部). In Sanskrit, “Those who Make a Single Utterance,” an alternate name for the LOKOTTARAVĀDA collateral line of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school of mainstream Buddhism. See LOKOTTARAVĀDA.| E |
e. (C) (阿). Sinograph adopted in Chinese Buddhist texts to transcribe the Sanskrit and Middle Indic phoneme “a.” Following common practice in Buddhist studies, Chinese transcriptions using this character are listed under “A,” e.g., Emituo is listed as Amituo, emaluo as amaluo, etc.
Ebisu. (J) (恵比須). See SHICHIFUKUJIN.
Edgerton, Franklin. (1885–1963). American scholar of Sanskrit; born in Le Mars, Iowa, he received his undergraduate education at Cornell. He then studied at Munich and Jena before returning to the United States, where he studied Sanskrit and comparative philology at Johns Hopkins. Edgerton taught at the University of Pennsylvania, before moving to Yale in 1926 as Salisbury Professor of Sanskrit. He remained there for the remainder of his academic career, retiring in 1953. Edgerton’s great contribution to Buddhist studies was the 1953 publication of his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary and his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Reader, the result of some three decades of work. Edgerton coined the term BUDDHIST HYBRID SANSKRIT to describe the language of PRAKRIT, mixed Sanskrit, and Sanskrit that occurs in many Buddhist Sanskrit texts, especially the MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRA literature. Prior to Edgerton, this language was sometimes called the Gāthā dialect because it occurred frequently in the verses, or GĀTHĀ, in the Mahāyāna sūtras. Edgerton divided Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit into three classes based on the degree of hybridization within a given text. Since its publication, Edgerton’s work, and the entire category of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit itself, has been the subject of much scholarly debate, but Edgerton’s dictionary remains widely used.
ehibhikṣukā. (P. ehi bhikkhu; T. dge slong tshur shog; C. shanlai bichu; J. zenrai bisshu; K. sŏllae p’ilch’u 善來苾芻). In Sanskrit, the “come, monk” formula; the oldest of the four types of ordination (UPASAṂPADĀ), the ehibhikṣukā was primarily performed at the inception of the Buddhist dispensation before the establishment of a formal procedure for admission into the order; for this reason, many of the Buddha’s most famous early disciples were called the ehibhikṣu UPĀLI, etc. Early in his teaching career, when a disciple sought to enter formally the Buddha’s incipient order, the Buddha would ordain them via this simple formula, the full form of which is “Come, monk, the DHARMA is well proclaimed; live the holy life for the complete ending of suffering.” Some women were also ordained as nuns following a parallel exhortation. In the AVADĀNA literature, when the Buddha ordains monks with this famous phrase, the following description of the new monks often appears, “No sooner had the BHAGAVAT pronounced these words than they found themselves shaved, covered with the robe and provided with the alms-bowl and the pitcher that ends in the beak of a bird; having beard and hair of seven days, they appeared with the proper aspect of monks who had received ordination a hundred years ago.”
eight auspicious symbols. See AṢṬAMAṄGALA.
eight bodhisattvas. See AṢṬAMAHOPAPUTRA.
eight classes of nonhuman beings. In Sanskrit, AṢṬASENĀ; a listing of eight types of mythical and semi-mythical beings associated with the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU); they are often listed as being in attendance when the Buddha speaks the MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRAs. There are various lists, but a standard grouping includes divinities (DEVA), serpent deities (NĀGA), demons (YAKṢA), titans (ASURA), demigod musicians (GANDHARVA), mythical birds (GARUḌA), half-horse/half-men (KIṂNARA), and great snakes (MAHORĀGA). For fuller treatments, see AṢṬASENĀ and entries for the individual beings.
eighteen arhats. Cf. ṢOḌAŚASTHAVIRA.
eight episodes in the life of a buddha. See BAXIANG.
eight extremes. (S. aṣṭānta; T. mtha’ brgyad; C. babu; J. happu; K. p’albul 八不). The antinomies of production and cessation, eternality and annihilation, sameness and difference, and coming and going, which constitute the eight deluded views of sentient beings. See AṢṬĀNTA; BABU.
eightfold path. (S. aṣṭāṅgamārga; P. aṭṭhaṅgikamagga; T. lam yan lag brgyad; C. bazhengdao; J. hasshōdō; K. p’alchŏngdo 八正道). One of the basic formulations of the Buddhist path (MĀRGA) to enlightenment, comprised of the following: (1) right views (SAMYAGDṚṢṬI; P. sammādiṭṭhi), (2) right intention (SAMYAKSAṂKALPA; P. sammāsaṅkappa), (3) right speech (SAMYAGVĀC; P. sammāvācā), (4) right conduct (SAMYAKKARMĀNTA; P. sammākammanta), (5) right livelihood (SAMYAGĀJĪVA; P. sammājīva), (6) right effort (SAMYAGVYĀYĀMA; P. sammāvāyāma), (7) right mindfulness (SAMYAKSMṚTI; P. sammāsati), and (8) right concentration (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI; P. sammāsamādhi). For a full treatment of this formulation, see ĀRYĀṢṬĀṄGAMĀRGA s.v..
eighth consciousness. See ĀLAYAVIJÑĀNA.
eight liberations. See AṢṬAVIMOKṢA.
eight minor Bka’ brgyud subsects. See BKA’ BRGYUD CHE BZHI CHUNG BRGYAD.
eight precepts. See AṢṬĀṄGASAMANVĀGATAṂ UPAVĀSAṂ; ŚĪLA.
