANSHAN LÜ ZONG); also known as Fabian. Daoxuan was a native of Wuxing in present-day Zhejiang province (or, according to another report, Runzhou in Jiangsu province). Daoxuan became a monk at age fifteen and studied monastic discipline under the vinaya master Zhishou. He later moved to ZHONGNANSHAN and established the monastery of Nanquansi. Daoxuan was also a prolific writer. In 626, he composed the Sifen lü shanfan buque xingshi chao, one of the most influential commentaries on the SIFEN LÜ (“Four-Part Vinaya”) of the DHARMAGUPTAKA school. The next year, he composed the Sifen lü shi pini yichao and the XU GAOSENG ZHUAN, Shijia fangzhi, JI GUJIN FODAO LUNHENG, and other texts in the following years. When the monastery XIMINGSI was established in 658 by Emperor Gaozong (r. 649–683) in the Tang capital of Chang’an, Daoxuan was invited to serve as its abbot. In 664, while at Ximingsi, Daoxuan compiled a comprehensive catalogue of scriptures known as the DA TANG NEIDIAN LU and, in continuation of his earlier Ji gujin fodao lunheng, wrote a collection of essays in defense of Buddhism entitled the GUANG HONGMING JI.

Daozhe Chaoyuan. (J. Dōsha Chōgen; K. Toja Ch’owŏn 道者超元) (1630–1698). Chinese CHAN and ZEN master in the LINJI lineage. Daozhe was a native of Xinghua prefecture in present-day Fujian province. He became a student of Gengxin Xingmi (1603–1659), a direct disciple of the Chan master FEIYIN TONGRONG and, after inheriting Gengxin’s lineage, became a dharma cousin of the renowned Chan master YINYUAN LONGQI. In 1651, Daozhe traveled to Nagasaki, Japan, where he served as abbot of the monastery Sōfukuji for the next five years. During his stay in Japan, a number of important Buddhist figures visited him for instruction, including the monks Dokuan Genkō (1630–1698), Kengan Zen’etsu (1618–1690), EGOKU DŌMYŌ, Chōon Dōkai (1628–1695), and BANKEI YŌTAKU. Unlike his compatriot Yinyuan, who continued to reside in Japan, Daozhe returned to China in 1658 and died shortly thereafter. Daozhe played an important role in preparing the ground for Yinyuan’s later establishment of the ŌBAKUSHŪ in Japan.

Dari jing shu. (J. Dainichikyōsho; K. Taeil kyŏng so 大日經疏). In Chinese, “Commentary on the MAHĀVAIROCANASŪTRA”; dictated by ŚUBHAKARASIṂHA and committed to writing with additional notes by his disciple YIXING. After Yixing’s death, the Dari jing shu was further edited and expanded by the monks Zhiyan (d.u.) and Wengu (d.u.), and this new edition is known as the DARI JING YISHI. Both editions were transmitted to Japan (the Dari jing shu by KŪKAI, Dari jing yishi by ENNIN) and they seem to have circulated without a determinate number of volumes or fixed title. SAICHŌ, for example, cites a fourteen-roll edition of the Dari jing shu, and Kūkai cites a twenty-roll edition; Ennin cites a fourteen-roll edition of the Dari jing yishi, and ENCHIN cites a ten-roll edition. Those belonging to the Tōmitsu line of Kūkai’s SHINGON tradition thus began to exclusively paraphrase the twenty-roll edition of the Dari jing shu, while those of the Taimitsu line of the TENDAI tradition relied solely on the version Ennin had brought back from China. The exact relation between the two editions remains a matter for further study. The first two rolls of the Dari jing shu, known more popularly in Japan as the “Kuchi no sho,” provide notes and comments on the first chapter of the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA and serve as an important source for the study of the Mahāvairocanasūtra’s central doctrines. Numerous studies and commentaries on the Kuchi no sho exist. The rest of Yixing’s commentary, known as the “Oku no sho,” is largely concerned with matters of ritual and art (see MAṆḌALA). Further explanations of the Oku no sho were primarily transmitted from master to disciple as an oral tradition in Japan; twelve such oral traditions are known to exist. The Dari jing shu played an important role in the rise of esoteric Buddhism (see TANTRA) in East Asia, and particularly in Japan.

Dari jing yishi. (J. Dainichikyō gishaku; K. Taeil kyŏng ŭisŏk 大日經義釋). In Chinese, “Interpretation of the Meaning of the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA.” The monks Zhiyan (d.u.) and Wengu (d.u.) further edited and expanded upon the famous commentary on the Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhisūtra, the DARI JING SHU. The Dari jing shu was dictated by ŚUBHAKARASIṂHA and written down by his disciple YIXING, with further notes. Both texts were transmitted to Japan (the Dari jing shu by KŪKAI and Dari jing yishi by ENNIN); monks connected with the Taimitsu strand of the TENDAI tradition exclusively relied on the Dari jing yishi that Ennin had brought back from China. The eminent Japanese monk ENCHIN paid much attention to the Dari jing yishi and composed a catalogue for the text known as Dainichigyō gishaku mokuroku, wherein he details the provenance of the text and the circumstances of its arrival in Japan. Enchin also discusses three different points on which the Dari jing yishi was superior to the Dari jing shu. These points were further elaborated in his other commentaries on the Dari jing yishi. Few others besides Enchin have written commentaries on this text. In China, the Liao dynasty monk Jueyuan (d.u.) composed a commentary entitled the Dari jing yishi yanmi chao.

Dar ma mdo sde. (Darma Dode, eleventh century). Chief son of the renowned Tibetan translator MAR PA CHOS KYI BLO GROS. According to Mar pa’s traditional biographies, he originally intended to make Dar ma mdo sde the principal heir to his most important teachings, especially the practice of transferring consciousness into—and thereby reanimating—a corpse (GRONG ’JUG). The son, however, died as a youth in an equestrian accident. As he was about to die, Mar pa gave him the instructions, and Dar ma mdo sde transferred his consciousness into the corpse of a nearby pigeon, who then flew to India, where he again transferred his consciousness into the corpse of a young brāhmaṇa child. The revived brāhmaṇa grew up to become a tantric adept named TI PHU PA (“Pigeon Man”) and became an important link in the transmission of the nine aural lineage cycles of the formless ḍākinīs (LUS MED MKHA’ ’GRO SNYAN RGYUD CHOS SKOR DGU) for the BKA’ BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism. According to some traditions, the translator RWA LO TSĀ BA RDO RJE GRAGS PA used black magic to cause Dar ma mdo sde’s fatal accident.

darśana. (P. dassana; T. mthong ba; C. jian; J. ken; K. kyŏn 見). In Sanskrit, lit. “seeing,” viz., “vision,” “insight,” or “understanding.” In a purely physical sense, darśana refers most basically to visual perception that occurs through the ocular sense organ. However, Buddhism also accepts a full range of sensory and extrasensory perceptions, such as those associated with meditative development (see YOGIPRATYAKṢA), that also involve “vision,” in the sense of directly perceiving a reality hidden from ordinary sight. Darśana may thus refer to the seeing that occurs through any of the five types of “eyes” (CAKṢUS) mentioned in Buddhist literature, viz., (1) the physical eye (MĀṂSACAKṢUS), the sense base (ĀYATANA) associated with visual consciousness; (2) the divine eye (DIVYACAKṢUS), the vision associated with the spiritual power (ABHIJÑĀ) of clairvoyance; (3) the wisdom eye (PRAJÑĀCAKṢUS), which is the insight that derives from cultivating mainstream Buddhist practices; (4) the dharma eye (DHARMACAKṢUS), which is exclusive to the BODHISATTVAs; and (5) the buddha eye (BUDDHACAKṢUS), which subsumes all the other four. When used in its denotation of “insight,” darśana often appears in the compound “knowledge and vision” (JÑĀNADARŚANA), viz., the direct insight that accords with reality (YATHĀBHŪTA) of the three marks of existence (TRILAKṢAṆA)—impermanence (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself/insubstantiality (ANĀTMAN)—and one of the qualities perfected on the path leading to the state of “worthy one” (ARHAT). Darśana is usually considered to involve awakening (BODHI) to the truth, liberation (VIMUKTI) from bondage, and purification (VIŚUDDHI) of all afflictions (KLEŚA). The perfection of knowledge and vision (jñānadarśanapāramitā) is also said to be an alternate name for the perfection of wisdom (PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ), one of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) of the bodhisattva path. In the fivefold structure of the Buddhist path, the DARŚANAMĀRGA constitutes the third path. The related term “view” (DṚṢṬI), which derives from the same Sanskrit root √dṛś (“to see”), is sometimes employed similarly to darśana, although it also commonly conveys the more pejorative meanings of dogma, heresy, or extreme or wrong views regarding the self and the world, often as propounded by non-Buddhist philosophical schools. Darśana is also sometimes used within the Indian tradition to indicate a philosophical or religious system, a usage still current today.

