pudgalavāda. (P. puggalavāda; T. gang zag smra ba; C. buteqieluo lun; J. futogararon; K. pot’ŭkkara non 補特伽羅論). In Sanskrit, “proponents of a person” or “personalists,” a term (not apparently employed by its adherents) used to refer to several mainstream (that is, non-MAHĀYĀNA) schools of Indian Buddhism (including the VĀTSĪPUTRĪYA and the SAṂMITĪYA) that responded to the problem of how to account for personal continuity and rebirth when there is no perduring self (ANĀTMAN) by positing the existence of an “inexpressible” (S. avācya) “person” that is neither permanent nor impermanent and which is neither the same as nor different from the aggregates (SKANDHA), but which is the agent of cognition and the bearer of action (KARMAN) from moment to moment and lifetime to lifetime. Although its adherents presumed that this position conformed to the Buddha’s dictum that there was no self to be discovered among the aggregates, it was criticized by other Buddhist schools, including in the ninth chapter of the ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, where it was seen as the heretical assertion of a permanent self or soul (ĀTMAN). Despite vehement opposition from rival mainstream Buddhist schools, Chinese pilgrims reported the prominence in India of schools that held pudgalavāda positions, although whether all the monks of a particular ordination lineage held all the philosophical positions associated with this tradition remains a question. The problem of personal and karmic continuity from lifetime to lifetime without positing a perduring a self or soul is a persistent issue throughout the history of Buddhist thought, and it is addressed in the Mahāyāna, for example, through the YOGĀCĀRA school’s doctrine of the foundational consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA). See also ŚREṆIKA HERESY.

Puggalapaññatti. In Pāli, lit., “Concept of the Person,” “Analysis of Character Types”; the fourth of the seven books of the Pāli ABHIDHAMMAPIṬAKA. It is a classification of human personalities following the method of the AṄGUTTARANIKĀYA, grouping types of persons in categories of from one to ten elements, in ascending order. In the STHAVIRANIKĀYA, the person was seen not as a real phenomenon (P. dhamma, S. DHARMA), but was instead a mere designation or concept (P. paññati, S. PRAJÑAPTI), hence the title of the work. Some sections of the Puggalapaññatti are drawn nearly verbatim from the Aṅguttaranikāya, while others are taken from the SAṄGĪTISUTTA, a scripture in the DĪGHANIKĀYA that likewise uses the Aṅguttara method. Indeed, because the work draws much of its form and its content from discussions of the nature of the person in the SUTTAPIṬAKA, some scholars speculate that the Puggalapaññatti may be belong to the earliest stratum of Pāli ABHIDHAMMA materials.

Puhyu Sŏnsu. (浮休善修) (1543–1615). Korean Sŏn master of the Chosŏn dynasty. Sŏnsu was a native of Osu in present-day North Chŏlla province. In 1562, he went to CHIRISAN, where he became the student of a certain Sinmyŏng (d.u.) and later continued his studies under the Sŏn master Puyong Yŏnggwan (1485–1571). He was especially renowned for his calligraphy. Sŏnsu survived the Japanese Hideyoshi invasions from 1592 to 1598 and resided after the war at the monastery of HAEINSA. Sŏnsu and his disciple PYŎGAM KAKSŎNG were once falsely accused by another monk and were subsequently imprisoned; they were released later when the king learned of their innocence. In 1614, Sŏnsu went to the hermitage of Ch’ilburam at the monastery of SONGGWANGSA and passed away the next year after entrusting his disciples to Kaksŏng. He was given the posthumous title Honggak Tŭnggye (Expansive Enlightenment, Mastery of All). He left over seven hundred disciples, seven of whom became renowned Sŏn masters in their own right and formed separate branches of Sŏnsu’s lineage. His writings can be found in the Puhyudang chip.

pūjā. (T. mchod pa; C. gongyang; J. kuyō; K. kongyang 供養). In Sanskrit, lit. “worship” and “offering”; any “ritual” at which offerings are made, or the offerings themselves. These offering rituals involve a number of standard liturgies, including those in three parts (TRISKANDHAKA) and seven parts (SAPTĀṄGAVIDHI). In the MAHĀYĀNA, many pūjās seem to derive from a simple three-part liturgy, which appeared in two forms. One form consisted of (1) the confession of transgressions (PĀPADEŚANĀ), (2) the admiration of others’ virtues (ANUMODANA), and (3) the dedication of merit (PARIṆĀMANĀ). The other consisted of (1) the confession of transgressions, (2) the admiration of others’ virtue, and (3) the request to the buddhas to turn the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). This tripartite ritual was eventually expanded to include seven sections: obeisance, offering, confession, admiration, supplication to the buddhas and bodhisattvas to teach the dharma, entreaty not to pass into PARINIRVĀṆA, and dedication of any merit accrued by performing the preceding ritual to the enlightenment of all sentient beings. This sevenfold liturgy, presented most famously in the opening twelve stanzas of the BHADRACARĪPRAṆIDHĀNA (“Vow of SAMANTABHADRA’s Deeds”), the last section of the GAṆḌAVYŪHA in the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, became a standard part of many MAHĀYĀNA practices, often serving as a prolegomenon to a meditation session. This sevenfold liturgy became a common element of tantric pūjās as well.

Puji. (J. Fujaku; K. Pojŏk 普寂) (651–739). In Chinese, “Universal Quiescence”; CHAN monk and disciple of SHENXIU (606?–706) in the so-called “Northern School” (BEI ZONG) of the early Chan tradition. In his youth, Puji is said to have studied a wide range of Buddhist scriptures before ordaining at the age of thirty-eight. Soon afterwards, he left to study with Shenxiu at Yuquansi (Jade Spring Monastery) on Mt. Dangyang in Jingzhou. As the best-known disciple of Shenxiu, Puji was one of the subjects of a series of polemical attacks by the HEZE SHENHUI (684–758) beginning in 732. Shenhui denounced Puji and other disciples of Shenxiu as representing a mere collateral branch of BODHIDHARMA’s lineage and for promoting what Shenhui called a “gradual” (jian) approach to enlightenment. Shenhui instead promoted a “sudden teaching” (DUNJIAO), which he claimed derived from a so-called “Southern school” (NAN ZONG) founded by HUINENG (638–713), whom Shenhui claimed was the true successor of the fifth patriarch HONGREN (601–74). Later Chan historians such as GUIFENG ZONGMI (780–841) came to refer to a “Northern school” (Bei zong) of Chan to describe this lineage of Shenxiu’s, to which Puji, Yifu (661–736), and XIANGMO ZANG (d.u.) were said to have belonged.

Pujian. (C) (普建). Son of the early Chinese lay figure FU DASHI (497–569). See FU DASHI.