Eight Verses on Mind Training. See BLO SBYONG TSHIG BRGYAD MA.
Eiheiji. (永平寺). In Japanese, “Eternal Peace Monastery.” Eiheiji is currently the headquarters (honzan) of the SŌTŌSHŪ. Eiheiji was founded by the Zen master DŌGEN KIGEN. A lay follower named Hatano Yoshishige offered his property in Echizen as a site for the new monastery and invited Dōgen to lead the community. In 1243, Dōgen moved to Echizen and resided in a dilapidated temple named Kippōji. In the meantime, Hatano and others began constructing a new DHARMA hall and SAṂGHA hall (see C. SENGTANG), which they quickly finished by 1244. The new monastery was named Daibutsuji and renamed Eiheiji by Dōgen in 1246. The name Eihei is said to derive from the Han-dynasty reign period, Yongping (58–75 CE; J. Eihei), when Buddhism first arrived in China. In 1248, the mountain on which Eiheiji is located was renamed Mt. Kichijō. In 1372, Eiheiji was declared a shusse dōjō, an official monastery whose abbot is appointed by the state. In 1473, Eiheiji was devastated by war and fire, and reconstruction efforts began in 1487. Since its foundation, Eiheiji has continued to serve as one of the most important Zen institutions in Japan.
Eihei shingi. (永平清規). In Japanese, “Pure Rules for EIHEI(JI)”; a collection of essays on the ZEN monastic codes or “pure rules” (QINGGUI), composed by DŌGEN KIGEN. The work is composed in two rolls, in six major sections. The Tenzo Kyōkun section, composed while Dōgen was still residing at Koshōji in 1237, discusses the duties of the cook. The BENDŌHŌ details the daily duties at the monastery of Daibutsuji and the practices, such as meditation, carried out in the SAṂGHA hall (see C. SENGTANG). The Fu shukuhanpō explains the proper method of preparing and consuming rice gruel. The Shuryō shingi of 1249 describes the proper deportment of monks in training at Eiheiji’s shuryō. The Tai taiko goge jarihō, composed in 1244, deals with the proper ritual decorum or means of respecting a master (ĀCĀRYA). The final section, the Chiji shingi, from 1246, details the duties of the officers of the monastery. In 1667, these essays were edited together and published by Kōshō Chidō (d. 1670), the thirtieth abbot of Eiheiji. The fiftieth abbot, Gentō Sokuchū (1729–1807), republished Kōshō’s edited volume with minor corrections in 1794.
Eisai. (榮西). See MYŌAN EISAI.
Eison. [alt. Eizon] (叡尊) (1201–1290). In Japanese, “Lord of Sagacity”; founder of Shingon Risshū, a Kamakura-period school that combined the esoteric teachings of the SHINGONSHŪ with VINAYA disciplinary observance. After beginning his career as a monk at the age of eleven, he initially studied Shingon teachings at DAIGOJI in Kyōto and in 1224 moved to KŌYASAN, the mountain center of esoteric teachings and practices. In 1235, while studying vinaya at SAIDAIJI, Eison came to realize the centrality of the PRĀTIMOKṢA precepts to a monastic vocation; however, since the custom of full monastic ordination (J. gusokukai) had died out in Japan long before, he was unable to be properly ordained. Eison decided that his only recourse was to take the precepts in a self-administrated ceremony (J. jisei jukai) before an image of the Buddha. Eison and three other monks conducted such a self-ordination at TŌDAIJI in 1236, after which he traveled around the country, ordaining monks and lecturing on the Buddhist precepts, before eventually returning to Saidaiji to stay. That monastery is now regarded as the center of the Shingon Risshū school. Eison is also known for his extensive charitable activities and his attempts to disseminate the recitation of the MANTRA of light (J. kōmyō shingon) among the laity. When the Mongols invaded Japan in 1274 and 1281, Eison performed esoteric rituals on behalf of the court to ward off the invasions. Among Eison’s works are the Bonmōkyō koshakuki bugyō monjū, a sub-commentary to the Pŏmmanggyŏng kojŏkki, the Korean YOGĀCĀRA monk T’AEHYŎN’s (d.u.) commentary on the FANWANG JING; and the Kanjingaku shōki, his autobiography, compiled at the age of eighty-six. Eison was given the posthumous name Kōshō Bosatsu (Promoting Orthodoxy BODHISATTVA).
Ekādaśamukhāvalokiteśvara. (T. Spyan ras gzigs bcu gcig zhal; C. Shiyimian Guanyin; J. Jūichimen Kannon; K. Sibilmyŏn Kwanŭm 十一面觀音). In Sanskrit, “Eleven-Headed AVALOKITEŚVARA,” one of the most common iconographic forms of the BODHISATTVA of compassion. While theories abound about why he has eleven heads, it is likely that the ten small bodhisattva heads topped by a buddha head represent the ten stages (DAŚABHŪMI) of the bodhisattva path, along with the final attainment of buddhahood. The facial expressions of these heads range from kind to ferocious and were meant to symbolize the bodhisattva’s various abilities to destroy illusions and help all sentient beings attain liberation. According to legend, Avalokiteśvara was so exhausted and desperate after trying to save innumerable beings that his skull shattered. AMITĀBHA came to help him and formed new heads from the pieces, which he then arranged on AVALOKITEŚVARA’s head like a crown, finally putting an image of his own head at the very top. While this eleven-headed form is frequently found in later Buddhist art in Tibet, Nepal, and East Asia, an image from the Indian cave site of KĀNHERI is the only extant artistic evidence that this iconographic form is originally of Indian provenance.
ekāgratā. In Sanskrit, “one-pointedness.” See CITTAIKĀGRATĀ.