darśanamārga. (T. mthong lam; C. jiandao; J. kendō; K. kyŏndo 見道). In Sanskrit, “path of vision”; the third of the five paths (PAÑCAMĀRGA) to liberation and enlightenment, whether as an ARHAT or as a buddha. It follows the second path, the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA) and precedes the fourth path, the path of meditation or cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA). This path marks the adept’s first direct perception of reality, without the intercession of concepts, and brings an end to the first three of the ten fetters (SAṂYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth: (1) belief in the existence of a self in relation to the body (SATKĀYADṚṢṬI), (2) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (ŚĪLAVRATAPARĀMARŚA) as a means of salvation, and (3) doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSĀ). Because this vision renders one a noble person (ĀRYA), the path of vision marks the inception of the “noble path” (āryamārga). According to the Sarvāstivāda soteriological system, the darśanamārga occurs over the course of fifteen moments of realization of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, with the sixteenth moment marking the beginning of the BHĀVANĀMĀRGA. There are four moments of realization for each of the four truths. The first moment is that of doctrinal acquiescence (DHARMAKṢĀNTI) with regard to the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU). In that moment, the afflictions (KLEŚA) of the sensuous realm associated with the truth of suffering are abandoned. This is followed by a moment of doctrinal knowledge (DHARMAJÑĀNA) of the truth of suffering with regard to the sensuous realm, which is the state of understanding that the afflictions of that level have been abandoned. Next comes a moment of realization called subsequent acquiescence (anvayakṣānti), in which the afflictions associated with the truth of suffering in the two upper realms, the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU) and the immaterial realm (ĀRŪPYADHĀTU) are abandoned; there is finally a moment of subsequent knowledge (anvayajñāna) of the truth of suffering with regard to the two upper realms. This sequence of four moments—doctrinal acquiescence and doctrinal knowledge (which are concerned with the sensuous realm) and subsequent acquiescence and subsequent knowledge (which are concerned with the two upper realms)—is repeated for the remaining truths of origin, cessation, and path. In each case, the moments of realization called acquiescence are the time when the afflictions are actually abandoned; they are called uninterrupted paths (ANANTARYAMĀRGA) because they cannot be interrupted or impeded in severing the hold of the afflictions. The eight moments of knowledge are the state of having realized that the afflictions of the particular level have been abandoned. They are called paths of liberation (VIMUKTIMĀRGA). An uninterrupted path, followed by a path of liberation, are likened to throwing out a thief and locking the door behind him. The sixteenth moment in the sequence—the subsequent knowledge of the truth of the path with regard to the upper realms—constitutes the first moment of the next path, the bhāvanāmārga. For a BODHISATTVA, the attainment of the path of vision coincides with the inception of the first BODHISATTVABHŪMI (see also DAŚABHŪMI). The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA explains that the bodhisattva’s path of vision is also a direct perception of reality and is focused on the four noble truths; unlike the mainstream account, however, all three realms are considered simultaneously, and the sixteenth moment is not the first instant of the path of cultivation (bhāvanāmārga). The YOGĀCĀRA system is based on their doctrine of the falsehood of the subject/object bifurcation. The first eight instants describe the elimination of fetters based on false conceptualization (VIKALPA) of objects, and the last eight the elimination of fetters based on the false conceptualization of a subject; thus the actual path of vision is a direct realization of the emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ) of all dharmas (sarvadharmaśūnyatā). This view of the darśanamārga as the first direct perception (PRATYAKṢA) of emptiness is also found in the MADHYAMAKA school, according to which the bodhisattva begins to abandon the afflictive obstructions (KLEŚĀVARAṆA) upon attaining the darśanamārga. See also DHARMAKṢĀNTI; JIEWU; DUNWU JIANXIU.

Darumashū. (達摩宗). In Japanese, the “BODHIDHARMA sect”; one of the earliest Japanese Buddhist ZEN sects, established in the tenth century by DAINICHI NŌNIN; the sect takes its name from the putative founder of the CHAN tradition, Bodhidharma. Little was known about the teachings of the Darumashū until the late-twentieth century apart from criticisms found in the writings of its contemporary rivals, who considered the school to be heretical. Criticisms focused on issues of the authenticity of Nōnin’s lineage and antinomian tendencies in Nōnin’s teachings. A recently discovered Darumashū treatise, the Jōto shōgakuron (“Treatise on the Attainment of Complete, Perfect Enlightenment”), discusses the prototypical Chan statement “mind is the buddha,” demonstrating that a whole range of benefits, both worldly and religious, would accrue to an adept who simply awakens to that truth. As a critique of the Darumashū by Nōnin’s rival MYŌAN EISAI states, however, since the school posits that the mind is already enlightened and the afflictions (KLEŚA) do not exist in reality, its adherents claimed that there were therefore no precepts that had to be kept or practices to be followed, for religious cultivation would only serve to hinder the experience of awakening. The Darumashū also emphasized the importance of the transmission of the patriarchs’ relics (J. shari; S. ŚARĪRA) as a mark of legitimacy. Although the Darumashū was influential enough while Nōnin was alive to prompt other sects to call for its suppression, it did not survive its founder’s death, and most of Nōnin’s leading disciples affiliated themselves with other prominent teachers, such as DŌGEN KIGEN. These Darumashū adherents had a significant influence on early SŌTŌSHŪ doctrine and self-identity and seem to have constituted the majority of the Sōtōshū tradition into its third generation of successors. ¶ Darumashū, as the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese term Damo zong (Bodhidharma lineage), can also refer more generally to the CHAN/SŎN/ZEN school, which traces its heritage back to the founder and first Chinese patriarch, Bodhidharma.