Pulcho chikchi simch’e yojŏl. (佛組直指心體要節). In Korean, “Essential Excerpts of the Buddhas and Patriarchs Pointing Directly to the Essence of Mind,” also known by the abbreviated titles Chikchi simch’e yojŏl, or simply Chikchi; the earliest surviving example from anywhere in the world of a text printed using movable metal type, predating Gutenberg’s 1455 printing of the Bible by seventy-eight years. The two-roll lineage anthology of the CHAN school was compiled in 1372 by PAEGUN KYŎNGHAN (1299–1374), one of the three great Sŏn masters of the late-Koryŏ dynasty. This anthology was first printed in 1377 at Hŭngdŏksa (the ruins of which were located in 1985 in Unch’ŏndong, near the city of Ch’ŏngju in South Korea) using movable cast-metal type. This printing technology was known to have been in use in Koryŏ–period Korea prior to the Mongol invasions of 1231–1232, but no examples survive. The metal-type printing of the Chikchi is held in the collection of the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris, and its existence was first noted by Maurice Courant in 1901. The first roll of the anthology includes the enlightenment poems of the seven buddhas of antiquity (SAPTATATHĀGATA), the twenty-eight Indian patriarchs of the Sŏn school (starting with MAHĀKĀŚYAPA and ending with BODHIDHARMA), the six Chinese patriarchs (ZUSHI) of Chan, and several later Sŏn masters. The second roll is a collection of the poetry, epitaphs, discourse records, and seminal teachings of eminent masters of the Sŏn school, such as the fourteen “nondualities” (ADVAYA) of Kyŏnghan’s Indian teacher ZHIKONG CHANXIAN (K. Chigong Sŏnhyŏn; S. *Dhyānabhadra). Like many of these lineage anthologies, the text is derivative, drawing on such earlier genealogical collections as the JINGDE CHUANDENG LU and the SŎNMUN YŎMSONG CHIP of CHIN’GAK HYESIM (1178–1234). Although the entire first roll and the first page of the second roll of the metal-type recension are lost, a complete xylographic edition of the anthology survives, which dates to 1378, one year later than the metal-type recension.

Pulguksa. (佛國寺). In Korean, “Buddha Land Monastery,” located outside KYŎNGJU, the ancient capital of the Silla dynasty, on the slopes of T’oham Mountain; this Silla royal monastery is the eleventh district monastery (PONSA) of the contemporary CHOGYE CHONG of Korean Buddhism and administers over sixty subsidiary monasteries and hermitages. According to the SAMGUK YUSA (“Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms”), Pulguksa was constructed in 751 by Kim Taesŏng (700–774), chief minister of King Kyŏngdŏk (r. 742–765), and completed in 774; it may have been constructed on the site of a smaller temple that dated from c. 528, during the reign of the Silla King Pŏphŭng (r. 514–539). Although it was a large complex, Pulguksa was not as influential within the Silla Buddhist tradition as other Kyŏngju monasteries, such as HWANGNYONGSA and PUNHWANGSA. The monastery has since been renovated numerous times, one of the largest projects occurring at the beginning of the seventeenth century, after the monastery was burned during the Japanese Hideyoshi invasions of 1592–1598. Pulguksa’s temple complex is built on a series of artificial terraces that were constructed out of giant stone blocks and is entered via two pairs of stone “bridges” cum staircases, which are Korean national treasures in their own right and frequently photographed. The main level of the monastery centers on two courtyards: one anchored by the TAEUNG CHŎN, or the main shrine hall, which houses a statue of ŚĀKYAMUNI Buddha, the other by the kŭngnak chŏn, or hall of ultimate bliss (SUKHĀVATĪ), which houses an eighth-century bronze statue of the buddha AMITĀBHA. The taeung chŏn courtyard is graced with two stone pagodas, the Sŏkka t’ap (Śākyamuni STŪPA) and the Tabo t’ap (Prabhūtaratna stūpa), which are so famous that the second of them is depicted on the Korean ten-wŏn coin. The juxtaposition of the two stūpas derives from the climax of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”), where the buddha PRABHŪTARATNA (Many Treasures) invites Śākyamuni to sit beside him inside his bejeweled stūpa, thus validating the teachings Śākyamuni delivered in the scripture. The Sŏkka t’ap represents Śākyamuni’s solitary quest for enlightenment; it is three stories tall and is notable for its bare simplicity. This stūpa is in marked contrast to its ornate twin, the Tabo t’ap, or Pagoda of the buddha Prabhūtaratna, which is modeled after a reliquary and has elaborate staircases, parapets, and stone lions (one of which was removed to the British Museum). During a 1966 renovation of the Sŏkka t’ap, the world’s oldest printed document was discovered sealed inside the stūpa: the MUGUJŎNGGWANG TAEDARANI KYŎNG (S. Raśmivimalaviśuddhaprabhādhāraṇī; “Great DHĀRAṆĪ of Immaculate Radiance”). The terminus ad quem for the printing of the Dhāraṇī is 751 CE, when the text was sealed inside the Sŏkka t’ap, but it may have been printed even earlier. Other important buildings include the Piro chŏn (VAIROCANA Hall) that enshrines an eighth-century bronze statue of its eponymous buddha, which is presumed to be the oldest bronze image in Korea; the Musŏl chŏn (The Wordless Hall), a lecture hall located directly behind the taeung chŏn, which was built around 670; and the Kwanŭm chŏn (AVALOKITEŚVARA hall), built at the highest point of the complex. Two and a half miles (4 kms) up T’oham Mountain to the east of Pulguksa is its affiliated SŎKKURAM grotto temple. Pulguksa and Sŏkkuram were jointly listed in 1995 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Pullīramalaya. (S). One of the twenty-four sacred sites associated with the CAKRASAṂVARATANTRA. See PĪṬHA.

punarbhava. (P. punabbhava; T. yang srid pa; C. houyou; J. gou; K. huyu 後有). In Sanskrit, lit. “re-becoming,” one of the Sanskrit terms used for what in English is translated as “rebirth” or “reincarnation,” along with PUNARJANMAN (and PUNARMṚTYU, or “redeath”). See REBIRTH.

punarjanman. (T. yang skye; C. zaisheng; J. saishō; K. chaesaeng 再生). In Sanskrit, lit. “birth again.” See REBIRTH.

punarmṛtyu. (T. yang shi; C. zaisi; J. saishi; K. chaesa 再死). In Sanskrit, lit. “re-death.” See REBIRTH.

puṇḍarīka. (T. padma dkar po; C. bailianhua/fentuoli hua; J. byakurenge/fundarike; K. paengnyŏnhwa/pundari hwa 白蓮華/芬陀利華). In Sanskrit, “white lotus” (Nelumbo nucifera), a specific species of lotus flower (PADMA), the ubiquitous flower appearing in Buddhist literature. The lotus is one of the most important symbols used in Buddhist literature and iconography. Because its spectacular flowers bloom above the muddy waters of stagnant ponds, the lotus is used as a symbol for the purity of mind that develops out of the pollution that is SAṂSĀRA. The puṇḍarīka lotus is especially famous in Buddhism as the “lotus” in the title of what is known in English as the “Lotus Sūtra”; the Sanskrit title is SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA, “White Lotus of the True Dharma.” See also PADMA.