Ekajaṭā. [alt. Ekajaṭī] (T. Ral gcig ma; C. Dujimu; J. Dokukeimo; K. Tokkyemo 獨髻母). In Sanskrit, “Having One Lock of Hair,” an emanation of AKṢOBHYA; she is often depicted in that Buddha’s crown, with a single lock or knot of hair on her head. The wrathful goddess Mahācīnakrama-TĀRĀ or Ugra-Tārā (who is dark and short, with a protruding belly, fanged, with three eyes, a lolling tongue, and a single tawny-colored knot of hair) is iconographically identical to several forms of the Ekajaṭā worshiped in later Hinduism. According to one tradition, this form of Tārā was originally a pre-Buddhist Tibetan goddess who entered into Buddhist TANTRA with the tantric NĀGĀRJUNA in the seventh century. In the RNYING MA sect, in particular, she is said to be a form of DPAL LDAN LHA MO and is called Sngags srung (protectress of the MANTRAs). In this form, she is the protector of the RDZOGS CHEN tantras; she has a single eye, one sharp tooth, a single breast, and a single lock of hair above her head, and she wields a triśūla (trident) and KAPĀLA (skull cup). She also serves as the consort of several forms of MAHĀKĀLA and YAMA and is also found as a member of the PARIVĀRA (retinue) of Dpal ldan lha mo. In other forms, she has one face and two or four hands and twelve faces and twenty-four hands.
Ekaku. (J) (慧鶴). See HAKUIN EKAKU.
ekavīcika. (T. bar chad gcig pa; C. yijian; J. ikken; K. ilgan 一間). In Sanskrit, “one who has a single obstacle,” a particular sort of SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA who is one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAṂGHA (see VIṂŚATIPRABHEDASAṂGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, these sorts of once-returners are those who have eliminated the seventh and eighth sets of afflictions (KLEŚA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU). These are impediments to the first DHYĀNA, which the mundane (LAUKIKA) path of meditation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes. They receive the name ekavīcika because they will take only one more rebirth in the sensuous realm before they become ARHATs. They are also ānupūrvin (those who reach the four fruits of the noble path in a series), and ANĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA, because they will reach the third fruit of nonreturner before they reach the final fruit of arhat.
Ekavyavahārika. (P. Ekabbohārika; T. Tha snyad gcig pa’i sde; C. Yishuobu; J. Issetsubu; K. Ilsŏlbu 一部). In Sanskrit, “Those who Make a Single Utterance,” an alternate name for the LOKOTTARAVĀDA collateral line of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school of mainstream Buddhism. See LOKOTTARAVĀDA.
ekavyūhasamādhi. (S). See YIXING SANMEI.
ekayāna. (T. theg pa gcig pa; C. yisheng; J. ichijō; K. ilsŭng 一乘). In Sanskrit, lit. “one vehicle” or “single vehicle.” “Vehicle” literally means “conveyance” or “transportation,” viz., the conveyance that carries sentient beings from SAṂSĀRA to NIRVĀṆA; the term may also refer to the actual person who reaches the destination of the path. The doctrine of a single vehicle is set forth in certain MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRAs, most famously, the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”), which declares that the three vehicles of the ŚRĀVAKA (disciple), PRATYEKABUDDHA (solitary buddha), and BODHISATTVA are actually just three expedient devices (UPĀYAKAUŚALYA) for attracting beings to the one buddha vehicle, via which they all become buddhas. It is important to note that, although it is often claimed that a central tenet of the MAHĀYĀNA is that all sentient beings will eventually achieve buddhahood, this view is not universally set forth in the Mahāyāna sūtras and philosophical schools. A number of important sūtras, notably the SAṂDHINIRMOCANASŪTRA, maintained that there are three final vehicles and that those who successfully followed the path of the śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha would eventually become ARHATs and would not then go on to achieve buddhahood (cf. GOTRA; BUDDHADHĀTU). This position was also held by such major YOGĀCĀRA figures as ASAṄGA. In the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra, however, the Buddha reveals that his earlier teachings of the three vehicles were in fact three expedient forms suited to specific beings’ capacities; the sūtra’s exposition of the one buddha vehicle is said to be the unifying, complete, and final exposition of his teachings. Since this one-vehicle teaching is the teaching that leads to buddhahood, it is synonymous with the “buddha vehicle” (BUDDHAYĀNA), the “great vehicle” (MAHĀYĀNA), and sometimes the “bodhisattva vehicle” (BODHISATTVAYĀNA). In East Asia, there was substantial consideration given to the precise relations among these terms. Thus, the FAXIANG school of Chinese YOGĀCĀRA interprets the “one vehicle” of the three-vehicle system as being equivalent to the bodhisattva vehicle, while the HUAYAN and TIANTAI schools distinguish between the one buddha vehicle and the bodhisattva vehicle that is included within the three vehicles. The Faxiang school also distinguishes between two levels of the ekayāna, the “inclusive” Mahāyāna (sheru dasheng) and the “derivative” Mahāyāna (chusheng dasheng). According to the explanation of KUIJI (632–682), the first is an expedient like that used in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra to attract people of indeterminate nature to the one buddha vehicle. Because this type of sentient being is incapable of immediately attaining buddhahood, this teaching does not fully correspond to the meaning of the ekayāna. However, because all members of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra’s audience have the potential to become buddhas through hearing this teaching, it is still considered to be true and effective. The second type means that all teachings of the Buddha are “born from” or “derive from” a single Mahāyāna teaching; Kuiji says that this type corresponds to the teaching of the ŚRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIṂHANĀDASŪTRA and the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA.