daśabhūmi. (T. sa bcu; C. shidi; J. jūji; K. sipchi 十地). In Sanskrit, lit., “ten grounds,” “ten stages”; the ten highest reaches of the bodhisattva path (MĀRGA) leading to buddhahood. The most systematic and methodical presentation of the ten BHŪMIs appears in the DAŚABHŪMIKASŪTRA (“Ten Bhūmis Sūtra”), where each of the ten stages is correlated with seminal doctrines of mainstream Buddhism—such as the four means of conversion (SAṂGRAHAVASTU) on the first four bhūmis, the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (CATVĀRY ĀRYASATYĀNI) on the fifth bhūmi, and the chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) on the sixth bhūmi, etc.—as well as with mastery of one of a list of ten perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) completed in the course of training as a bodhisattva. The list of the ten bhūmis of the Daśabhūmikasūtra, which becomes standard in most Mahāyāna traditions, is as follows: (1) PRAMUDITĀ (joyful) corresponds to the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA) and the bodhisattva’s first direct realization of emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ). The bodhisattva masters on this bhūmi the perfection of giving (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ), learning to give away those things most precious to him, including his wealth, his wife and family, and even his body (see DEHADĀNA); (2) VIMALĀ (immaculate, stainless) marks the inception of the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA), where the bodhisattva develops all the superlative traits of character incumbent on a buddha through mastering the perfection of morality (ŚĪLAPĀRAMITĀ); (3) PRABHĀKARĪ (luminous, splendrous), where the bodhisattva masters all the various types of meditative experiences, such as DHYĀNA, SAMĀPATTI, and the BRAHMAVIHĀRA; despite the emphasis on meditation in this bhūmi, it comes to be identified instead with the perfection of patience (KṢĀNTIPĀRAMITĀ), ostensibly because the bodhisattva is willing to endure any and all suffering in order to master his practices; (4) ARCIṢMATĪ (radiance, effulgence), where the flaming radiance of the thirty-seven factors pertaining to enlightenment (BODHIPĀKṢIKADHARMA) becomes so intense that it incinerates obstructions (ĀVARAṆA) and afflictions (KLEŚA), giving the bodhisattva inexhaustible energy in his quest for enlightenment and thus mastering the perfection of vigor or energy (VĪRYAPĀRAMITĀ); (5) SUDURJAYĀ (invincibility, hard-to-conquer), where the bodhisattva comprehends the various permutations of truth (SATYA), including the four noble truths, the two truths (SATYADVAYA) of provisional (NEYĀRTHA) and absolute (NĪTĀRTHA), and masters the perfection of meditative absorption (DHYĀNAPĀRAMITĀ); (6) ABHIMUKHĪ (immediacy, face-to-face), where, as the name implies, the bodhisattva stands at the intersection between SAṂSĀRA and NIRVĀṆA, turning away from the compounded dharmas of saṃsāra and turning to face the profound wisdom of the buddhas, thus placing him “face-to-face” with both the compounded (SAṂSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAṂSKṚTA) realms; this bhūmi is correlated with mastery of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ); (7) DŪRAṄGAMĀ (far-reaching, transcendent), which marks the bodhisattva’s freedom from the four perverted views (VIPARYĀSA) and his mastery of the perfection of expedients (UPĀYAPĀRAMITĀ), which he uses to help infinite numbers of sentient beings; (8) ACALĀ (immovable, steadfast), which is marked by the bodhisattva’s acquiescence or receptivity to the nonproduction of dharmas (ANUTPATTIKADHARMAKṢĀNTI); because he is now able to project transformation bodies (NIRMĀṆAKĀYA) anywhere in the universe to help sentient beings, this bhūmi is correlated with mastery of the perfection of aspiration or resolve (PRAṆIDHĀNAPĀRAMITĀ); (9) SĀDHUMATĪ (eminence, auspicious intellect), where the bodhisattva acquires the four analytical knowledges (PRATISAṂVID), removing any remaining delusions regarding the use of the supernatural knowledges or powers (ABHIJÑĀ), and giving the bodhisattva complete autonomy in manipulating all dharmas through the perfection of power (BALAPĀRAMITĀ); and (10) DHARMAMEGHĀ (cloud of dharma), the final bhūmi, where the bodhisattva becomes autonomous in interacting with all material and mental factors, and gains all-pervasive knowledge that is like a cloud producing a rain of dharma that nurtures the entire world; this stage is also described as being pervaded by meditative absorption (DHYĀNA) and mastery of the use of codes (DHĀRAṆĪ), just as the sky is filled by clouds; here the bodhisattva achieves the perfection of knowledge (JÑĀNAPĀRAMITĀ). As the bodhisattva ascends through the ten bhūmis, he acquires extraordinary powers, which CANDRAKĪRTI describes in the eleventh chapter of his MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA. On the first bhūmi, the bodhisattva can, in a single instant (1) see one hundred buddhas, (2) be blessed by one hundred buddhas and understand their blessings, (3) live for one hundred eons, (4) see the past and future in those one hundred eons, (5) enter into and rise from one hundred SAMĀDHIs, (6) vibrate one hundred worlds, (7) illuminate one hundred worlds, (8) bring one hundred beings to spiritual maturity using emanations, (9) go to one hundred BUDDHAKṢETRA, (10), open one hundred doors of the doctrine (DHARMAPARYĀYA), (11) display one hundred versions of his body, and (12) surround each of those bodies with one hundred bodhisattvas. The number one hundred increases exponentially as the bodhisattva proceeds; on the second bhūmi it becomes one thousand, on the third one hundred thousand, and so on; on the tenth, it is a number equal to the particles of an inexpressible number of buddhakṣetra. As the bodhisattva moves from stage to stage, he is reborn as the king of greater and greater realms, ascending through the Buddhist cosmos. Thus, on the first bhūmi he is born as king of JAMBUDVĪPA, on the second of the four continents, on the third as the king of TRĀYATRIṂŚA, and so on, such that on the tenth he is born as the lord of AKANIṢṬHA. ¶ According to the rather more elaborate account in chapter eleven of the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi), each of the ten bhūmis is correlated with the attainment of one of the ten types of suchness (TATHATĀ); these are accomplished by discarding one of the ten kinds of obstructions (āvaraṇa) by mastering one of the ten perfections (pāramitā). The suchnesses achieved on each of the ten bhūmis are, respectively: (1) universal suchness (sarvatragatathatā; C. bianxing zhenru), (2) supreme suchness (paramatathatā; C. zuisheng zhenru), (3) ubiquitous, or “supreme outflow” suchness (paramaniṣyandatathatā; C. shengliu zhenru), (4) unappropriated suchness (aparigrahatathatā; C. wusheshou zhenru), (5) undifferentiated suchness (abhinnajātīyatathatā; C. wubie zhenru), (6) the suchness that is devoid of maculations and contaminants (asaṃkliṣṭāvyavadātatathatā; C. wuranjing zhenru), (7) the suchness of the undifferentiated dharma (abhinnatathatā; C. fawubie zhenru), (8) the suchness that neither increases nor decreases (anupacayāpacayatathatā; C. buzengjian), (9) the suchness that serves as the support of the mastery of wisdom (jñānavaśitāsaṃniśrayatathatā; C. zhizizai suoyi zhenru), and (10) the suchness that serves as the support for mastery over actions (kriyādivaśitāsaṃniśrayatathatā; C. yezizai dengsuoyi). These ten suchnessses are obtained by discarding, respectively: (1) the obstruction of the common illusions of the unenlightened (pṛthagjanatvāvaraṇa; C. yishengxing zhang), (2) the obstruction of the deluded (mithyāpratipattyāvaraṇa; C. xiexing zhang), (3) the obstruction of dullness (dhandhatvāvaraṇa; C. andun zhang), (4) the obstruction of the manifestation of subtle afflictions (sūkṣmakleśasamudācārāvaraṇa; C. xihuo xianxing zhang), (5) the obstruction of the lesser HĪNAYĀNA ideal of parinirvāṇa (hīnayānaparinirvāṇāvaraṇa; C. xiasheng niepan zhang), (6) the obstruction of the manifestation of coarse characteristics (sthūlanimittasamudācārāvaraṇa; C. cuxiang xianxing zhang), (7) the obstruction of the manifestation of subtle characteristics (sūkṣmanimittasamudācārāvaraṇa; C. xixiang xianxing zhang), (8) the obstruction of the continuance of activity even in the immaterial realm that is free from characteristics (nirnimittābhisaṃskārāvaraṇa; C. wuxiang jiaxing zhang), (9) the obstruction of not desiring to act on behalf of others’ salvation (parahitacaryākāmanāvaraṇa; C. buyuxing zhang), and (10) the obstruction of not yet acquiring mastery over all things (fa weizizai zhang). These ten obstructions are overcome by practicing, respectively: (1) the perfection of giving (dānapāramitā), (2) the perfection of morality (śīlapāramitā), (3) the perfection of forbearance (kṣāntipāramitā), (4) the perfection of energetic effort (vīryapāramitā), (5) the perfection of meditation (dhyānapāramitā), (6) the perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā), (7) the perfection of expedient means (upāyapāramitā), (8) the perfection of the vow (to attain enlightenment) (praṇidhānapāramitā), (9) the perfection of power (balapāramitā), and (10) the perfection of knowledge (jñānapāramitā). ¶ The eighth, ninth, and tenth bhūmis are sometimes called “pure bhūmis,” because, according to some commentators, upon reaching the eighth bhūmi, the bodhisattva has abandoned all of the afflictive obstructions (KLEŚĀVARAṆA) and is thus liberated from any further rebirth. It appears that there were originally only seven bhūmis, as is found in the BODHISATTVABHŪMI, where the seven bhūmis overlap with an elaborate system of thirteen abidings or stations (vihāra), some of the names of which (such as pramuditā) appear also in the standard bhūmi schema of the Daśabhūmikasūtra. Similarly, though a listing of ten bhūmis appears in the MAHĀVASTU, a text associated with the LOKOTTARAVĀDA subsect of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school, only seven are actually discussed there, and the names given to the stages are completely different from those found in the later Daśabhūmikasūtra; the stages there are also a retrospective account of how past buddhas have achieved enlightenment, rather than a prescription for future practice. ¶ The daśabhūmi schema is sometimes correlated with other systems of classifying the bodhisattva path. In the five levels of the Yogācāra school’s outline of the bodhisattva path (PAÑCAMĀRGA; C. wuwei), the first bhūmi (pramuditā) is presumed to be equivalent to the level of proficiency (*prativedhāvasthā; C. tongdawei), the third of the five levels; while the second bhūmi onward corresponds to the level of cultivation (C. xiuxiwei), the fourth of the five levels. The first bhūmi is also correlated with the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA), while the second and higher bhūmis correlate with the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA). In terms of the doctrine of the five acquiescences (C. ren; S. kṣānti) listed in the RENWANG JING, the first through the third bhūmis are equivalent to the second acquiescence, the acquiescence of belief (C. xinren; J. shinnin; K. sinin); the fourth through the sixth stages to the third, the acquiescence of obedience (C. shunren; J. junnin; K. sunin); the seventh through the ninth stages to the fourth, the acquiescence to the nonproduction of dharmas (anutpattikadharmakṣānti; C. wushengren; J. mushōnin; K. musaengin); the tenth stage to the fifth and final acquiescence, to extinction (jimieren; J. jakumetsunin; K. chŏngmyŏrin). FAZANG’s HUAYANJING TANXUAN JI (“Notes Plumbing the Profundities of the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA”) classifies the ten bhūmis in terms of practice by correlating the first bhūmi to the practice of faith (ŚRADDHĀ), the second bhūmi to the practice of morality (ŚĪLA), the third bhūmi to the practice of concentration (SAMĀDHI), and the fourth bhūmi and higher to the practice of wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). In the same text, Fazang also classifies the bhūmis in terms of vehicle (YĀNA) by correlating the first through third bhūmis with the vehicle of humans and gods (rentiansheng), the fourth through the seventh stage to the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA), and the eighth through tenth bhūmis to the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA). ¶ Besides the list of the daśabhūmi outlined in the Daśabhūmikasūtra, the MAHĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA and the DAZHIDU LUN (*Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra) list a set of ten bhūmis, called the “bhūmis in common” (gongdi), which are shared between all the three vehicles of ŚRĀVAKAs, PRATYEKABUDDHAs, and bodhisattvas. These are the bhūmis of: (1) dry wisdom (śuklavidarśanābhūmi; C. ganhuidi), which corresponds to the level of three worthies (sanxianwei, viz., ten abidings, ten practices, ten transferences) in the śrāvaka vehicle and the initial arousal of the thought of enlightenment (prathamacittotpāda) in the bodhisattva vehicle; (2) lineage (gotrabhūmi; C. xingdi, zhongxingdi), which corresponds to the stage of the “aids to penetration” (NIRVEDHABHĀGĪYA) in the śrāvaka vehicle, and the final stage of the ten transferences in the fifty-two bodhisattva stages; (3) eight acquiescences (aṣṭamakabhūmi; C. barendi), the causal incipiency of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) in the case of the śrāvaka vehicle and the acquiescence to the nonproduction of dharmas (anutpattikadharmakṣānti) in the bodhisattva path (usually corresponding to the first or the seventh through ninth bhūmis of the bodhisattva path); (4) vision (darśanabhūmi; C. jiandi), corresponding to the fruition or fulfillment (PHALA) level of the stream-enterer in the śrāvaka vehicle and the stage of nonretrogression (AVAIVARTIKA), in the bodhisattva path (usually corresponding to the completion of the first or the eighth bhūmi); (5) diminishment (tanūbhūmi; C. baodi), corresponding to the fulfillment level (phala) of stream-enterer or the causal incipiency of the once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin) in the śrāvaka vehicle, or to the stage following nonretrogression before the attainment of buddhahood in the bodhisattva path; (6) freedom from desire (vītarāgabhūmi; C. liyudi), equivalent to the fulfillment level of the nonreturner in the śrāvaka vehicle, or to the stage where a bodhisattva attains the five supernatural powers (ABHIJÑĀ); (7) complete discrimination (kṛtāvibhūmi), equivalent to the fulfillment level of the ARHAT in the śrāvaka vehicle, or to the stage of buddhahood (buddhabhūmi) in the bodhisattva path (buddhabhūmi) here refers not to the fruition of buddhahood but merely to the state in which a bodhisattva has the ability to exhibit the eighteen qualities distinctive to the buddhas (ĀVEṆIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA); (8) pratyekabuddha (pratyekabuddhabhūmi); (9) bodhisattva (bodhisattvabhūmi), the whole bodhisattva career prior to the fruition of buddhahood; (10) buddhahood (buddhabhūmi), the stage of the fruition of buddhahood, when the buddha is completely equipped with all the buddhadharmas, such as omniscience (SARVĀKĀRAJÑATĀ). As is obvious in this schema, despite being called the bhūmis “common” to all three vehicles, the shared stages continue only up to the seventh stage; the eighth through tenth stages are exclusive to the bodhisattva vehicle. This anomaly suggests that the last three bhūmis of the bodhisattvayāna were added to an earlier śrāvakayāna seven-bhūmi scheme. ¶ The presentation of the bhūmis in the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ commentarial tradition following the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA uses the names found in the Daśabhūmikasūtra for the bhūmis and understands them all as bodhisattva levels; it introduces the names of the ten bhūmis found in the Dazhidu lun as levels that bodhisattvas have to pass beyond (S. atikrama) on the tenth bodhisattva level, which it calls the buddhabhūmi. This tenth bodhisattva level is not the level of an actual buddha, but the level on which a bodhisattva has to transcend attachment (abhiniveśa) to not only the levels reached by the four sets of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) but to the bodhisattvabhūmis as well. See also BHŪMI.

Daśabhūmikasūtra. (T. Sa bcu pa’i mdo; C. Shidi jing/Shizhu jing; J. Jūjikyō/Jūjūkyō; K. Sipchi kyŏng/Sipchu kyŏng 十地經/十住經). In Sanskrit, “Scripture of the Ten Stages”; the definitive scriptural account of the ten “grounds” or “stages” (DAŚABHŪMI) at the upper reaches of the BODHISATTVA path (MĀRGA). In the sūtra, each of the ten stages is correlated with seminal doctrines of mainstream Buddhism, as well as with mastery of one of a list of ten perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) completed in the course of training as a bodhisattva. The sūtra appears as one of the chapters of the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA and also circulated as an independent text. For a full treatment, see DAŚABHŪMI; BHŪMI.