Punhwangsa. (芬皇寺). In Korean, “Fragrant [viz. Virtuous] Sovereign Monastery”; one of the four major monasteries located in the Silla-dynasty capital of Kyŏngju. The monastery was built in 634 at the command of Queen Sŏndŏk (r. 632–647) and, at its peak, its campus covered several acres. Like its neighbor HWANGNYONGSA, Punhwangsa was established with the support of the Silla royal family and was a center of rituals performed for the protection of the state (K. hoguk Pulgyo; C. HUGUO FOJIAO). Punhwangsa is perhaps best known for its massive stone pagoda, the oldest extant example from the Silla kingdom. The pagoda was erected following Chinese Tang-dynasty models, but was constructed with black andesite stone, rather than the fired bricks used in China. About 9,700 stone bricks remain from the pagoda, twenty-five percent of which are damaged or significantly weathered. The pagoda was once seven to nine stories tall with a hollow center, but only three stories remain, and the collapse of its upper stories has filled the center with debris. A partial restoration of the pagoda in 1915 revealed a reliquary box (K. sarigu; C. SHELIJU) hidden between the second and third stories. Gold ornaments, coins, scissors, and a needle were also found in the pagoda; these are thought to have once been owned by Queen Sŏndŏk herself. The pagoda is presumed to have had doorways on each of its four sides; two guardian figures flanked each doorway. Lion statues are placed at the four corners of the pagoda’s foundation platform, and lotus blossoms are carved into the granite. The famous Silla artist Sol Kŏ (d.u.), who lived during the reign of King Chinhŭng (r. 540–575), painted a famous fresco of the bodhisattva AVALOKITEŚVARA at the monastery. In 755, King Kyŏngdŏk (r. 742–764) had a colossal standing image of BHAIṢAJYAGURU, the medicine buddha, cast for Punhwangsa, which was said to have weighed some 36,000 catties (kŭn). Punhwangsa was the residence of many of the most famous Korean monks of the Silla dynasty. When the VINAYA teacher CHAJANG (d.u.; fl. c. 590–658) returned in 643 from a sojourn in Tang China with a set of the Buddhist canon, as well as Buddhist banners, streamers, and other ritual items, he resided at Punhwangsa at the queen’s request. The renowned monk-scholiast WŎNHYO (617–686) wrote many of his treatises and commentaries at Punhwangsa and was closely associated with the monastery. After he died, according to the SAMGUK YUSA (“Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms”), his famous literatus son, Sŏl Ch’ong (c. 660–730), took Wŏnhyo’s ashes and cast them into a lifelike image, which he enshrined at the monastery. When Sŏl Ch’ong prostrated beside it, the image is said to have turned its head to look at the son, a posture it retained from that point on. Little of Punhwangsa remains today, but it is still a functioning monastery.

puṇya. (P. puñña; T. bsod nams; C. fu; J. fuku; K. pok 福). In Sanskrit, “merit,” the store of wholesome KARMAN created by the performance of virtuous deeds, which fructify in the form of happiness in the future. This merit may be accumulated (see PUṆYASAṂBHĀRA) over many lifetimes and dedicated toward a specific outcome (see PARIṆĀMANĀ), such as a favorable rebirth for oneself or another, or the achievement of buddhahood. The accumulation of merit, especially through charity (DĀNA) to the SAṂGHA, is one of the central practices of Buddhism across cultures and traditions, and numerous techniques for accumulating merit, increasing the store of merit, and protecting the store of merit from depletion or destruction are set forth in Buddhist texts. Pāli sources, for example, delineate three specific “grounds for producing merit” (puññakiriyavatthūni): giving (dāna), morality (P. sīla, S. ŚĪLA), and meditative practice (BHĀVANĀ). Merit can be dedicated toward a specific end, whether it is rebirth in the next lifetime, rebirth in the retinue of the future buddha MAITREYA, or the achievement of buddhahood for the welfare of all sentient beings.

puṇyajñānasaṃbhāra. (T. bsod nams dang ye shes kyi tshogs; C. fuzhi ziliang; J. fukuchi shiryō; K. pokchi charyang 福智資糧). In Sanskrit, “equipment” or “collection of merit and knowledge,” a term that encompasses all the practices and deeds that a BODHISATTVA perfects along the path to buddhahood. It is said that a bodhisattva must amass both a collection of merit (PUṆYA) and a collection of knowledge (JÑĀNA) in order to achieve buddhahood; this is because merit will help to overcome the afflictions (KLEŚA), while knowledge will help to counter ignorance (AVIDYĀ). MAHĀYĀNA exegetes explain that the collection of merit fructifies as the material body (RŪPAKĀYA) of a buddha (which includes both the SAṂBHOGAKĀYA and the NIRMĀṆAKĀYA) and the collection of knowledge fructifies as the DHARMAKĀYA. As such, the collection of merit is associated with UPĀYA, or method, and the collection of knowledge is associated with PRAJÑĀ, or wisdom. Mahāyāna scholiasts have also explored the question of the relationship between the accumulation of these two collections and the practice of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). Among various opinions set forth, a common one states that practice of the first three perfections—of giving (DĀNA), morality (ŚĪLA), patience (KṢĀNTI)—contributes to the collection of merit; the practice of the last two perfections—concentration (DHYĀNA) and wisdom (prajñā)—contributes to the collection of knowledge; and the perfection of effort (VĪRYA) contributes to both.

puṇyakriyāvastu. (P. puññakiriyāvatthu; T. bsod nams bya ba’i dngos po; C. fuye shi; J. fukugōji; K. pogŏpsa 福業事). In Sanskrit, “things that create merit,” a term that appears in ABHIDHARMA materials to describe three practices: giving (DĀNA), moral behavior (ŚĪLA), and meditation (BHĀVANĀ). Among forms of moral behavior, the five precepts (PAÑCAŚĪLA) of abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and using intoxicants are considered to be especially productive of merit. Among forms of meditation, meditation on the four BRAHMAVIHĀRA of loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity are considered to be especially productive of merit.

puṇyakṣetra. (P. puññakkhetta; T. bsod nams kyi zhing; C. futian; J. fukuden; K. pokch’ŏn 福田). In Sanskrit, “field of merit,” referring specifically to a recipient (a “field”) that has a substantial potential to provide karmic compensation to a benefactor who “plants the seeds of merit” there by performing wholesome actions (KUŚALA-KARMAN), especially through acts of charity (DĀNA). Traditionally, the Buddha, the SAṂGHA as an institution, or individual monks and nuns were described as the primary fields of merit for the laity, and in this context these provide an “unsurpassed” (anuttara) “field of merit.” By providing material support (dāna) such as food and robes’ cloth (see KAṬHINA) to the monastic order and its members, the laity in return would reap spiritual rewards (i.e., receiving religious instructions from the renunciants) as well as karmic rewards (viz. good fortune in this life and better rebirth in the next). The use of the term eventually expanded, as in the Chinese SANJIE JIAO (School of the Third Stage), to include one’s parents, the poor, the sick, the community of monks and nuns, and ultimately all sentient beings, since serving any of them involves acts of charity that would lead to the accumulation of merit. Several pairs of fields of merit are variously described in the literature. (1) The merit field of the trainee, or ŚAIKṢA (xueren tian), and the merit field of the accomplished adept, or AŚAIKṢA (wuxue ren tian). By making offerings to and supporting the spiritually accomplished (in this case, he who is “beyond training”—viz. an ARHAT), it is said that the merit accrued therefrom is greater than if the offering and support are given to someone less spiritually worthy. (2) The merit field associated with compassion (beitian) and the merit field associated with reverence (jingtian). In the Sanjie jiao school, for example, the former is exemplified by the act of giving (dāna) when it is undertaken with compassion (KARUṆĀ), such as in the case of helping the indigent; the latter is exemplified by the act of giving when it is undertaken with reverence, such as in the case of providing for the spiritually accomplished. (3) The merit field associated with anticipation (youzuo futian) and the merit field that is free from anticipation (wuzuo futian). The former refers to undertaking the act of giving with an active wish or anticipation of specific rewards; the latter is undertaken with no such wish or anticipation—and, since it is considered to stem from an unadulterated motive, will generate greater rewards. (4) The merit field associated with reverence (jingtian) and the merit field associated with (requiting) benefaction (en tian). The former is the act of giving directed toward the three jewels (RATNATRAYA); the latter, toward one’s parents, teachers, and other benefactors.