Ekottarāgama. [alt. Ekottarikāgama] (P. Aṅguttaranikāya; T. Gcig las ’phros pa’i lung; C. Zengyi ahan jing; J. Zōichiagongyō; K. Chŭngil aham kyŏng 增壹阿含經). In Sanskrit, “Numerically Arranged Discourses,” the Sanskrit analogue of the Pāli AṄGUTTARANIKĀYA, in which the collected sūtras are putatively arranged sequentially in numbered lists of “ones,” “twos,” etc.; the extant version of this collection, however, has a pronounced topical arrangement like the SAṂYUTTANIKĀYA. The collection probably dates from sometime between the second century and the first part of the fourth century CE. The Ekottarāgama’s sectarian affiliation remains in dispute. Some scholars have attributed it to the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school of the mainstream Buddhist tradition, but this attribution has been called into question because certain passages of the text contradict established Mahāsāṃghika doctrine (such as the standard Mahāsāṃghika assertion that ARHATs are subject to backsliding) and show serious inconsistencies with the Mahāsāṃghika VINAYA. Because of these issues, other scholars have instead ascribed the text to the PRAJÑAPTIVĀDA, an offshoot of the Mahāsāṃghika. Because of some seeming consistencies between the Ekottarāgama and DHARMAGUPTAKA doctrine and because the text refers to 250 PRĀTIMOKṢA rules for monks, a number that corresponds to the Dharmaguptaka recension of that code, it is possible that the collection may belong to the Dharmaguptaka school. The text is only extant in a Chinese recension, Zengyi Ahan jing, translated by Gautama Saṃghadeva in 397 during the Eastern Jin dynasty, in fifty-one rolls. It contains translations of only 471 sūtras, far fewer than the 2,198 suttas in the Pāli Aṅguttaranikāya.
element. See MAHĀBHŪTA; DHĀTU.
Ellorā. [alt. Elūrā]. Among the many cave complexes scattered throughout Asia, perhaps the most famous are Ellorā and AJAṆṬĀ in India; YUNGANG, DUNHUANG, and DAZU in China; and SŎKKURAM in Korea. The site of Ellorā is located near Ajaṇṭā, eighteen miles north of the present-day city of Aurangabad, in the state of Maharashtra. From the sixth through the tenth centuries, there were thirty-four caves carved out of the solid rock of its cliffs. Twelve of these caves date from c. 600 to 730 CE and are Buddhist in orientation. They are rather modest in comparison to the site’s Hindu and JAINA caves, which were built at a later date. As monks and nuns built retreats at the site, cave complexes were dug into the base of the cliffs. Some of these excavations were plain cells; others were more elaborate sanctuaries, adorned with paintings, statues, and bas-reliefs. Constructed in the late-seventh or early-eighth centuries, the three-storied Cave 12 was probably one of the last Buddhist caves created at Ellorā. While the central shrine on each floor shows a buddha flanked by the two BODHISATTVAs AVALOKITEŚVARA and VAJRAPĀṆI, it is especially noteworthy that Cave 12’s interior artistic scheme also illustrates the early development of diagrams (MAṆḌALA), both in two-dimensional relief and three-dimensional sculpture. The so-called eight-bodhisattva maṇḍala (aṣṭabodhisattvamaṇḍala) is depicted on each floor. In addition, in some sections of the cave, the eight bodhisattvas (AṢṬAMAHOPAPUTRA) surround a central buddha in a nine-square diagram. The maṇḍalas shown in this cave attest to the highly developed ritual environments at Ellorā and also demonstrate that over the course of time artistic imagery was used in the service of specific Buddhist beliefs. The developments documented in exceptional caves like this one were nurtured by lay patronage and royal support. Stylistically, the Ellorā caves are similar to those of neighboring Ajaṇṭā, and may have been crafted by sculptors who worked at that earlier cave site.