Daśabhūmivyākhyāna. (T. Sa bcu pa’i rnam par bshad pa; C. Shidijing lun; J. Jūjikyōron; K. Sipchigyŏng non 十地經論). In Sanskrit, “Explanation of the DAŚABHŪMIKASŪTRA”; a commentary on the Daśabhūmikasūtra attributed to the Indian exegete VASUBANDHU. The work served as the basis for the Chinese DI LUN ZONG, “School of Di lun Exegetes,” a lineage of Buddhist scholiasts who studied this text. (Di lun is an abbreviation of the Shidijing lun, the Chinese translation of the Daśabhūmivyākhyāna.) The school is considered to be one of the earliest of the indigenous scholastic traditions of East Asian MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism, and its thought draws on strands of Indic thought that derive from both the YOGĀCĀRA and TATHĀGATAGARBHA traditions.

daśadhātu. (T. [gzugs can gyi] khams bcu; C. shijie; J. jikkai; K. sipkye 十界). In Sanskrit, “ten elements”; an ABHIDHARMA classification referring to the five physical sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and body) plus the five sense objects (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile objects). ¶ In MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism, and especially in the East Asian TIANTAI schools, the term was appropriated to refer to ten “realms” or “destinies” of being; in East Asian Buddhism, this denotation is by far the most common. These destinies are, from the bottom up, the six rebirth destinies (GATI) in SAṂSĀRA, viz., (1) hells (naraka; see NĀRAKA), (2) hungry ghosts (PRETA), (3) animals (TIRYAK), (4) demigods (ASURA), (5) human beings (MANUṢYA), and (6) divinities (DEVA), plus the four destinies of enlightened beings, viz., (7) disciples of the Buddha (ŚRĀVAKA), (8) solitary buddhas (PRATYEKABUDDHA), (9) BODHISATTVAs, and (10) buddhas. According to Tiantai doctrine, since these ten destinies are mutually pervasive (C. shijie huju), each of these realms pervades, and is pervaded by, all the nine other realms; hence, the potential for buddhahood is inherent even in the most dire destiny in the hells.

daśadiś. [alt. diśā] (P. dasadisā; T. phyogs bcu; C. shifang; J. jippō; K. sibang 十方). In Sanskrit, “ten directions”; the four cardinal directions (north, east, south, west), the four intermediate directions (northeast, southeast, southwest, northwest), plus the zenith and the nadir. By covering every possible direction, the “ten directions” therefore comes to be used by extension to mean “everywhere,” in the sense of an all-pervasive completeness or comprehensiveness, whether of activities, states, or occurrences. The MAHĀYĀNA tradition presumes that there are innumerable world systems in all the ten directions (S. daśadiglokadhātu; C. shifang shijie), as well as innumerable “buddhas of the ten directions” (daśadigbuddha). See also SHIFANG CHA; PĀPADEŚANĀ.

daśaśīla. (P. dasasīla; T. tshul khrims bcu; C. shijie; J. jikkai; K. sipkye 十戒). In Sanskrit, “ten precepts”; an expansion and enhancement of the five lay precepts (PAÑCAŚĪLA), which all male novices (ŚRĀMAṆERA) and female novices (ŚRĀMAṆERIKĀ) were required to follow as part of their training; also known as the “restraints for novices” (ŚRĀMAṆERASAṂVARA). The ten are framed in terms of training rules (ŚIKṢĀPADA), viz., “I undertake the training rule to abstain from”: (1) killing; (2) stealing; (3) sexual activity; (4) false speech; (5) intoxicants; (6) eating after midday; (7) dancing, singing, music, and other unseemly forms of entertainment; (8) using garlands, perfumes, and unguents to adorn the body; (9) using high and luxurious beds and couches; and (10) handling money. On full- and new-moon days (UPOṢADHA), the laity have the option of taking all these precepts except the tenth; numbers 7 and 8 were then combined to give a set of eight precepts to be specially followed on these retreat days (S. upoṣadhaśīla; P. uposathasīla) as a sort of temporary renunciation. In the MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA followed in Tibet, these ten precepts are expanded to thirty-six.

Dasheng dayi zhang. (J. Daijō daigishō; K. Taesŭng taeŭi chang 大乗大義章). In Chinese “Compendium of the Great Purport of the Mahāyāna,” in three rolls; also known as the Jiumoluoshi fashi dayi, or “The Great Purport of the Great Master KUMĀRAJĪVA.” The Dasheng dayi zhang is a compendium of letters that Kumārajīva wrote in reply to LUSHAN HUIYUAN’s inquiries about MAHĀYĀNA doctrine. There are a total of eighteen categories of questions that are concerned largely with the nature of the dharma body (DHARMAKĀYA), emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ), and the mind (CITTA). The Dasheng dayi zhang is a valuable source for studying the development of Mahāyāna thought in China.

Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang. (J. Daijō hōon girinjō; K. Taesŭng pŏbwŏn ŭirim chang 大乗法苑義林章). In Chinese, “(Edited) Chapters on the Forest of Meaning of the Dharma-Garden of MAHĀYĀNA”; composed by the eminent Chinese monk KUIJI. This treatise consists of twenty-nine chapters in seven rolls, but a thirty-three chapter edition is known to have been transmitted to Japan in the second half of the twelfth century. Each chapter is concerned with an important doctrinal matter related to the YOGĀCĀRABHŪMIŚĀSTRA. Some chapters, for instance, discuss the various canons (PIṬAKA), two truths (SATYADVAYA), five faculties (INDRIYA), the sixty-two views (DṚṢṬI), eight liberations (AṢṬAVIMOKṢA), and buddha-lands (BUDDHAKṢETRA), to name but a few. Because of its comprehensive doctrinal coverage, the Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang has served as an invaluable source of information on early YOGĀCĀRA thought in China.

Dasheng qixin lun. (S. *Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra; J. Daijō kishinron; K. Taesŭng kisin non 大乗起信論). In Chinese, “Treatise on the Awakening of Faith According to the MAHĀYĀNA”; attributed to the Indian author AŚVAGHOṢA, but now widely assumed to be an indigenous Chinese text (see APOCRYPHA) composed in the sixth century; typically known in English as simply the “Awakening of Faith.” Since its composition, the text has remained one of the most influential treatises in all of East Asian Buddhism. The earliest and most widely used “translation” (c. 550) is attributed to the famous YOGĀCĀRA scholar PARAMĀRTHA, although some scholars have speculated that Paramārtha may in fact have composed the treatise after his arrival in China, perhaps even in Sanskrit, and then translated it into Chinese. The author of the Dasheng qixin lun sought to reconcile two of the dominant, if seemingly incompatible, strands in Mahāyāna Buddhism: TATHĀGATAGARBHA (embryo or womb of the buddhas) thought and the ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA (storehouse consciousness) theory of consciousness. Tathāgatagarbha thought taught that all sentient beings have the potential to achieve enlightenment because that enlightenment is in fact inherent in the minds of sentient beings. What that doctrine did not seem to explain well to the East Asians, however, was why sentient beings who were inherently enlightened would have become deluded in the first place. Ālayavijñāna theory, by contrast, posited that the foundational recesses of the mind serve as a storehouse of the essentially infinite numbers of potentialities or seeds (BĪJA) of all past actions, including unsalutary deeds; this interpretation suggested to the East Asians that mental purity was not innate and that enlightenment therefore had to be catalyzed by some external source, such as “hearing the dharma,” which would then prompt a “transformation of the basis” (ĀŚRAYAPARĀVṚTTI) that could lead to purity of mind. The ālayavijñāna thus explained the intractability of ignorance and delusion, but did not seem to offer ready accessibility to enlightenment. In its search for common ground between these two doctrines, the Dasheng qixin lun instead describes the mind as being comprised of two distinct, but complementary, aspects: true thusness (ZHENRU; S. TATHATĀ) and production-and-cessation (shengmie), which correspond respectively to ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAṂVṚTISATYA) or the unconditioned (ASAṂSKṚTA) and conditioned (SAṂSKṚTA) realms. Since the mind that is subject to production and cessation (which the treatise identifies with ālayavijñāna) remains always grounded on the mind of true thusness (which the treatise identifies with tathāgatagarbha), the mind is therefore simultaneously deluded and enlightened. This distinction between this enlightened essence of the mind as “true thusness” and its various temporal manifestations as “production and cessation” is also described in terms of “essence” (TI) and “function” (YONG). From the standpoint of the buddhas and sages, the mind of the sentient being is therefore seen as being perpetually in a state of “original enlightenment” or “intrinsic enlightenment” (BENJUE; see also HONGAKU), while from the standpoint of sentient beings that same mind is seen as being deluded and thus in need of purification through a process of “actualizing enlightenment” (SHIJUE). Actualizing enlightenment involves the cultivation of calmness (ji; S. ŚAMATHA) and insight (guan; S. VIPAŚYANĀ), as well as the development of no-thought (WUNIAN), aspects of training that receive extensive discussion in the treatise. Once the process of actualizing enlightenment is completed, however, the student realizes that the enlightenment achieved through cultivation is in fact identical to the enlightenment that is innate. Hence, the difference between these two types of enlightenment is ultimately a matter of perspective: the buddhas and sages see the innate purity of the tathāgatagarbha as something intrinsic; ordinary persons (PṚTHAGJANA) see it as something that must be actualized through practice. Some East Asian Buddhists, such as WŎNHYO (617–686), seem to have presumed that the KŬMGANG SAMMAE KYŎNG (S. *Vajrasamādhisūtra) was the scriptural source of the Dasheng qixin lun’s emblematic teaching of the one mind and its two aspects, even though we now know that that scripture was a Korean apocryphon that was not composed until over a century later. The most important commentaries to the Dasheng qixin lun are Wŏnhyo’s TAESŬNG KISIN NON SO and TAESŬNG KISIN NON PYŎLGI, FAZANG’s DASHENG QIXIN LUN YI JIs, and JINGYING HUIYUAN’s Dasheng qixin lun yishu.