puṇyānumodana. (T. bsod nams rjes su yi rang; C. suixifu; J. zuikifuku; K. suhŭibok 隨喜福). In Sanskrit, “taking delight in merit,” “admiration of merit,” or in some contexts, “accumulation of merit”; one of the ways of developing merit, according to which one admires and finds joy in (ANUMODANA) the meritorious deeds (PUṆYA) of others, often those of the SAṂGHA or of BODHISATTVAs. It is sometimes said that, by admiring the meritorious deed of another person, one accumulates as much merit as if one had performed the deed oneself. Taking delight in others’ merit is therefore considered an especially efficient way of accumulating merit and functions as a standard component of many Buddhist rituals and prayers.

puṇyaprasava. (T. bsod nams skyes; C. fusheng tian; J. fukushōten; K. poksaeng ch’ŏn 福生天). In Sanskrit, “merit born,” the second (lowest) of the eight heavens of the fourth concentration (DHYĀNA) of the subtle-materiality realm (RŪPADHĀTU). The divinities of this heaven are so called because of the great merit that resulted in their birth in the heaven. As with all the heavens of the subtle-materiality realm, one is reborn as a divinity there through achieving the same level of concentration (dhyāna) as the divinities of that heaven during one’s practice of meditation in a previous lifetime. This heaven has no analogue in Pāli.

puṇyasaṃbhāra. (T. bsod nams kyi tshogs; C. fude ziliang; J. fukutoku shiryō; K. poktŏk charyang 福德資糧). In Sanskrit, “equipment” or “collection” “of merit,” one of the two accumulations (along with the JÑĀNASAṂBHĀRA) amassed over the course of the BODHISATTVA path and required for the attainment of buddhahood. This type of collection refers to the myriad meritorious deeds performed by a bodhisattva over millions of lifetimes, deeds that are dedicated to the achievement of buddhahood for the welfare of all sentient beings. Between the two poles of skill in means (UPĀYA) and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), the collection of merit is associated with upāya. Among the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ), the first three perfections, of giving (DĀNA), morality (ŚĪLA), and patience (KṢĀNTI), are traditionally associated with the collection of merit. The collection of merit, resulting from the performance of limitless meritorious deeds, is said to fructify as the RŪPAKĀYA of a buddha. See also PUṆYAJÑĀNASAṂBHĀRA.

Pūraṇa-Kāśyapa. (P. Pūraṇa-Kassapa; T. ’Od srung rdzogs byed; C. Fulanna Jiashe; J. Furannakashō; K. Puranna Kasŏp 富蘭那迦葉). One of the so-called “six heterodox teachers” (TĪRTHIKA) often mentioned in Buddhist sūtras and criticized by the Buddha. (The other five are MASKARIN GOŚĀLĪPUTRA, AJITA KEŚAKAMBHALA, KAKUDA KĀTYĀYANA, SAÑJAYA VAIRĀṬĪPUTRA, and NIRGRANTHA JÑĀTĪPUTRA.) Pūraṇa-Kāśyapa is said to have propounded the view of akiriyavāda, literally “nonaction,” a kind of antinomianism that denied the law of moral cause and effect (KARMAN). Pūraṇa claimed that, since there was no ultimate distinction between good and evil because actions did not have any effects, there was hence no harm in killing and stealing and no benefit in giving gifts and speaking truthfully. He also appears in accounts of the miracles the Buddha’s performed at ŚRĀVASTĪ (i.e., the YAMAKAPRĀTIHĀRYA, or “dual miracle,” and the MAHĀPRĀTIHĀRYA or “great miracle”) as one of the heterodox teachers who challenges the Buddha to a miracle contest. After the Buddha defeats the tīrthikas, Pūraṇa-Kāśyapa withdraws in despair and is said to have drowned himself in Lake Anavatapta.

pure land. (C. jingtu; J. jōdo; K. chŏngt’o 浄土). An English term with no direct equivalent in Sanskrit that is used to translate the Chinese JINGTU (more literally, “purified ground”); the Chinese term may be related to the term PARIŚUDDHABUDDHAKṢETRA (although this latter term does not appear in the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA, the text most closely aligned with pure land thought). The term “pure land” has several denotations in English, which have led to some confusion in its use. These include (1) a buddha-field (BUDDHAKṢETRA) purified of transgressions and suffering by a buddha and thus deemed an auspicious place in which to take rebirth; (2) the specific (and most famous) of these purified fields, that of the buddha AMITĀBHA, named SUKHĀVATĪ; (3) the tradition of texts and practices in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism dedicated to the description of a number of buddha-fields, including that of Amitābha, and the practices to ensure rebirth there; (4) a tradition of texts and practice in East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, associated specifically with the goal of rebirth in the purified buddha-field of Amitābha; (5) the JŌDOSHŪ and JŌDO SHINSHŪ schools of Japanese Buddhism, deriving from the teachings of HŌNEN and SHINRAN, which set forth a “single practice” for rebirth in sukhāvatī. It is important to note that, although the Sukhāvatīvyūhasūtra (and other sūtras describing other buddha-fields) originated in India, there was no “pure land school” in Indian Buddhism; rebirth in a buddha-field, and especially that of sukhāvatī, was one of the many generalized goals of Mahāyāna practice. Although there was an extensive tradition in China of scriptural exegesis of the major pure land sūtras, this was not enough in itself to constitute a self-consciously “pure land school”; indeed, techniques for rebirth in sukhāvatī became popular in many strands of Chinese Buddhism (see NIANFO), especially in light of theories of the disappearance of the dharma (see MOFA). Finally, it is important to note that the goal of rebirth in sukhāvatī was an important practice in Japan prior to the advent of Hōnen, and remained so in schools other than Jōdoshū and Jōdo Shinshū.

pure land school. See JINGTU ZONG; JISHŪ; JŌDOSHŪ; JŌDO SHINSHŪ; YŪZŪNENBUTSUSHŪ.