Emeishan. (C. 峨嵋山/峨眉山). In Chinese, lit. “Delicate Eyebrows Mountain,” a mountain located in Sichuan province that is traditionally listed as one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains of China, along with JIUHUASHAN in Anhui province, PUTUOSHAN in Zhejiang, and WUTAISHAN in Shanxi. The name Emeishan is derived from its two peaks, which face each other and are said to look like the delicate eyebrows of a classic Chinese beauty. The mountain covers more than 58 square miles (150 square kilometers), and its tallest peak, Wanfo Ding (Myriad Buddhas Summit), is 10,167 feet (3,099 meters) high, over 3280 feet (1,000 meters) higher than the other three sacred Buddhist mountains of China. The charming scenery of Emeishan has won it since ancient times the name “the greatest beauty under heaven.” The patron BODHISATTVA of Emeishan is SAMANTABHADRA (C. Puxian pusa), who was said to have resided in Emeishan. Because of this connection, most monasteries on Emeishan house a statue of Samantabhadra. Emeishan is of exceptional cultural significance because Chinese tradition assumes it was the place where Buddhism first became established on Chinese territory and whence it spread widely. The first Buddhist monastery in China is said to have been built on Emeishan in the first century CE during the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220). There were once more than a hundred monasteries and temples located on the mountain, but only about twenty remain today. These active monasteries include Baoguosi, Wanniansi, Fuhusi, Leiyinsi, Xianfengsi, Qianfosi, Huazangsi on the Golden Summit, and the Xixiangshi (Elephant Washing Pool) hermitage. At the foot of Emeishan, Baoguosi, built between 1573 and 1619 during the Ming dynasty, is the largest surviving monastery, and is the center of Buddhist activity on the mountain. Wanniansi, originally named Puxiansi, is one of the major monasteries and houses an exquisite copper statue of Samantabhadra riding a white elephant; made in 980 CE during the Song dynasty, the image is 24.11 feet (7.35 meters) high. The Jinding (Golden Summit), one of the mountain’s main peaks, is 10,095 feet (3,077 meters) high and is the ideal place to view the sunrise, the sea of clouds, and strange atmospheric phenomena called Buddhist lights and sacred lamps. Emeishan is also a well-known nature preserve and is home to more than three thousand species of plants and two thousand species of animals, including groups of monkeys that often appear on the mountain roads. Near Emeishan is the remarkable Great Buddha of Leshan (C. LESHAN DAFO); the world’s largest stone statue of MAITREYA, this image is 233 feet (71 meters) high and was carved out of a hillside in the eighth century during the Tang dynasty. In 1996, UNESCO listed Emeishan and the Great Buddha of Leshan as a World Heritage Site.
Emerald Buddha. See PHRA KAEW MORAKOT.
empowerment. See ADHIṢṬHĀNA.
Enchin. (圓珍) (814–891). Japanese monk affiliated with the TENDAISHŪ (C. TIANTAI ZONG) and reputed founder of the Jimon branch of the school. Enchin was a native of Sanuki in present-day Kagawa and a cousin of the SHINGON master KŪKAI. At age fourteen, Enchin became the student of GISHIN, the abbot of ENRYAKUJI, and four years later received the full monastic precepts from him. For the next twelve years, Enchin remained in retreat on HIEIZAN. In 853, Enchin traveled to Fuzhou, China, and stayed at the nearby monastery of Kaiyuansi. There he studied the Sanskrit SIDDHAM script under the Indian TREPIṬAKA Boredaluo (Prajñātāra?). Enchin later visited Yuezhou and Taizhou (present-day Zhejiang province), where he studied Tiantai doctrine and practice. In 855, Enchin entered the Chinese capital of Chang’an with his fellow Japanese monk Ensai (d. 877), where they are believed to have received the “dharma-transmission ABHIṢEKA” (denbō kanjō) from Faquan (d.u.) at the monastery of Qinglongsi, as well as the secret of teachings of the “two realms” (RYŌBU) from Prajñācakra (d.u.). Enchin then returned to Mt. Tiantai in Taizhou with the new translations of esoteric scriptures that he acquired in Chang’an. Enchin returned to Japan in 858 and resided at the monastery of Onjōji (see MIIDERA). In 866, Enchin became the fifth head (zasu) of Enryakuji and was given imperial permission to transform Onjōji into the official grounds of “dharma-transmission abhiṣeka.” A schism between the lineages of Enchin and ENNIN over the issue of succession in 993 led to the split between Ennin’s Sanmon branch of Hieizan and Enchin’s Jimon branch of Onjōji. Enchin was later given the posthumous title Great Master Chishō (Realization of Wisdom).
Engakuji. (圓覺寺). A large monastery in Kamakura, Japan, that is currently the headquarters (honzan) of the Engakuji branch of the RINZAISHŪ of the ZEN tradition. Engakuji was once listed as a second-rank monastery in the influential GOZAN system. The monastery was established by the powerful regent Hōjō Tokimune (1251–1284) in 1282. When LANXI DAOLONG, the prominent Chinese abbot of the influential monastery of KENCHŌJI, died in 1274, Hōjō Tokimune immediately sought a replacement, and his envoys returned from China escorting the CHAN master WUXUE ZUYUAN. Wuxue, who was serving as abbot of Kenchōji, was installed as the founding abbot (J. kaisan; C. KAISHAN) of the new monastery of Engakuji. In 1400, Engakuji was devastated by a great fire, but restoration efforts in 1625 refurbished the monastery to its current size and form. Since its foundation, Engakuji has remained a center of Zen culture and training in Japan.
enlightenment. See ANUTTARASAMYAKSAṂBODHI; BODHI; DUNWU; NIRVĀṆA; WU.
Enni Ben’en. (C. Yuan’er Bianyuan 圓爾辨圓) (1202–1280). Japanese ZEN master in the Chinese LINJI ZONG and Japanese RINZAISHŪ. Enni was tonsured at the TENDAI monastery of Onjōji (see MIIDERA) at the age of seventeen, and received the full monastic precepts at the precepts platform (kaidan) in the monastery of TŌDAIJI. In 1235, Enni left for China and visited the CHAN masters Chijue Daochong (1169–1250), Xiaoweng Miaokan (1177–1248), and Shitian Faxun (1171–1245). Enni eventually visited the Chan master WUZHUN SHIFAN at the monastery of WANSHOUSI on Mt. Jing and inherited his Linji lineage. In 1241, Enni returned to Japan and began to teach at the capital Kyōto at the invitation of the powerful Fujiwara minister Kujō Michiie (1191–1252). In 1243, Enni was given the title Shōichi (Sacred Unity). Enni also won the support of the powerful regent Hōjō Tokiyori (1227–1263). Michiie later installed Enni as the founding abbot (J. kaisan; C. KAISHAN) of his powerful monastery of Tōfukuji. Enni also served as abbot of the Zen monastery of KENNINJI in Kyōto. In 1311, Enni was named State Preceptor Shōichi. His teachings are recorded in the Shōichi Kokushi goroku and Shōichi kokushi kana hōgo.