Dasheng qixin lun yi ji. (J. Daijō kisihinron giki; K. Taesŭng kisin non ŭi ki 大乗起信論義

). In Chinese, “Notes on the Meaning of the ‘Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna’”; composed by the Chinese HUAYAN monk FAZANG. In addition to exegeses by WŎNHYO (see TAESŬNG KISIN NON SO) and JINGYING HUIYUAN, this commentary has been traditionally regarded as one of the three great commentaries on the DASHENG QIXIN LUN. Fazang’s commentary relies heavily upon that by Wŏnhyo. Throughout the centuries, numerous other commentaries on the Dasheng qixin lun appeared in China, and most of them are based on Fazang’s work. According to this commentary, the Dasheng qixin lun speaks of one mind, two gates, three greats, four faiths, and five practices. Fazang also categorizes the entire history of Buddhism into four traditions: (1) the tradition of grasping at the characteristics of dharmas (i.e., the HĪNAYĀNA), (2) the tradition of no characteristics and only true emptiness (i.e., the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ SŪTRAs and the MADHYAMAKA), (3) the tradition of YOGĀCĀRA and consciousness-only (i.e., the SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA and YOGĀCĀRABHŪMIŚĀSTRA), and (4) the tradition of conditioned origination from the TATHĀGATAGARBHA (i.e., the LAṄKĀVATĀRASŪTRA and Dasheng qixin lun). The notion of “conditioned origination from the tathāgatagarbha” (rulaizang yuanqi) reflects the author’s Huayan training deriving from the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA and its notion of “nature origination” (XINGQI).

Dasheng wusheng fangbian men. (J. Daijō mushō hōbenmon; K. Taesŭng musaeng pangp’yŏn mun 大乗無生方便門). In Chinese, “Expedient Means of [Attaining] Nonproduction according to the MAHĀYĀNA”; a summary of the teachings of the Northern School (BEI ZONG) of CHAN. Several different recensions of this treatise were discovered at DUNHUANG; the text is also known as the Dasheng wufangbian Beizong (“Five Expedient Means of the Mahāyāna: the Northern School”). These different editions speak of five expedient means (UPĀYA): (1) a comprehensive explanation of the essence of buddhahood (corresponding to the DASHENG QIXIN LUN), (2) opening the gates of wisdom and sagacity (viz., the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA), (3) manifesting the inconceivable dharma (the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEŚA), (4) elucidating the true nature of dharmas (Sūtra of [the god] Siyi), and (5) the naturally unobstructed path to liberation (the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA). Although this arrangement of scriptures bears a superficial resemblance to a taxonomy of texts (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI), a common feature of Chinese Buddhist polemics and exegesis, this listing was not intended to be hierarchical. The explanation of the five expedient means occurs largely in dialogic format. Unlike the Dasheng wufangbian Beizong, the Dasheng wusheng fangbian men also provides a description of the method of conferring the BODHISATTVA precepts (PUSA JIE). In its discussions of both the five expedient means and the bodhisattva precepts, great emphasis is placed on the need for purity of mind.

Dasheng xuanlun. (J. Daijō genron; K. Taesŭng hyŏn non 大乗玄論). In Chinese, “Profound Treatise on the MAHĀYĀNA”; one of most influential treatises of the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese branch of the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian philosophy; composed by JIZANG, in five rolls. The treatise is primarily concerned with eight general topics: the two truths (SATYADVAYA), eight negations, buddha-nature (FOXING), EKAYĀNA, NIRVĀṆA, two wisdoms, teachings, and treatises. The section on teachings explains the notions of sympathetic resonance (GANYING) and the PURE LAND. Explanations of Madhyamaka epistemology, the “four antinomies” (CATUṢKOṬI), and the MŪLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ appear in the last section on treatises.

Dasheng yi zhang. (J. Daijō gishō; K. Taesŭng ŭi chang 大乗義章). In Chinese, “Compendium of the Purport of Mahāyāna”; compiled by JINGYING HUIYUAN; a comprehensive dictionary of Buddhist numerical lists that functions as a virtual encyclopedia of MAHĀYĀNA doctrine. Huiyuan organized 249 matters of doctrine into five sections: teachings, meanings, afflictions, purity, and miscellaneous matters (this last section is no longer extant). Each section is organized numerically, much as are some ABHIDHARMA treatises. The section on afflictions begins, for instance, with the meaning of the two hindrances and ends with the 84,000 hindrances. These various listings are then explained from a Mahāyāna perspective, with corroboration drawn from quotations from scriptures, treatises, and the sayings of other teachers. The Dasheng yi zhang serves as an important source for the study of Chinese Mahāyāna thought as it had developed during the Sui dynasty (589–618).

dashi. (J. daiji; K. taesa 大事). In Chinese, the “great enterprise” or “great matter”; often seen also as the “one great matter” (C. yidashi). The Chinese term dashi appears in KUMĀRAJĪVA’s translation of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”) regarding the reason why the buddhas appear in the world, but has no precise relation there to a specific Sanskrit term; possible equivalencies might be mahākṛtya, “the great action,” or mahānuśaṃsa, “the great blessing.” According to the MAHĀYĀNA tradition, the Buddha taught most of his teachings as provisional, transitional, and adaptive instructions that catered to the special contingencies of the spiritually less advanced. However, the Buddha’s ultimate concern is the revelation of an ultimate and overriding message, the “great enterprise.” Different Mahāyāna scriptures and schools interpret this ultimate message differently and often purport uniquely to convey that message. For example, according to the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra and the TIANTAI ZONG, the “great enterprise” is the revelation of the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA), through which all individuals without exception are able to enter the Mahāyāna path and realize the knowledge and vision of perfect buddhahood. According to the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA, it is the eternal, absolute characteristics of the buddha-nature (FOXING; BUDDHADHĀTU). According to the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA and the PURE LAND schools, it is the revelation of the paradisiacal pure land of SUKHĀVATĪ and the “original vows” of AMITĀBHA Buddha. And, finally, in the CHAN ZONG, the “great enterprise” refers to the general process of awakening to one’s own original nature and becoming a buddha (JIANXING CHENGFO).

’das log. (delok). In Tibetan, literally “returned from beyond”; referring to an individual who dies but then returns to life, describing the horrors and suffering of the lower realms of rebirth (DURGATI). In Tibetan culture, such individuals are generally women and their testimony to the reality of karmic retribution often becomes a strong exhortation to practice virtue and to adopt such religious activities as reciting the famous six-syllable MANTRA (OṂ MAṆI PADME HŪṂ) of AVALOKITEŚVARA.

Da Song seng shi lüe. (J. Dai Sō sōshiryaku; K. Tae Song sŭng sa nyak 大宋僧史略). In Chinese, “Abbreviated History of the SAṂGHA, [compiled during] the Great Song [Dynasty]”; compiled by the monk ZANNING, in three rolls. Zanning began to write this institutional history of Buddhism in 978 and finished it in 999. In the first roll, Zanning describes the life of ŚĀKYAMUNI Buddha and the transmission of Buddhism to China. He also provides a brief history of monasteries, translation projects, and scriptural exegeses, as well as an explanation of the ordination procedure and the practice of repentance. The first roll ends with a history of the CHAN school. The second roll delineates the organization of the Buddhist monkhood and its recognition by the court in China. The last roll offers a history of Buddhist retreat societies, precept platforms (SĪMĀ), and émigré monks; in addition, it provides an explanation of the significance of bestowing the purple robe (of a royal master) and receiving the appellation of “great master” (dashi). As one of the earliest attempts to provide a comprehensive account of the history of Buddhism across Asia, the Da Song seng shi lüe serves as an invaluable source for the study of premodern Buddhist historiography.

Dasuttarasutta. (S. Daśottarasūtra; C. Shishang jing; J. Jūjōkyō; K. Sipsang kyŏng 十上經). In Pāli, “Discourse on Expanding Decades,” or “Tenfold Series”; the thirty-fourth, and last, sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA. Several fragments of the Sanskrit recension of the text, the Daśottarasūtra, were discovered in TURFAN and these appear to represent the same SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension that was translated in Chinese by AN SHIGAO (Chang ahan shibaofa jing) sometime between 148 and 170 CE; this was one of the earliest Chinese renderings of a Buddhist scripture. A DHARMAGUPTAKA recension also appears as the tenth sūtra in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA. According to this Pāli version, this scripture was preached by Sāriputta (ŚĀRIPUTRA) in Campā to a congregation of five hundred monks. For the edification of his listeners, and so that they might more easily be liberated and attain nibbāna (NIRVĀṆA), Sāriputta presents a systematic outline of the dhamma (DHARMA), using a schema of numerical classification that organizes the doctrine into groups ranging from a single factor (e.g., “the one thing to be developed,” viz., mindfulness of the body) up to groups of ten (e.g., the ten wholesome ways of action). This sūtta thus provides one of the first canonical recensions of the “matrices” (P. mātikā; S. MĀTṚKĀ) that are thought to mark the incipiency of abhidhamma (S. ABHIDHARMA) exegesis, and its exegetical style is closely connected to that used in the SAṄGĪTISUTTA (S. Saṃgītisūtra); several of its exegetical categories are also reproduced in the SAṂGĪTIPARYĀYA of the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma.

Da Tang neidian lu. (J. Dai Tō naitenroku; K. Tae Tang naejŏn nok 大唐内典録). In Chinese, “The Great Tang Record of Inner [viz., Buddhist] Classics”; a catalogue of the Buddhist canon compiled by the Chinese monk DAOXUAN (596–667). While preparing an inventory of scriptures for the newly established library at the monastery of XIMINGSI, Daoxuan was unsatisfied with the quality of existing scriptural catalogues (JINGLU) and decided to compile his own. Daoxuan’s catalogue draws heavily on earlier catalogues, such as the LIDAI SANBAO JI, CHU SANZANG JIJI, Fajing lu, and Renshou lu. The Da Tang neidian lu consists of ten major sections. The first section is the comprehensive catalogue of scriptures, which more or less corresponds to the list found in the Lidai sanbao ji. The second section, a taxonomy of scriptures, also largely corresponds to the Renshou lu. The third section lists the actual contents of Ximingsi’s library and thus serves as an important source for studying the history of this monastery and its scriptural collection. The fourth section provides a list of texts appropriate for recitation. The fifth section deals with texts that contain mistakes and discusses their significance. The sixth section lists texts composed in China. The seventh and eighth sections cover miscellaneous texts and APOCRYPHA (162 in total). The ninth section lists previous scriptural catalogues of the past, and the tenth section discusses the virtues of reciting scriptures.