Pūrṇa. (P. Puṇṇa; T. Gang po; C. Fulouna; J. Furuna; K. Puruna 富樓那). In Sanskrit, “Fulfilled,” a famous ARHAT and disciple of the Buddha, often known as Pūrṇa the Great (MAHĀPŪRṆA). There are various stories of his origins and encounter with Buddha, leading some scholars to believe that there were two important monks with this name. In some cases, he is referred to as Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra (P. Puṇṇa Mantāṇīputta) and appears in lists of the Buddha’s ten chief disciples, renowned for his skill in preaching the DHARMA. In the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”), Pūrṇa is listed among the SRĀVAKAs who understand the parable in the seventh chapter on the conjured city; in the eighth chapter of that sūtra, the Buddha predicts Pūrṇa’s eventual attainment of buddhahood. According to Pāli accounts, where he is known as Puṇṇa, he was a brāhmaṇa from Kapilavatthu (S. KAPILAVASTU), the son of Mantāṇī, who was herself the sister of Aññā Koṇḍañña (ĀJÑĀTAKAUṆḌINYA), the first of five ascetics (P. pañcavaggiyā; S. PAÑCAVARGIKA) converted and ordained by the Buddha at the Isipatana (S. ṚṢIPATANA) deer park (MṚGADĀVA) after his enlightenment. After preaching to the five ascetics, the Buddha traveled to Rājagaha (S. Rājagṛha); Aññā Koṇḍañña instead went to Kapilavatthu, where he proceeded to ordain his nephew Puṇṇa. Aññā Koṇḍañña retired to the forest while Puṇṇa remained in Kapilavatthu, devoting himself to the study of scripture and the practice of meditation, soon becoming an arahant (S. ARHAT). He gathered around him five hundred disciples, all of whom became monks, and taught them the ten bases of discourse he had learned. All of them became arahants. At Sāvatthi (ŚRĀVASTĪ), the Buddha taught the dhamma to Puṇṇa in his private chambers, a special honor. While Puṇṇa was dwelling at the Andhavana grove, Sāriputta (S. ŚĀRIPUTRA) visited him to question him on points of doctrine. Puṇṇa was able to answer all of Sāriputta’s queries. It was while listening to Puṇṇa’s explication of causality that Ānanda became a stream-enterer (P. sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA). ¶ Other stories, most famously the Pūrṇāvadāna of the DIVYĀVADĀNA, tell of a different Pūrṇa, known as Puṇṇa Suppāraka in Pāli sources. His father was a wealthy merchant in the seaport of Sūrpāraka in western India. The merchant became ill and was cured by a slave girl, who eventually bore him a son, named Pūrṇa, who became in turn a skilled merchant. During a sea voyage with some merchants from ŚRĀVASTĪ, he heard his colleagues reciting prayers to the Buddha. Overcome with feelings of faith, he went to see the Buddha and was ordained. After receiving brief instructions from the Buddha, he asked permission to spread the dharma among the uncivilized people of Śroṇāparāntaka, where he converted many and became an arhat in his own right. He later returned to his home city of Sūrpāraka, where he built a palace of sandalwood and invited the Buddha and his monks for a meal. Events from the story of Pūrṇa are depicted in cave paintings at AJAṆṬĀ in India and KIZIL in Central Asia along the SILK ROAD. A similar story of Pūrṇa’s life as a merchant from a border region is recounted in still other Pāli accounts. After the Buddha preached the Puṇṇovādasutta to him, he is said to have joined the saṃgha and became an arahant. Puṇṇa won many disciples in his native land, who then wished to build a sandalwood monastery for the Buddha. The Buddha flew in celestial palanquins to Sunāparanta in the company of Puṇṇa and five hundred arahants in order to accept the gift. Along the way, the Buddha converted a hermit dwelling atop Mount Saccabandha and left a footprint (BUDDHAPĀDA) in the nearby Narmada River so that the NĀGA spirits might worship it. Sunāparanta of the Pāli legend is located in India, but the Burmese identify it with their homeland, which stretches from Middle to Upper Burma. They locate Mount Saccabandha near the ancient Pyu capital of Sirīkhettarā (Prome). The adoption of Puṇṇa as an ancient native son allowed Burmese chroniclers to claim that their Buddhism was established in Burma during the lifetime of the Buddha himself and therefore was older than that of their fellow Buddhists in Sri Lanka, who did not convert to Buddhism until the time of Asoka (S. AŚOKA) two and half centuries later.

Pūrṇagiri. In Sanskrit, “Mountain of Abundance” (sometimes also seen written as Paurṇagiri); one of the four major geographical centers in India in the development of both the Hindu and the Buddhist tantric traditions, located near the city of Pittoragarh in the modern state of Uttar Pradesh. Many tantric texts, such as the eighth-century HEVAJRATANTRA, identify Kāmākhyā, Śrīhaṭṭa, UḌḌIYĀNA, and Pūrṇagiri as being the places where the secrets of tantra were first revealed. These four areas thus came to be known as śaktipīṭhas, or “seats of Śakti.” Mythologically, this claim means that Pūrṇagiri is one of the places where the body of the goddess Śakti landed when it fell from heaven after being carved up by the gods. Different tantric schools offer various explanations as to which part of Śakti fell to Pūrṇagiri: some say it was her navel, others her neck and shoulders, still others her nose. Pūrṇagiri remains a popular pilgrimage site.

Pūrṇa-Maitrāyaṇīputra. (S). See PŪRṆA.

puruṣa. (P. purisa; T. skyes bu; C. ren/shifu/shenwo; J. nin/jifu/jinga; K. in/sabu/sina 人/士夫/神我). In Sanskrit, “person” or “being,” a common term for an individual being or self in Indian literature. In the non-Buddhist Indian philosophical schools, especially Sāṃkhya, the term often refers to the imperishable self that persists from lifetime to lifetime. However, in Buddhist scholastic literature, the term tends to function as a synonym for PUDGALA, that is, the person or being created in each lifetime, which is the product of past action (KARMAN) and devoid of any perduring self (ĀTMAN). In less philosophical contexts, the term commonly means simply “man” or “(human) male.” Thus, the Buddha is called a MAHĀPURUṢA, “great man.” One of the famous uses of the term in Buddhist literature is found in the BODHIPATHAPRADĪPA of ATIŚA DĪPAṂKARAŚRĪJÑĀNA. In this work, Atiśa divides all persons into three capacities (TRĪNDRIYA), based on their level of aspiration. Those who seek only happiness within SAṂSĀRA, whether in this life or a future life, are classified as beings of lesser capacity (MṚDVINDRIYA). Those who seek liberation from rebirth for themselves alone are classified as beings of intermediate capacity (MADYENDRIYA). Those who seek to liberate all beings in the universe from suffering are beings of great capacity (TĪKṢṆENDRIYA). This threefold division provided the structure for TSONG KHA PA’s LAM RIM CHEN MO.

puruṣakāraphala. (T. skyes bu’i byed pa’i ’bras bu; C. shiyong guo; J. jiyūka; K. sayong kwa 士用果). In Sanskrit, “effect produced by a person,” or “virile fruition”; this is one of the five effects (PHALA) enumerated in the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA and the YOGĀCĀRA system. The puruṣakāraphala is the fruition of the coexistent cause (SAHABHŪHETU) and conjoined cause (SAṂPRAYUKTAHETU) and refers to effects that are the result of human effort (rather than the result of the ripening of past KARMAN), whether that effort be virtuous (KUŚALA), unvirtuous (AKUŚALA), or neutral. In this sense, the action performed by the person himself or herself leads to a result that is conjoined with that person: thus, a pot made by a potter would fall into this category of phala, as would a meditator’s attainment of one of the noble paths (ĀRYAMĀRGA).