Ennin. (C. Yuanren 圓仁) (794–864). Japanese monk of the TENDAISHŪ (C. TIANTAI ZONG), who wrote a classic account of his ninth-century pilgrimage to China. A native of Tochigi prefecture, Ennin lost his father when young, and became a student of the eminent Japanese monk SAICHŌ at the monastery of ENRYAKUJI on HIEIZAN. Ennin was ordained on Mt. Hiei in 814 and received the full monastic precepts three years later at the precepts platform (kaidan) on the grounds of the monastery of TŌDAIJI. In 838, Ennin traveled to China with his companions Engyō (799–852) and Jōkyō (d. 866), arriving in Yangzhou (present-day Jiangsu province) at the mouth of the Yangzi River. The next year, he visited the monastery of Kaiyuansi, where he received the teachings and rituals of the various KONGŌKAI (vajradhātu) deities from the monk Quanya (d.u.). Ennin also studied the Sanskrit SIDDHAM script while in China. When adverse winds kept him from returning to Japan, he remained behind at the monastery of Fahuayuan on Mt. Chi in Dengzhou (present-day Shandong province). From there, Ennin made a pilgrimage to WUTAISHAN and studied Tiantai doctrine and practice. In 840, Ennin arrived in the capital of Chang’an, where he studied the kongōkai MAṆḌALA under Yuanzheng (d.u.) of the monastery of Daxingshansi. The next year, Ennin also studied the teachings of the TAIZŌKAI (garbhadhātu) and *SUSIDDHIKARASŪTRA under Yizhen (d.u.) of the monastery of Qinglongsi. In 842, Ennin furthered his studies of the taizōkai under Faquan (d.u.) at the monastery of Xuanfasi, siddham under Yuanjian (d.u.) of Da’anguosi, and siddham pronunciation under the Indian ĀCĀRYA Baoyue (d.u.). In 845, Ennin fled from the Huichang persecution of Buddhism (see HUICHANG FANAN) that then raged in Chang’an, and arrived back in Japan in 847. Ennin kept a detailed record of his sojourn in China in his famed diary, the NITTŌ GUHŌ JUNREI GYŌKI (translated into English as A Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law). In 854, Ennin was appointed the head (zasu) of Enryakuji and three years later was allowed to perform the RYŌBU ABHIṢEKA for Emperor Buntoku (r. 850–858) in the palace. Ennin promoted the Tendai/Tiantai teachings of the four kinds of SAMĀDHI (sizhong sanmei), which he had brought back to Japan from China. He also made an effort to continue his teacher Saichō’s attempt to implement the use of the bodhisattva precepts (see FANWANG JING) in Japan.
En no Gyōja. (J) (役行者). See EN NO OZUNU.
En no Ozunu. (役小角) (b. 634). Also known as En no Gyōja (lit. “En the Ascetic”), a semi-legendary figure associated with SHUGENDŌ (lit. the “Way of Cultivating Supernatural Power”) who is known for his shamanic abilities and mountain austerities. Practitioners of Shugendō, Japan’s tradition of mountain asceticism, regard him as their founder and view him as the archetypal ascetic. The earliest accounts of En no Ozunu appear in the Shoku Nihongi (797) and the Nihon Ryōiki (810–824). He subsequently became the subject of numerous medieval texts, although many of the details of his life are sketchy. Allegedly born in Chihara in present-day Nara prefecture, he spent three decades of practice in KATSURAGISAN, where legend holds that he worked to convert malicious spirits. In 699, he was exiled to Izu (in present-day Shizuoka prefecture) by Emperor Monmu because of accusations made by his disciple, Karakuni no Muraji Hirotari that he was practicing sorcery. Shugendō considers En no Ozunu to be a manifestation of Hōki Bosatsu (DHARMODGATA), whose sphere of practice in the Katsuragi mountains includes KONGŌSAN (see also KŬMGANGSAN), the traditional residence of this BODHISATTVA. In 1799, in conjunction with the alleged eleven hundredth anniversary of En no Ozunu’s death, Emperor Kōkaku bestowed on him the title Jinben Daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva Mysterious Change).
Enpō dentōroku. (延寶傳燈
). In Japanese, “The Enpō Reign-Era Transmission of the Lamplight Record”; a late Japanese genealogical history of the ZEN school, written by the RINZAISHŪ monk Mangen Shiban (1626–1710) and completed in 1678 and published in 1706, in a total of 41 rolls. Like the earlier Chinese lamplight record JINGDE CHUANDENG LU, which was named after the Chinese reign-era during which the text was compiled, Mangen used the Japanese reign-era Enpō to designate his collection. The text includes the biographies of over one thousand Zen clerics and lay practitioners in the major Zen lineages of the Japanese Rinzaishū and SŌTŌSHŪ, with excerpts from their sermons and verses. Because of its vast scope, the collection offers a comprehensive overview of the history of the Japanese Zen tradition up to Mangen’s time. In his preface, Shiban states that his source materials were these masters’ discourse records (J. goroku; C. YULU), biographies, and stele and pagoda inscriptions, which he had collected for over thirty years since his youth. Mangen subsequently collected the biographies of 1,662 Buddhist monks from a range of Japanese sects and compiled them into the HONCHŌ KŌSŌDEN, completed in 1702 in a total of 75 rolls.