Da Tang Xiyu ji. (J. Dai Tō Saiiki ki; K. Tae Tang Sŏyŏk ki 大唐西域

). In Chinese, “The Great Tang Record of [Travels to] the Western Regions”; a travelogue of a pilgrimage to India by the Chinese translator and exegete XUANZANG (600/602–664) written in 646 at the request of the Tang emperor Taizong and edited by the monk Bianji (d. 652). Xuanzang was already a noted Buddhist scholiast in China when he decided to make the dangerous trek from China, through the Central Asian oases, to the Buddhist homeland of India. Xuanzang was especially interested in gaining access to the full range of texts associated with the YOGĀCĀRA school, only a few of which were then currently available in Chinese translation. He left on his journey in 627 and eventually spent fourteen years in India (629–643), where he traveled among many of the Buddhist sacred sites, collected manuscripts of Buddhist materials as yet untranslated into Chinese, and studied Sanskrit texts with various eminent teachers, most notably DHARMAPĀLA’S disciple ŚĪLABHADRA, who taught at the Buddhist university of NĀLANDĀ. The Da Tang xiyu ji provides a comprehensive overview of the different countries that Xuanzang visited during his travels in India and Central Asia, offering detailed descriptions of the geography, climate, customs, languages, and religious practices of these various countries. Xuanzang paid special attention to the different ways in which the teachings of Buddhism were cultivated in different areas of the Western Regions. The Da Tang xiyou ji thus serves as an indispensible tool in the study of the geography and Buddhist history of these regions. Xuanzang’s travelogue was later fictionalized in the narrative Xiyou ji (“Journey to the West”), written c. 1592 during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng’en. The Xiyou ji is one of the greatest of Chinese vernacular novels and is deservedly famous for its fanciful accounts of the exploits of the monk-pilgrim, here called Sanzang (TREPIṬAKA), and especially of his protector, Monkey. See also CHENG WEISHI LUN.

Da Tang Xiyu qiufa gaoseng zhuan. (J. Dai Tō Saiiki guhō kōsōden; K. Tae Tang Sŏyŏk kubŏp kosŭng chŏn 大唐西域求法高僧傳). In Chinese, “The Great Tang Biographies of Eminent Monks who Sought the Dharma in the Western Regions”; compiled by the Chinese pilgrim and translator YIJING (635–713). Yijing’s record, modeled after other texts in the “eminent monks” (GAOSENG ZHUAN) genre, provides biographies of fifty-six contemporary and near-contemporary East Asian monks who made the arduous journey from China to the Buddhist homeland of India. Forty-nine of the pilgrims discussed are Chinese and seven are identified as Korean. Yijing’s account of his own pilgrimage to Sumatra and India appears independently in his NANHAI JIGUI NEIFA ZHUAN.

Dāṭhāvaṃsa. In Pāli, “History of the Tooth Relic”; a Pāli chronicle in verse, attributed to Dhammakitti, that records the history of the Buddha’s TOOTH RELIC before its c. fourth century CE arrival in Sri Lanka; also known as the Dantadhātuvaṃsa. The work begins with an account of the previous buddha Dīpaṅkara (S. DĪPAṂKARA), followed by the story of Gotama (S. GAUTAMA) Buddha, his visit to Sri Lanka, his decease (P. parinibbāna; S. PARINIRVĀṆA), and the distribution of his relics (P. sarīra; S. ŚARĪRA). The history of the Tooth Relic at the city of Dantapura in the Indian kingdom of Kaliṅga follows. Finally, there is a detailed accounting of the circumstances that culminated in the relic’s arrival at Sri Lanka during the reign of Sirimeghavaṇṇa in the fourth century CE and the building of a shrine to house it.

David-Néel, Alexandra. (1868–1969). A famous traveler to Tibet. Born Alexandra David to a bourgeois family in Paris, she was educated in a Calvinist convent before studying Indian and Chinese philosophy at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France. In 1888, she traveled to London, where she became interested in Theosophy. In 1891, she journeyed to Ceylon and India (where she studied Vedānta) and traveled as far as Sikkim over eighteen months. Upon returning to France, she began a career as a singer and eventually was offered the position of female lead in the Hanoi Opera. Some years later, in Tunis, she met and married a railroad engineer, Philippe Néel, who insisted that she retire from the stage. She agreed to do so if he would finance a one-year trip to India for her. He ended up not seeing his wife again for another fourteen years. David-Néel became friends with THOMAS and CAROLINE RHYS DAVIDS in London, leading scholars of THERAVĀDA Buddhism, and corresponded with the ZEN scholar DAISETZ TEITARO SUZUKI, before publishing her first book on Buddhism in 1911, entitled, Le modernisme bouddhiste et le bouddhisme du Bouddha. She continued to Sikkim, where she met the thirteenth DALAI LAMA in Darjeeling in 1912, while he was briefly in residence there after fleeing a Chinese invasion of Tibet. David-Néel spent two years in retreat receiving instructions from a RNYING MA hermit-lama. In 1916, the British expelled her from Sikkim, so she traveled to Japan, where she was the guest of D. T. Suzuki. From there she went to China, traveling west in the company of a young Sikkimese monk named Yongden. Disguised as a pilgrim, she arrived in LHA SA in 1924, presumably the first European woman to reach the Tibetan capital. She returned to France as a celebrity the following year. She published the best-selling book My Journey to Lhasa, followed by a succession of books based on her travels in Tibet and her study and practice of Tibetan Buddhism. She built a home in Digne, which she named Samten Dzong, “Fortress of Concentration.” David-Néel made one final trip to Asia as World War II began, but spent the rest of her life writing in Digne, where she died at the age of one hundred.

Daxiu Zhengnian. (J. Daikyū Shōnen; K. Taehyu Chŏngnyŏm 大休正念) (1215–1289). Chinese CHAN master in the LINJI ZONG. A native of Wenzhou in present-day Zhejiang province, Daxiu began his training under the CAODONG master Donggu Miaoguang (d. 1253) of Linyinsi, and later became the disciple of Shiqi Xinyue (d. 1254). In 1269, Daxiu left for Japan, where he received the patronage of the powerful regent Hōjō Tokimune (1251–1284). In Kamakura, Daxiu established the monastery Jōchiji, which came to be ranked fourth in the Kamakura GOZAN system. Daxiu also served as abbot of the monasteries ZENKŌJI, Juhukuji, and KENCHŌJI. In 1288, Daxiu became the abbot of ENGAKUJI, but passed away the next year in 1289. He was given the posthumous title Zen Master Butsugen (“Source of the Buddhas”). His teachings can be found in the Daikyū oshō goroku.

Dayang Jingxuan. (J. Taiyō Kyōgen; K. Taeyang Kyŏnghyŏn 大陽警玄) (942–1027). Chinese CHAN master in the CAODONG ZONG. A native of Jiangxia in present-day Hubei province, Dayang was ordained at the monastery of Chongxiaosi in Jinleng by his uncle, who had also become a monk. After traveling throughout China, Dayang visited the Chan master Liangshan Yuanguan (d.u.) in Dingzhou prefecture (present-day Sichuan province) and became his disciple. Later, he became a student of the Caodong monk Huijian (d.u.) and took over his lecture seat on Mt. Dayang, which became his toponym. Before his death, Dayang entrusted his portrait (DINGXIANG), leather shoes, and patched robe to his friend Fushan Fayuan (991–1067) of the LINJI ZONG in hopes of continuing his Caodong lineage and the incumbent annual memorial services to the patriarchs in his line. Fushan in turn transferred these items to his student TOZI YIQING, who embraced Dayang’s line and became a Caodong lineage holder. Dayang was bestowed the posthumous title Great Master Ming’an (“Illuminating Peace”). His teachings are recorded in the Dayang Ming’an dashi shibaban miaoyu.

Dayan ta. (大雁塔). In Chinese, “Big Wild Goose Pagoda.” See DACI’ENSI.

dazangjing. (J. daizōkyō; K. taejanggyŏng 大藏經). In Chinese, “scriptures of the great repository”; the term the Chinese settled upon to describe their Buddhist canon, supplanting the Indian term TRIPIṬAKA (“three baskets”). The myriad texts of different Indian and Central Asian Buddhist schools were transmitted to China over a millennium, from about the second through the twelfth centuries CE, where they were translated with alacrity into Chinese. Chinese Buddhists texts therefore came to include not only the tripiṭakas of several independent schools of Indian Buddhism, but also different recensions of various MAHĀYĀNA scriptures and Buddhist TANTRAs, sometimes in multiple translations. As the East Asian tradition developed its own scholarly traditions, indigenous writings by native East Asian authors, composed in literary Chinese, also came to be included in the canon. These materials included scriptural commentaries, doctrinal treatises, biographical and hagiographical collections, edited transcriptions of oral lectures, Chinese–Sanskrit dictionaries, scriptural catalogues (JINGLU), and so on. Because the scope of the Buddhist canon in China was therefore substantially broader than the traditional tripartite structure of an Indian tripiṭaka, the Chinese coined alternative terms to refer to their collection of Buddhist materials, including “all the books” (yiqie jing), until eventually settling on the term dazangjing. The term dazangjing seems to derive from a Northern Song-dynasty term for an officially commissioned “great library” (dazang) that was intended to serve as a repository for “books” (jing) sanctioned by the court. Buddhist monasteries were the first places outside the imperial palaces that such officially sanctioned libraries were established. These collections of the official canonical books of Chinese Buddhism were arranged not by the VINAYA, SŪTRA, ABHIDHARMA, and ŚĀSTRA categories of India, but in shelf lists that were more beholden to the categorizations used in court libraries. The earliest complete Buddhist canons in China date from the fifth century; by the eighth century, these manuscript collections included over one thousand individual texts in more than five thousand rolls. By the tenth century, woodblock printing techniques had become sophisticated enough that complete printed Buddhist canons began to be published, first during the Song dynasty, and thence throughout East Asia. The second xylographic canon of the Korean Koryŏ dynasty, the KORYŎ TAEJANGGYŎNG, was especially renowned for its scholarly accuracy; it included some 1,514 texts, in 6,815 rolls, carved on 81,258 individual woodblocks, which are still housed today in the scriptural repository at the monastery of HAEINSA. The second Koryŏ canon is arranged with pride of place given to texts from the Mahāyāna tradition:

1. Major Mahāyāna scriptures (K 1–548), beginning with the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ, followed by the MAHĀRATNAKŪṬASŪTRA, and continuing through all the major Mahāyāna sūtras and sūtra collections, from the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, to the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA, SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA, and LAṄKĀVATĀRASŪTRA