pūrvanivāsānusmṛti. (P. pubbenivāsānussati; T. sngon gyi gnas rjes su dran pa; C. suzhu suinian; J. shukujūzuinen; K. sukchu sunyŏm 宿住隨念). In Sanskrit, lit. “recollection of former abodes,” viz., “memory of past lives.”; a cardinal teaching of all schools of Buddhism and an element of meditative attainment in many Buddhist traditions. The term occurs most commonly as a component of one or another list, such as the superknowledges (ABHIJÑĀ), knowledges (VIDYĀ), or powers (BALA). Although lists of five, six, and seven abhijñā appear in Buddhist literature, the most common listing is of six, with the memory of past lives being fourth. The same memory of former abodes is sometimes called the first of the three knowledges (TRIVIDYĀ) that are realized at the point of enlightenment, the other two being the divine eye (DIVYACAKṢUS) and the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants (ĀSRAVAKṢAYA). In addition, the memory of former abodes occurs as the eighth of the ten powers (bala) of the TATHĀGATA. ¶ In situating the memory of former abodes within broader descriptions of the practice of the path (MĀRGA), one general account describes the path of an average monk, while in another the Buddha relates his own experience. In the SĀMAÑÑAPHALASUTTA of the Pāli DĪGHANIKĀYA, for example, the Buddha describes the benefits of the life of mendicancy, providing a chronological catalogue of the attainments of one who follows the path, starting from the occasion of first hearing the dharma and proceeding to the attainment of NIRVĀṆA. Among those attainments are the six abhiññā/abhijñā, including memory of past lives and culminating with the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants. Yet another variety of the arhat path is described in great detail in the CŪḶAHATTHIPADOPAMASUTTA of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA. This account differs from that in the Dīgha with respect to the superknowledges, in that here, having attained the fourth meditative absorption (P. jhāna, S. DHYĀNA), the monk achieves only the last three of the abhiññā: the knowledge of former abodes, the divine eye, and the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants. Elsewhere, these three experiences are referred to as the three types of knowledge. In the VISUDDHIMAGGA, BUDDHAGHOSA describes a regimen in which the meditator recalls his or her life in reverse order, beginning with the most recent act of sitting down to meditate, tracing the events of this life back to the moment of conception and back to the moment of death in the previous existence and so on through the eons. Non-Buddhists are said to be able to recollect as far back as forty eons, ordinary ŚRĀVAKAs one thousand eons, the eighty great śrāvakas one hundred thousand eons, ŚĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA an incalculable age plus one hundred thousand eons, PRATYEKABUDDHAs two incalculable eons plus one hundred thousand eons, and buddhas limitless past lives. In the more detailed “autobiographical” narratives of the Buddha’s enlightenment in mainstream sources, the bodhisattva becomes the Buddha by gaining the three types of knowledge: in the first watch of the night, the knowledge of former abodes; in the second watch, the divine eye; and in the third watch of the night, the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants. In the second watch, he remembers his name, his clan, his caste, his food, his pleasure and pain, and his life span for individual lives over the incalculable past. In general, the achievement of the knowledge of former lives is described as the product of deep states of concentration and, as such, is accessible also to non-Buddhist YOGINs; for this reason it is considered a worldly or mundane (laukika) knowledge. In the MAHĀYĀNA sūtras, similar descriptions of the six abhijñā and three vidyā are found. However, the memory of former lives also occurs simply as the product of a certain meritorious deeds. The memory of past lives typically causes the person to practice virtue in order to avoid an unfortunate rebirth. In the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA, it is said that all beings reborn in AMITĀBHA’s PURE LAND will be endowed with memory of their former abodes going back trillions of eons.

pūrvapraṇidhāna. (T. sngon gyi smon lam; C. benyuan; J. hongan; K. ponwŏn 本願). In Sanskrit, “prior vow,” a vow made in the past that has either been fulfilled in the present or will be fulfilled in the future, typically in conjunction with the attainment of buddhahood. The term pūrvapraṇidhāna is used specifically in the MAHĀYĀNA to denote the vow made in the past by a BODHISATTVA to become a buddha himself, often specifying the place, the time, and the retinue that will be associated with that achievement. Since the buddhas have perforce succeeded in achieving their goal of buddhahood, their prior vows are therefore all considered to have been fulfilled. The most famous of all prior vows are the forty-eight vows described in the SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA, in which the bodhisattva DHARMĀKARA makes a series of forty-eight vows to create the PURE LAND of SUKHĀVATĪ. These vows are narrated by the Buddha, who explains that the bodhisattva fulfilled all the vows and became the buddha AMITĀBHA. The exegesis of the vows of Dharmākara was an important element of JŌDOSHŪ and JŌDO SHINSHŪ buddhology in Japan. (The Chinese translation of this term literally means “original vow,” and this English rendering is commonly seen in Western translations of PURE LAND works.) The compound *pubbepaṇidhāna is unattested in Pāli sources, but the term paṇidhāna is used to refer to this aspiration made in a previous life.

Pūrvaśaila. (P. Pubbaseliya; T. Shar gyi ri bo; C. Dongshan; J. Tōzan; K. Tongsan 東山). In Sanskrit, “Eastern Hill,” the name of one of the offshoots of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA, associated particularly with the CAITYA school centered in the Andhra region of southern India. The name of the school seems to derive from the location of its chief VIHĀRA on a hill to the east of the city of Dhānyakaṭaka; one finds reference to both schools called Uttaraśaila (“Northern Hill”) and Aparaśaila (“Western Hill”). Like other branches of the Caitya, the school seems to have held the building and veneration of reliquaries (CAITYA) to be particularly efficacious forms of creating merit (PUṆYA). Like other branches of the Mahāsāṃghika, they also held that the enlightenment of a buddha was superior to that of an ARHAT. Much of what is known about their doctrinal positions derives from the reports of authors from other schools, such as BUDDHAGHOSA in his commentary to the KATHĀVATTHU, where it is claimed that they asserted the existence of forces dissociated from thought (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAṂSKĀRA) and of an intermediate state (ANTARĀBHAVA) between death and rebirth.

pūrvavideha. (S). See VIDEHA.

Pusa benye jing. (J. Bosatsu hongōkyō; K. Posal ponŏp kyŏng 菩薩本業經). In Chinese, “Original Acts [alt. Basic Endeavors] of the Bodhisattvas”; translated by ZHI QIAN (fl. c. 220–252). This scripture offers one of the earliest accounts of the ten BODHISATTVA stages (S. daśavihāra, DAŚABHŪMI) translated into Chinese. This text combines the variant versions of the ten bodhisattva stages found in the GAṆḌAVYŪHA (viz. AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA) and the MAHĀVASTU. This translated scripture should be distinguished from the PUSA YINGLUO PENYE JING, an indigenous Chinese sūtra attributed to the translator ZHU FONIAN (fl. c. 390), which may have been inspired by this similarly named text. In the tradition, the Pusa benye jing is usually abbreviated as the Benye jing, while that indigenous text is typically known by its abbreviated title Yingluo jing. (To confuse things even more, Zhu Fonian is also said to have translated a Pusa yingluo jing, which may be how his name became associated with the apocryphal Pusa yingluo benye jing.)

pusa jie. (J. bosatsukai; K. posal kye 菩薩戒). In Chinese, “BODHISATTVA precepts”; a set of precepts unique to the MAHĀYĀNA tradition, which bodhisattvas follow on the path to buddhahood. These precepts are regarded as independent from monastic precepts and can be taken and kept by monks and nuns, as well as laypeople. There are various enumerations of the vows, the most famous of which in East Asia is a list of ten major and forty-eight minor Mahāyāna precepts that derives from the apocryphal FANWANG JING (“Book of Brahmā’s Net”). See the extensive discussion in BODHISATTVAŚĪLA entry; see also BODHISATTVASAṂVARA.

Pusajie jing. (S. *Bodhisattvaśīlasūtra; J. Bosatsukaikyō; K. Posalgye kyŏng 菩薩戒經). In Chinese, “Book of the Bodhisattva Precepts”; independent title given to the second roll of the FANWANG JING (“Book of Brahmā’s Net”), which provides a list of ten major and forty-eight minor MAHĀYĀNA precepts. This text is often cited by its reconstructed, but unattested, Sanskrit title, the *Bodhisattvaśīlasūtra. See FANWANG JING; BODHISATTVAŚĪLA.