Enryakuji. (延暦寺). An important monastery located on HIEIZAN (Mt. Hiei), near Kyōto, Japan, which has served as the headquarters (honzan) of the TENDAISHŪ (C. TIANTAI ZONG) since its foundation. Enryakuji, or Hieizanji, started from humble beginnings in 785, when the Japanese monk SAICHŌ built a straw hut on Mt. Hiei. Three years later he built Ichijō shikan’in, the famous main hall that later was named Konpon chūdō and is currently designated a national treasure (kokuhō). In 806, with Emperor Kanmu’s (r. 781–806) support, Saichō’s residence was firmly established as a powerful monastery, whose function was to protect the new capital Heijōkyō (present-day Kyōto) from the demons that threatened the capital from the northeast. In 822, the year of Saichō’s death, the emperor granted permission to construct a MAHĀYĀNA precepts platform (daijō kaidan) at the site, and a year later the monastery was renamed Enryakuji. In 824, the monk GISHIN was appointed the first head (zasu) of Enryakuji and the Tendai school. In 828, the Mahāyāna precepts platform was constructed on Mt. Hiei, which gave the Tendai monks freedom from the monopoly over ordination that the powerful monasteries in Nara had wielded up to that time. In 834, the Shakadō was constructed in the Saitō (West Hall) subcomplex. In 848, ENNIN established the Shūryōgon’in complex at YOKAWA and in 858 the monk ENCHIN established the subtemple Onjōji (see MIIDERA) as his separate residence. A schism between the lineages of Enchin and Ennin over the issue of succession in 993 led to the split between Ennin’s Sanmon branch of Mt. Hiei and Enchin’s Jimon branch of Onjōji. This schism grew into a violent battle that involved the recruiting of so-called warrior monks (SŌHEI). In 1571, Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) burned a large number of monasteries on Mt. Hiei to the ground, including Enryakuji. Enryakuji now largely consists of three independent subcomplexes known as the Tōdō (East Pagoda), Saitō (West Pagoda), and Yokawa.
er bao. (J. nihō; K. i po 二報). In Chinese, “two kinds of karmic retribution.” One’s actions, or KARMAN, are said to lead to “retribution proper” (C. zheng bao; J. shōhō; K. chŏngbo) and “adjunct retribution” (C. yi bao; J. ehō; K. ŭibo). The former directly affects the individual, in that it creates and conditions one’s physical body and psychological makeup (see VIPĀKAPHALA). The latter affects the individual in a less direct way, in that it creates and conditions the quality of one’s possessions and property (e.g., homes, land, and personal acquaintances) and determines such external factors as the household and country into which one is reborn (see ADHIPATIPHALA). This expression is also sometimes used to refer to the buddhas of MAHĀYĀNA; in that context, “retribution proper” determines the longevity and other personal attributes of a given buddha, whereas “adjunct retribution” influences the relative desirability and objective features of his PURE LAND (cf. GONG BUGONG YE and ER SHIJIAN). See BUDDHAKṢETRA.
er chao. (二超). In Chinese, “two modes of deliverance” or “escape.” See HENGCHAO and SHUCHAO.
er chi. (J. niji; K. i chi 二持). In Chinese, “two modes of observing the precepts”: the observance of prohibitive precepts (zhi chi) and the observance of exhortative precepts (zuo chi). The former refers to the “passive” restraint that comes from simply following the monastic regulations specified in the VINAYA proper. The latter refers to the “active” cultivation of virtue and “constructive” undertaking of those wholesome activities that are elaborated in the SKANDHAKA (P. Khandhaka) section of the vinaya (cf. ER FAN).
er chu san hui. (J. nisho san’e; K. i ch’ŏ sam hoe 二處三會). In Chinese, “the two locations and three assemblies,” the sites where the Buddha is presumed to have preached the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA; a TIANTAI term. The two locations are Vulture Peak (GṚDHRAKŪṬAPARVATA) and the heavenly realm (DEVALOKA). According to the account in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra, the Buddha preached, first, chapters one through the middle of the eleventh chapter on Vulture Peak; continuing on to, second, the end of the twenty-second chapter in the heavens; and, finally, third, the twenty-third chapter to the end of the sūtra back at Vulture Peak.
er de. (J. nitoku; K. i tŏk 二德). In Chinese, “dual virtues” or “two meritorious qualities.” There are at least three different sets of “dual virtues”: (1) the virtue of wisdom (zhi de) and the virtue of cessation (duan de) (e.g., of ignorance, suffering, and the fetters), (2) the virtue of wisdom (zhi de) and the virtue of compassion (bei de), (3) virtues that are inherent (xing de, i.e., those inherent in one’s buddha-nature, or FOXING) and virtues that are cultivated (xiu de).
er fan. (J. nibon; K. i pŏm 二犯). In Chinese, “two kinds of transgressions [against precepts]”: the transgression of precepts through a failure to act (zhi fan), and the transgression of precepts through action (zuo fan). Through neglect, laziness, or a lack of motivation, one commits the former transgression when one is delinquent in cultivating the “exhortative precepts”—the undertaking of wholesome activities. In contrast to the former’s “guilt due to passivity,” one’s active and willful breach of “prohibitive precepts” constitutes the latter transgression. Cf. ER CHI.