2. Mahāyāna śāstras and scriptural commentaries, beginning with the DAZHIDU LUN (*Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra) (K 549–646)

3. ĀGAMA collections and HĪNAYĀNA sūtras (K 647–888)

4. Vinaya materials (K 889–937)

5. Abhidharma texts (K 938–977)

6. AVADĀNA and JĀTAKA tales and miscellaneous materials (K 978–1034)

7. Biographies of individual monks, starting with AŚVAGHOṢA, NĀGĀRJUNA, etc. (K 1035–1049)

8. Rosters of numerical lists and scriptural catalogues (K 1050–1064)

9. Travelogues and “Biographies of Eminent Monks” anthologies (K 1065–1086)

10. Miscellaneous sūtras, DHĀRAṆĪ scriptures and dhāraṇī anthologies (K 1087–1242)

11. Other miscellaneous sūtras (K 1243–1496)

12. References, Chan anthologies, indigenous Korean works (K 1497–1514)

The second Koryŏ canon was used as the basis of the modern Japanese TAISHŌ SHINSHŪ DAIZŌKYŌ (“New Edition of the Buddhist Canon Compiled during the Taishō Reign Era”), edited by TAKAKUSU JUNJIRŌ and Watanabe Kaikyoku and published using movable-type printing between 1924 and 1935, which has become the standard reference source for East Asian Buddhist materials. The Taishō canon includes 2,920 texts in eighty-five volumes (each volume is about one thousand pages in length), along with twelve volumes devoted to iconography, and three volumes of bibliography and scriptural catalogues. The Taishō’s arrangement is constructed following modern scholarly views regarding the historical development of the Buddhist scriptural tradition, with mainstream Buddhist scriptures opening the canon, followed by Indian Mahāyāna materials, indigenous Chinese writings, and Japanese writings:

1. ĀGAMA (vols. 1–2, nos. 1–151)

2. AVADĀNA (vols. 3–4, nos. 152–219)

3. PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ (vols. 5–8, nos. 220–261)

4. SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKA (vol. 9, nos. 262–277)

5. AVATAṂSAKA/GAṆḌAVYŪHA (vols. 9–10, nos. 278–309)

6. RATNAKŪṬASŪTRA (vols. 11–12, nos. 310–373)

7. MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆA (vols. 12, nos. 374–396)

8. MAHĀSAṂNIPĀTA (vol. 13, nos. 397–424)

9. Miscellaneous sūtras (vols. 14–17, nos. 425–847), e.g.,

YOGĀCĀRABHŪMIŚĀSTRA (nos. 602–620)

RATNAMEGHASŪTRA (nos. 658–660)

SUVARṆAPRABHĀSOTTAMASŪTRA (nos. 663–665)

TATHĀGATAGARBHASŪTRA (nos. 666–667)

LAṄKĀVATĀRASŪTRA (nos. 670–672)

SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA (nos. 675–679)

BUDDHABHŪMISŪTRA (no. 680)

GHANAVYŪHA (nos. 681–682)

10. Esoteric Buddhism (vols. 18–21, nos. 848–1420), e.g.,

SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAṂGRAHA (vol. 18, no. 866)

MAHĀMĀYŪRĪ (vol. 19, no. 982–988)

11. VINAYA (vols. 22–24, nos. 1421–1506), e.g.:

MAHĪŚĀSAKA (nos. 1421–1424)

MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA (nos. 1425–1427)

DHARMAGUPTAKA (nos. 1428–1434)

SARVĀSTIVĀDA (nos. 1435–1441)

MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA (nos. 1442–1459)

Mahāyāna-Bodhisattva (nos. 1487–1504)

12. Commentaries to Sūtras (vols. 24–26, nos. 1505–1535), e.g.,

Āgamas (nos. 1505–1508)

Mahāyāna sūtras (nos. 1509–1535)

13. ABHIDHARMA (vols. 26–29, nos. 1536–1563), e.g.:

JÑĀNAPRASTHĀNA (nos. 1543–1544)

MAHĀVIBHĀṢĀ (nos. 1545)

Vibhāṣā (nos. 1546–1547)

ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA (nos. 1558–1559)

14. MADHYAMAKA (vol. 30, nos. 1564–1578), e.g.,

MŪLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ (no. 1564)

ŚATAŚĀSTRA (no. 1569)

15. YOGĀCĀRA (vols. 30–31, nos. 1579–1627), e.g.,

YOGĀCĀRABHŪMIŚĀSTRA (no. 1579)

*Vijñaptimātratāsiddhiśāstra (CHENG WEISHI LUN; no. 1585)

MAHĀYĀNASAṂGRAHA (nos. 1592–1598)

16. Treatises (vol. 32, nos. 1628–1692), e.g.,

SŪTRASAMUCCAYA (no. 1635)

ŚIKṢĀSAMUCCAYA (no. 1636)

DASHENG QIXIN LUN (nos. 1667–1668)

17. Chinese sūtra commentaries (vols. 33–39)

18. Chinese vinaya commentaries (vols. 40)

19. Chinese śāstra commentaries (vols. 40–44)

20. Chinese sectarian writings (vols. 44–48), e.g.,

HUAYAN school (vol. 45, nos. 1866–1890)

TIANTAI school (vol. 46, nos. 1911–1950)

PURE LAND school (vol. 47, nos. 1957–1984)

CHAN school (vols. 47–48, nos. 1985–2025)

21. Histories (vols. 49–52, nos. 2026–2120), e.g.,

FOZU TONGJI (vol. 49, no. 2035)

GAOSENG ZHUAN collections (vols. 50–51, nos. 2059–2066)

GUANG HONGMINGJI (vol. 52, no. 2103)

22. Encyclopedias and references (vols. 53–54, nos. 2121–2136), e.g.,

FAYUAN ZHULIN (vol. 53, no. 2122)

YIQIEJING YINYI (vol. 54, no. 2128)

23. Non-Buddhist schools (vol. 54, nos. 2137–2144), e.g.,

Saṃkhyakārikā (vol. 54, no. 2137)

24. Scriptural Catalogues (vol. 55, nos. 2145–2184), e.g.,

KAIYUAN SHIJIAO LU (vol. 55, no. 2152)

25. Japanese Buddhist writings (vols. 56–84)

26. Buddhist apocrypha and fragments (vol. 85)

27. Iconography (vols. 86–92)

28. Bibliography and catalogues (vols. 93–100)

Even though the Taishō is often considered to be the definitive East Asian canon, it does not offer truly critical editions of its texts. The second Koryŏ canon’s reputation for accuracy was so strong that the Japanese editors adopted it wholesale as the textus receptus for the modern Taishō edition of the canon, i.e., where there was a Koryŏ edition available for a text, the Taishō editors simply copied it verbatim, listing in footnotes alternate readings found in other canons, but not attempting to evaluate the accuracy of those readings or to establish a critical edition. Hence, to a large extent, the Taishō edition of the dazangjing is a modern typeset edition of the xylographical Koryŏ canon, with an updated arrangement of its contents based on modern historiographical criteria.

Dazhidu lun. (J. Daichidoron; K. Taejido non 大智度論). In Chinese, “Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom”; an important Chinese text that is regarded as the translation of a Sanskrit work whose title has been reconstructed as *Māhāprājñāpāramitāśāstra or *Mahāprajñāpāramitopedeśa. The work is attributed to the MADHYAMAKA exegete NĀGĀRJUNA, but no Sanskrit manuscripts or Tibetan translations are known and no references to the text in Indian or Tibetan sources have been identified. The work was translated into Chinese by the KUCHA monk KUMĀRAJĪVA (344–413) between 402 and 406; it was not translated into Chinese again. Some scholars speculate that the work was composed by an unknown Central Asian monk of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school who had “converted” to MADHYAMAKA, perhaps even Kumārajīva himself. The complete text was claimed to have been one hundred thousand ślokas or one thousand rolls (zhuan) in length, but the extant text is a mere one hundred rolls. It is divided into two major sections: the first is Kumārajīva’s full translation of the first fifty-two chapters of the text; the second is his selective translations from the next eighty-nine chapters of the text. The work is a commentary on the PAÑCAVIṂŚATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA, and is veritable compendium of Buddhist doctrine, replete with quotations from a wide range of Indian texts. Throughout the translation, there appear frequent and often substantial interlinear glosses and interpolations, apparently provided by Kumārajīva himself and targeting his Chinese readership; it is the presence of such interpolations that has raised questions about the text’s Indian provenance. In the first thirty-four rolls, the Dazhidu lun provides a detailed explanation of the basic concepts, phrases, places, and figures that appear in the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā (e.g., BHAGAVAT, EVAṂ MAYĀ ŚRUTAM, RĀJAGṚHA, buddha, BODHISATTVA, ŚRĀVAKA, ŚĀRIPUTRA, ŚŪNYATĀ, NIRVĀṆA, the six PĀRAMITĀ, and ten BALA). The scope of the commentary is extremely broad, covering everything from doctrine, legends, and rituals to history and geography. The overall concern of the Dazhidu lun seems to have been the elucidation of the concept of buddhahood, the bodhisattva career, the MAHĀYĀNA path (as opposed to that of the HĪNAYĀNA), PRAJÑĀ, and meditation. The Dazhidu lun thus served as an authoritative source for the study of Mahāyāna in China and was favored by many influential writers such as SENGZHAO, TIANTAI ZHIYI, FAZANG, TANLUAN, and SHANDAO. Since the time of the Chinese scriptural catalogue KAIYUAN SHIJIAO LU (730), the Dazhidu lun, has headed the roster of ŚĀSTRA materials collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon (DAZANGJING; see also KORYŎ TAEJANGGYŎNG); this placement is made because it is a principal commentary to the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ sūtras that open the SŪTRA section of the canon. Between 1944 and 1980, the Belgian scholar ÉTIENNE LAMOTTE published an annotated French translation of the entire first section and chapter 20 of the second section as Le Traité de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse, in five volumes.

Dazhu Huihai. (J. Daiju Ekai; K. Taeju Hyehae 大珠慧海) (d.u.). Chinese CHAN master of the Tang dynasty. Dazhu was a native of Jianzhou in present-day Fujian province, who was tonsured by a certain Daozhi at the monastery Dayunsi in Yuezhou (present-day Zhejiang province). He later studied under the eminent Chan master MAZU DAOYI for six years and inherited his HONGZHOU lineage. Dazhu then returned to Yuezhou where he devoted himself to teaching. Dazhu is most famous for his work the DUNWU RUDAO YAOMEN LUN, one of the definitive accounts in the CHAN ZONG of the notion of “sudden awakening” (DUNWU).