Pusa yingluo benye jing. (J. Bosatsu yōraku hongōkyō; K. Posal yŏngnak ponŏp kyŏng 菩薩瓔珞本業經). In Chinese, “Book of the Original Acts that Adorn the Bodhisattva,” in two rolls, translation attributed to ZHU FONIAN (fl. c. 390); a Chinese indigenous sūtra (see APOCRYPHA) often known by its abbreviated title of Yingluo jing. The Yingluo jing was particularly influential in the writings of CHAN and TIANTAI exegetes, including such seminal scholastic figures as TIANTAI ZHIYI, who cited the sūtra especially in conjunction with discussions of the BODHISATTVA MĀRGA and Mahāyāna VINAYA. The Yingluo jing is perhaps best known for its attempt to synthesize the variant schemata of the Buddhist path (mārga) into a comprehensive regimen of fifty-two BODHISATTVA stages: the ten faiths, the ten abidings, the ten practices, the ten transferences, and the ten grounds (see C. DAŚABHŪMI; BHŪMI); these then culminate in the two stages of buddhahood, virtual or equal enlightenment (dengjue) and sublime enlightenment (miaojue), which the Yingluo jing calls respectively the immaculate stage (wugou di, S. *amalabhūmi) and the sublime-training stage (miaoxue di). The Yingluo jing is one of the first texts formally to include the ten faiths in its prescribed mārga schema, as a preliminary level prior to the initiation onto the bodhisattva path proper, which is said to occur at the time of the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) on the first level of the ten abidings. The text therefore adds an additional ten steps to the forty-two named stages of the path outlined in the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA (C. Huayan jing), providing a complete fifty-two-stage path, one of the most comprehensive accounts of the mārga to be found in East Asian Buddhist literature. The Yingluo jing also offers one of the most widely cited descriptions of the threefold classification of Buddhist morality (C. sanju jingji; S. ŚĪLATRAYA), a categorization of precepts found typically in YOGĀCĀRA-oriented materials. The Yingluo jing describes these as (1) the moral code that maintains both the discipline and the deportments (= S. SAṂVARAŚĪLA) through the ten perfections (PĀRAMITĀ); (2) the moral code that accumulates wholesome dharmas (= S. kuśaladharmasaṃgrāhaka) through the eighty-four thousand teachings; and (3) the moral code that aids all sentient beings (= S. SATTVĀRTHAKRIYĀ), through exercising loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity (viz. the four BRAHMAVIHĀRA). The Yingluo jing specifies that these three categories of precepts are the foundation of morality for all bodhisattvas. The provenance and authorship of the Pusa yingluo benye jing have long been matters of controversy. In the fifth-century Buddhist catalogue CHU SANZANG JI JI, the compiler Sengyou lists the Pusa yingluo benye jing among miscellaneous works by anonymous translators. In the 594 scriptural catalogue Zhongjing mulu, the scripture is ascribed to Zhu Fonian, while the LIDAI SANBAO JI instead claims that the text was translated by the dhyāna master Zhiyan in 427. Later cataloguers generally accept the attribution to Zhu Fonian, though some note that the translation style differs markedly from that found in other of his renderings. The attribution to Zhu Fonian is also suspect because it includes passages and doctrines that seem to derive from other indigenous Chinese sūtras, such as the RENWANG JING, FANWANG JING, etc., as well as passages that appear in earlier Chinese translations of the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, PUSA BENYE JING, SHENGMAN JING, Pusa dichi jing, and DA ZHIDU LUN. Both internal and external evidence therefore suggests that the Yingluo jing is a Chinese apocryphon from the fifth century. ¶ The Pusa yingluo benye jing should be distinguished from the Pusa benye jing (“Basic Endeavors of the Bodhisattvas”), translated by ZHI QIAN (fl. c. 220–252), an authentic translation that offers one of the earliest accounts of the ten stages (S. daśavihāra, DAŚABHŪMI) translated into Chinese. (It is usually known by its abbreviated title of Benye jing.) This text seems to combine the accounts of the ten bodhisattva stages found in the GAṆḌAVYŪHA (viz., Avataṃsakasūtra) and the MAHĀVASTU and may have been the inspiration for the composition of this indigenous Chinese sūtra. (Zhu Fonian also translated a Pusa yingluo jing, which may be how his name became associated with this apocryphal Pusa yingluo benye jing.)

Pusŏksa. (浮石寺). In Korean, “Floating Rock Monastery,” located on Mt. Ponghwang, in North Kyŏngsang province; one of the major Silla HWAŎM (C. HUAYAN ZONG) monasteries established by ŬISANG (625–702), the founder of the Hwaŏm school in Korea. According to the monastery’s foundation story in the SAMGUK YUSA (“Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms”), while Ŭisang was studying in China, he stayed over at the home of a layman, whose daughter Sŏnmyo (C. Shenmiao) became enamored of the master. When the time came for Ŭisang to return to Silla, he went to see Sŏnmyo to let her know that he was leaving, but she was not at home, so he just left a note for her. After receiving the message, Sŏnmyo ran down to the waterfront, only to see that his ship had already disappeared over the horizon. In despair, she jumped into the sea and died, but was reborn as a dragon who protected Ŭisang on the voyage back to Silla. After returning home, Ŭisang tried to build a monastery on Mt. Ponghwang in order to establish the Hwaŏm teachings in Silla. There were, however, five hundred bandits living on the mountain at the time, who stopped Ŭisang from proceeding. The dragon woman Sŏnmyo frightened them away by transforming herself into a huge rock floating in the air. The monastery takes its name “Pusŏk” (Floating Rock) from this rock, which is believed to be the massive boulder that sits next to the main shrine hall. Sŏnmyo Pavilion is named after this female dharma protector. Many Silla and Koryŏ monks studied Hwaŏm doctrine at Pusŏksa, including the Silla SŎN masters Hyech’ŏl (785–861) and Muyŏm (801–888), and the Koryŏ state preceptors Kyŏrŭng (964–1053) and Hagil (1052–1144). Despite its close sectarian associations with the Hwaŏm school, the monastery’s shrine halls are more directly linked to the PURE LAND teachings, reflecting Ŭisang’s eclectic approach to Buddhist thought and practice. These pure land linkages include (1) the Anyang nu (Pavilion of Peaceful Nurturing) is an alternative name for the pure land of SUKHĀVATĪ; (2) Muryangsu chŏn (Hall of Immeasurable Life), the main shrine hall of the monastery, is dedicated to AMITĀBHA, rather than to the MAHĀVAIROCANA image that might be expected in a Hwaŏm monastery; (3) the statue of AMITĀBHA in the main hall faces east so that worshippers will face west, in the direction of the Amitābha’s pure land, when worshipping in the hall; (4) after entering the Ilchu mun (One-Pillar Gate), the front entrance gate to the monastery grounds, the monastery is laid out over nine stone terraces, which is often interpreted as corresponding to the pure land theory of nine grades of the pure land (kup’um chŏngt’o; see C. JIUPIN), a sort of a soteriological outline of rebirth in the pure land, which ranges from the worst of the worst to the best of the best. Pusŏksa is currently a branch monastery (MALSA) of the sixteenth district monastery (PONSA) KOUNSA (Secluded Cloud Monastery), which was also founded by Ŭisang.

Putuoshan. (J. Fudasen; K. Pot’asan 普陀山/補陀山). In Chinese, “Mount POTALAKA”; a mountainous island in the Zhoushan Archipelago, about sixty-two miles off the eastern coast of Zhejiang province; also known as Butuoshan, Butuoluojiashan, Xiaobaihuashan, etc. Putuoshan is considered one of the four Buddhist sacred mountains in China, along with WUTAISHAN in Shanxi, EMEISHAN in Sichuan, and JIUHUASHAN in Anhui. Each of the mountains is said to be the residence of a specific BODHISATTVA, and Putuoshan is regarded as the sacred mountain of AVALOKITEŚVARA, known in Chinese as GUANYIN pusa, the revered “bodhisattva of compassion.” There are many legends told about Putuoshan. During the Tang dynasty, an Indian monk is said to have come to Putuoshan and immolated his ten fingers, after which Avalokiteśvara appeared and preached the dharma to him. As this legend spread, Putuoshan gained fame as the sacred site of Avalokiteśvara. In 916 CE, a Japanese monk was bringing a statue of Avalokiteśvara back to Japan from Wutaishan, but was delayed on Putuoshan by fierce storms. He built a monastery for Avalokiteśvara on the island and named it Baotuo monastery, an abbreviated Chinese transcription for the Sanskrit word Potalaka, an Indian holy mountain that, according to the GAṆḌAVYŪHA of the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, is thought to be the abode of Avalokiteśvara. Since that sūtra said that Mt. Potalaka was an isolated mountainous island rising out of the ocean, the sacred geography seemed to match Putuoshan’s physical geography. After the Southern Song dynasty, the scale of monasteries, nunneries, monks and nuns in Putuoshan increased significantly through donations from the imperial court and lay Buddhists. Many people came to Putuoshan, especially to pray for safe voyages. It was also popular for the emperor to perform religious rites on Putuoshan. In 1131, during the Southern Song dynasty, all Buddhist schools on Putuoshan were designated as CHAN monasteries. In 1214, Putuoshan was ordered to emphasize the worship of Avalokiteśvara. At the height of its prestige, there were as many as 218 monasteries on the island, housing more than two thousand monks and nuns. There are now three major monasteries on Putuoshan—Pujisi, Fayusi, and Huijisi—all affiliated with either the LINJI ZONG or the CAODONG ZONG of CHAN Buddhism, and seventy-two smaller temples. Pious pilgrims come to Putuoshan from all over China to worship Avalokiteśvara, and Putuoshan continues to be one of the most popular pilgrimage sites in China. See also POTALAKA; PO TA LA.

Puyan. (C) (普巖). See YUN’AN PUYAN.

Pyŏgam Kaksŏng. (碧巖覺性) (1575–1660). Korean SŎN master of the Chosŏn dynasty; also known as Chingwŏn. Kaksŏng was a native of Poŭn (in present-day North Ch’ungch’ŏng province). After losing his father at an early age, Kaksŏng became a monk under Sŏlmuk (d.u.) at the hermitage of Hwasanam. Kaksŏng received the full monastic precepts in 1588 from a certain Pojŏng (d.u.) and subsequently became the disciple of the eminent Sŏn master PUHYU SŎNSU, whom he accompanied from one mountain monastery to another. When Japanese troops stormed the Korean peninsula in 1592 during the Hideyoshi invasions, Kaksŏng served in the war in place of his teacher, who had been recommended earlier to the king by the eminent monk SAMYŎNG YUJŎNG. Kaksŏng launched a successful sea campaign against Japanese naval forces. Kaksŏng was once falsely accused of a crime and imprisoned, but was later released and appointed prelate (p’ansa) of both the Sŏn and KYO traditions and abbot of the monastery Pongŭnsa in the capital of Seoul. In 1624, he was appointed the supreme director of the eight provinces (p’alto toch’ongsŏp) and oversaw the construction of Namhansansŏng. Kaksŏng then spent the next few years in Chŏlla province, restoring the monasteries of HWAŎMSA, SONGGWANGSA, and SSANGGYESA, which had been burned during the Hideyoshi invasions. He also taught at HAEINSA, PAEGUNSA, and Sangsŏnam, but eventually returned to Hwaŏmsa, where he passed away in 1660. He produced many famous disciples, such as Ch’wimi Such’o (1590–1668), Paekkok Ch’ŏnŭng (1617–1680), Moun Chinŏn (1622–1703), and Hoeŭn Ŭngjun (1587–1672). Kaksŏng’s lineage expanded into eight branches, and his influence on the subsequent development of Korean Sŏn rivalled that of CH’ŎNGHŎ HYUJŎNG, the preeminent Korean monk during the Chosŏn dynasty. Kaksŏng also composed many treatises, including the Sŏnwŏnjipto chung kyŏrŭi, Kanhwa kyŏrŭi, Sŏngmun sangŭi ch’o, and others.

P’yohunsa. (表訓寺). In Korean, “P’yohun’s monastery”; one of the four major monasteries on the Buddhist sacred mountain of KŬMGANGSAN (Diamond Mountains), now in North Korea. The monastery is said to have been built in 598 during the Silla dynasty by Kwallŭk (d.u.) and Yungun (d.u.), and rebuilt in 675 by P’yohun (d.u.), one of the ten disciples of ŬISANG (625–702), the vaunt-courier of the Korean HWAŎM (C. HUAYAN) school. The present monastery was rebuilt after the Korean War (1950–1953) on the model of an earlier reconstruction project finished in 1778 during the late-Chosŏn dynasty. The main shrine hall of the monastery is named Panya Pojŏn (Prajñā Jeweled Basilica), rather than the typical TAEUNG CHŎN (basilica of the great hero [the Buddha]), and the image of the bodhisattva DHARMODGATA (Pŏpki Posal) that used to be enshrined therein was installed facing Dharmodgata Peak (Pŏpkibong) to the northeast of the hall, rather than toward the front. The relics (ŚARĪRA) of NAONG HYEGŬN (1320–1376), a late-Koryŏ period Sŏn monk who introduced the orthodox LINJI ZONG (K. IMJE CHONG) lineage to Korea from China, were enshrined at P’yohunsa. The monastery also was famous for its iron pagoda (STŪPA) with fifty-three enshrined buddha images, but these were lost sometime during the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945), along with Naong’s relics. Chŏngyangsa, one of the branch monasteries of P’yohunsa, is said to have been built at the spot where Dharmodgata and his attendant bodhisattvas appeared before the first king of the Koryŏ dynasty, Wang Kŏn, T’aejo (877–943; r. 918–943), on his visit to Kŭmgangsan. The peak where Dharmodgata made his appearance is named Panggwangdae (Radiant Terrace), and the spot where T’aejo prostrated himself before Dharmodgata is called Paejŏm (Prostration Hill). Podŏgam, a hermitage affiliated with P’yohunsa, is notable for its peculiar construction: for four hundred years it has been suspended off a cliff, supported by a single copper foundation pillar.

P’yŏnyang Ŏn’gi. (鞭羊彦機) (1581–1644). Korean SŎN master and renowned painter during the Chosŏn period. Ŏn’gi entered the SAṂGHA at the age of eleven and subsequently became a student of the Sŏn master CH’ŎNGHŎ HYUJŎNG. He taught at various monasteries and hermitages, including Ch’ŏndŏksa, Taesŏngsa on Mt. Kuryong, and Ch’ŏnsuam on Mt. Myohyang. He died at sixty-three, leaving behind some thirty disciples, the largest group among Hyujŏng’s four direct lineages. His writings can be found in the P’yŏnyangdang chip.