Dazu shike. (大足石刻). In Chinese, “Dazu rock carvings”; a series of Chinese religious sculptures and carvings located on the steep hillsides of Dazu County, in Sichuan province near the city of Chongqing. The Dazu grottoes are considered one of the four greatest troves of rock sculptures in China, along with the LONGMEN grottoes in LUOYANG, the MOGAO Caves in DUNHUANG, and the YUNGANG grottoes in Shanxi province. Listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1999, the Dazu rock carvings consist of seventy-five sites, all under state protection, which contain some fifty thousand statues, along with epigraphs and inscriptions numbering over one hundred thousand inscribed Sinographs. There are five sites that are particularly large and well preserved: Baodingshan (Treasure Peak Mountain), Beishan (North Mountain), Nanshan (South Mountain), Shizhuanshan (Rock-Carving Mountain), and Shimenshan (Stone-Gate Mountain). Among the five major sites, the grottoes on Baodingshan and Nanshan are the largest in scale, the richest in content, and the most refined in artistic skill, although other sites are also noteworthy for their many statues integrating Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. The earliest carvings of the Dazu grottoes were begun in the early seventh century during the Tang dynasty, but the main creative period began in the late ninth century, when Wei Junjing, the prefect of Changzhou, initiated the carvings on Beishan. Even after the collapse of the Tang dynasty, his example continued to be emulated by local gentry, government officials, Buddhist monks and nuns, and ordinary people. From the late Tang dynasty through the reign of the Song Emperor Gaozong (r. 1127–1131), some ten thousand sculptures of Buddhist figures were carved at the site in varied styles. The most famous carving on Beishan is a Song-dynasty statue of GUANYIN (AVALOKITEŚVARA). In the twelfth century, during the Song dynasty, a Buddhist monk named Zhao Zhifeng began to work on the sculptures and carvings on Baodingshan, dedicating seventy years of his life to the project. He produced some ten thousand Buddhist statues, as well as many carvings depicting scenes from daily life that bear inscriptions giving religious rules of behavior, teaching people how to engage in correct moral action. Along with EMEISHAN, Baodingshan became one of the most sacred Buddhist sites in Sichuan. Although the Dazu grottoes primarily contain Buddhist statues, they also include Daoist, Confucian, and historical figures, as well as many valuable inscriptions describing people’s daily lives, which make the Dazu grottoes unique. The Yungang grottoes, created during the fourth and fifth centuries, represent an early stage of Chinese cave art and were greatly influenced by Indian culture. The Longmen grottoes, begun in the fifth century, represent the middle period of cave art, blending Indian and Chinese characteristics. The Dazu grottoes represent the highest level of grotto art in China and demonstrate breakthroughs in both carving technique and subject matter. They not only provide outstanding evidence of the harmonious synthesis of Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism in Chinese local religious practice but also mark the completion of the localization process of China’s grotto art, reflecting great changes and developments in China’s folk religion and rock carvings. The Dazu grottoes are thus remarkable for their high aesthetic quality, their rich diversity of style and subject matter (including both secular and religious topics), and the light that they shed on everyday life in China.

Dbang phyug rdo rje. (Wangchuk Dorje) (1556–1603). A revered Tibetan Buddhist master, recognized as the ninth KARMA PA. A prolific author, Dbang phyug rdo rje wrote three important treatises on MAHĀMUDRĀ that remain central BKA’ BRGYUD texts: PHYAG CHEN NGAS DON RGYA MTSHO (“Mahāmudrā: Ocean of Definitive Meaning”), PHYAG CHEN MA RIG MUN GSAL (“Mahāmudrā: Eliminating the Darkness of Ignorance”), and PHYAG CHEN CHOS SKU MDZUB TSHUGS (“Mahāmudrā: Pointing Out the DHARMAKĀYA”). He traveled throughout Mongolia and Bhutan and established several monasteries in Sikkim. One of these, Rum theg monastery located near Gangtok, became the Karma pa’s main seat when the sixteenth Karma pa RANG ’BYUNG RIG PA’I RDO RJE (Rangjung Rikpe Dorje) fled into exile in 1959.

dbu ma chen po. (uma chenpo) [alt. dbu ma pa chen po]. In Tibetan, “great MADHYAMAKA”; a term central to the “self empty, other empty” (RANG STONG GZHAN STONG) debate in Tibetan Buddhism, on the question of which Indian masters are the true representatives of the Madhyamaka. According to the DGE LUGS view, among the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma as described in the SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA, the second wheel, generally identified with the view of emptiness as set forth in the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ sūtras and propounded by the Madhyamaka, is definitive (NĪTĀRTHA), while the third wheel, generally identified with YOGĀCĀRA and TATHĀGATHAGARBHA teachings, is provisional (NEYĀRTHA). Other sects, most notably the JO NANG PA, as well as certain BKA’ BRGYUD and RNYING MA thinkers, especially of the so-called RIS MED movement, disagreed, asserting that the third wheel is the definitive teaching while the second wheel is provisional. (Both agree that the first wheel, setting forth the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS to ŚRĀVAKAs, is provisional.) For the Dge lugs pas, the highest of all Buddhist doctrines is that all phenomena in the universe are empty of an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA); emptiness is the lack of any substantial existence. The Dge lugs pas are therefore proponents of “self-emptiness” (rang stong), arguing that that each object of experience is devoid of intrinsic nature; the unenlightened wrongly believe that such a nature is intrinsic to the object itself. In reality, everything, from physical forms to the omniscient mind of a buddha, is equally empty, and this emptiness is a nonaffirming negation (PRASAJYAPRATIṢEDHA), an absence with nothing else implied in its place. Furthermore, this emptiness of intrinsic nature is the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). The Jo nang pa’s look to the third wheel, especially to those statements that describe the nonduality of subject and object to be the consummate nature (PARINIṢPANNA) and the understanding of that nonduality as the highest wisdom, described as eternal, self-arisen, and truly established. This wisdom exists autonomously and is thus not empty in the way that emptiness is understood by the Dge lugs. Instead, this wisdom consciousness is empty in the sense that it is devoid of all defilements and conventional factors, which are extraneous to its true nature. Hence, the Jo nang pas speak of “other emptiness” (gzhan stong) the absence of extrinsic and extraneous qualities. For the Dge lugs pas, the supreme interpreter of the doctrine of emptiness (as they understand it) is CANDRAKĪRTI. The Jo nang pas do not dispute the Dge lugs reading of Candrakīrti but they deny Candrakīrti the rank of premier expositor of NĀGĀRJUNA’s thought. For them, Candrakīrti teaches an emptiness that is a mere negation of intrinsic existence, which they equate with nihilism. They also do not deny that such an exposition is found in Nāgārjuna’s philosophical treatises (YUKTIKĀYA). However, they claim that those works do not represent Nāgārjuna’s final view, which is expressed instead in his devotional corpus (STAVAKĀYA), notably the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA, and, according to some, in the works of VASUBANDHU, the author of two defenses of the prajñāpāramitā sūtras. Those who would deny the ultimate existence of wisdom, such as Candrakīrti, are classed as “one-sided Madhyamakas” (phyogs gcig pa’i dbu ma pa) as opposed to the great Madhyamakas among whom they would include the Nāgārjuna of the hymns and ĀRYADEVA as well as thinkers whom the Dge lugs classify as Yogācāra or SVĀTANTRIKA MADHYAMAKA: ASAṄGA, Vasubandhu, MAITREYANĀTHA, and ŚĀNTARAKṢITA.

Deb ther dmar po. (Depter Marpo). In Tibetan, lit. “The Red Annals”; an influential Tibetan religious and political history written by ’Tshal pa Kun dga’ rdo rje (1309–1364). The work shows evidence of Mongolian influence, likely due to the strong Tibeto-Mongolian ties at the time. The title word deb ther is likely a Mongolian loan word and, although it became a subgenre in Tibetan literature, this appears to be the first instance of its usage. The text is also known as the Hu lan deb ther, where hu lan derives from the Mongolian word for “red.”

Deb ther dmar po gsar ma. (Depter Marpo Sarma). In Tibetan, lit. “The New Red Annals”; a Tibetan historical work written by the famed DGE LUGS scholar Paṇ chen Bsod nams grags pa (1478–1554). The text was intended as a supplement to the DEB THER DMAR PO (“Red Annals”) written almost a century previously, and covers the political and religious history of Tibet, with information about India, China, Mongolia, and the fabled land of ŚAMBHALA.

Deb ther sngon po. (Depter Ngonpo). In Tibetan, lit. “The Blue Annals”; a Tibetan historical work written by ’Gos lo tsā ba Gzhon nu dpal (1392–1481) between 1476 and 1478. It provides a broad history of Buddhism in Tibet, divided into sections covering various periods and transmission lineages. It is especially valued for its detailed history of the transmission of specific texts and practices from India to Tibet. It was one of the first comprehensive Tibetan works to be translated into English, by the Russian scholar GEORGE ROERICH and the Tibetan savant DGE ’DUN CHOS ’PHEL.

dehadāna. (T. lus kyi sbyin pa; C. sheshen; J. shashin; K. sasin 捨身). In Sanskrit, “gift of the body,” a form of charity (DĀNA) in which one gives away one’s body or a part of one’s body. Stories of such gifts abound in both the JĀTAKA and AVADĀNA literature, where a bodhisattva will give away a body part (including the head) or sacrifice his life as a way of easing others’ suffering. Among the more famous stories are that of King ŚIBI, who cuts off some of his own flesh to ransom the life of a dove from a hawk, Prince Mahāsattva who commits suicide by jumping off a cliff in order that his corpse can feed a starving tigress and her cubs, and King Candraprabha who gives his head to an evil brāhmaṇa. Such gifts are often counted among the bodhisattva’s fulfillment of the perfection of giving (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ), but it is sometimes said that a bodhisattva who has not yet understood emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ) should not make such a gift. The person who asks for the body part is often the god ŚAKRA in disguise, and the body part that was offered is then often restored upon making an “asseveration of truth” (SATYAVACANA). See also SHESHEN.