er he. (J. niwa; K. i hwa 二和). In Chinese, “two kinds of harmony.” The monastic community is exhorted to achieve both harmony in “principle” (li, viz., doctrinal or ideological consensus [lihe]) and harmony in “practice” (shi, viz., freedom from verbal, physical, economic, and institutional conflicts [shihe]). These two kinds of harmony are sometimes expanded to a list of six (liu he): harmony in observation of the precepts (jiehe), harmony in understanding (jianhe), harmony in sharing a residence (shenhe), harmony in sharing the requisites (lihe), harmony in verbal activity (kouhe), and harmony in mutual goodwill (yihe).
er jia. (J. nika; K. i ka 二加). In Chinese, “two kinds of empowerment (ADHIṢṬHĀNA) [of the Buddha]”: “manifest empowerment” (xian jia) and “covert empowerment” (min jia). Manifest empowerment is the direct, physical assistance provided by the Buddha through such acts as aiding and protecting the empowered with his psychic powers (S. ṚDDHI); verbally communicating with and speaking the dharma to them; displaying physical gestures, such as rubbing the disciple’s head, in order to increase the latter’s faith; verbal exhortation in order to enhance the eloquence (S. PRATISAṂVID) of the empowered, etc. Because this type of empowerment is visible to all, it is manifest empowerment. Covert empowerment has been variously interpreted to be the Buddha’s telepathic assistance to his disciples, or his disciples’ ability to partake mystically in the Buddha’s powers by recollecting him or invoking his name. Because such empowerment is typically hidden from view, it is covert.
er liu. (J. niru; K. i nyu 二流). In Chinese, “two currents”: going against the current (ni liu) and following the current (shun liu). The former means to turn against the powerful currents that drive the cycle of rebirth (see SAṂSĀRA), by practicing the path (MĀRGA) and stopping the contaminants (see ĀSRAVA). The latter means to be unrestrained in one’s worldly pursuits, not undertake religious training, and thus following the currents of saṃsāra.
er mi. (J. nimitsu; K. i mil 二密). In Chinese, “two aspects of esoteric Buddhism.” “Esoteric as to principle” (li mi) refers to the doctrines and conceptual understanding of esoteric Buddhism. “Esoteric as to practices” (shi mi) refers to the physical enactment of the “esoteric principle,” either in tantric rituals and practices or in the Buddha’s unfathomable activities. The Japanese TAIMITSU sect of esoteric Buddhism (as advocated by Japanese TENDAISHŪ) regards the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA and MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA as representative of esoteric as to principle, whereas the sūtras promoted by SHINGONSHŪ are esoteric with regard to both principle and practices.
er quan. (J. nisen; K. i chŏn 二詮). In Chinese, “two modes of explication”: apophatic (negative) and kataphatic (positive) discourse. The former describes something by pointing to what the thing is not. For example, the Buddhist description of NIRVĀṆA often employs “negative statement”—i.e., nirvāṇa is neither a kind of existence nor is it nonexistence; it can neither be characterized by any of the primary factors nor can it be localized. A “positive statement,” by contrast, delineates and defines something by pointing to what the thing is. For example, the Buddhist idea of right understanding may be described by a positive statement—i.e., it is the intellectual and intuitive acceptance of the law of conditionality, the reality of KARMAN and rebirth, and the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS.
er ren. (J. ninin; K. i in 二忍). In Chinese, “the two kinds of forbearances (KṢĀNTI)”: The first is the endurance, patience, and forbearance a BODHISATTVA has toward sentient beings, referring to the ability to withstand insults and obstacles posed by them and to undertake altruistic deeds (sheng ren). The second is ANUTPATTIKADHARMAKṢĀNTI, the receptivity to the fact that dharmas are unproduced (fa ren).
er ru. (J. ninyū; K. i ip 二入). In Chinese, “the two accesses,” or “two entrances.” The putative Indian founder of the CHAN ZONG, BODHIDHARMA, taught in his ERRU SIXING LUN (“Treatise on the Two Accesses and Four Practices”) that enlightenment could be gained by two complementary methods. The “access of principle” (li ru) was a more static approach to practice, which sought an intuitive insight into the DHARMA and a recognition of the fact that each and every person was innately endowed with the capacity for enlightenment. The “access of practice” (xing ru) was a set of four dynamic practices that teach the student how to act with correct understanding of SAṂSĀRA and that ultimately culminates in the same understanding achieved through the access of principle. The four practices are: retribution of enmity, acquiescing to conditions, seeking nothing, and practicing in accord with the dharma. Later Chan adepts sometimes sought to ascribe to these two accesses the original inspiration for the Chan notion of sudden enlightenment (see DUNWU), or the soteriological approach of sudden awakening followed by gradual cultivation (see DUNWU JIANXIU).
Erru sixing lun. (J. Ninyū shigyōron; K. Iip sahaeng non 二入四行論). In Chinese, “Treatise on the Two Accesses and Four Practices,” attributed to the legendary Indian monk BODHIDHARMA, putative founder of the CHAN ZONG; regardless of the authenticity of this ascription, the text is legitimately regarded as the earliest text of the Chan school. The treatise provides an outline of “two accesses” (ER RU): the access of principle (liru) a more static approach to practice, which sought an intuitive insight into the DHARMA and a recognition of the fact that each and every person was innately endowed with the capacity for enlightenment. This was complemented by the access of practice (xingru), which was subdivided into four progressive practices: retribution of enmity, acquiescing to conditions, seeking nothing, and practicing in accord with the dharma. The treatise underscores the inherent purity of the practitioner, which it glosses as the dharma or principle, and betrays little evidence of features that come to characterize the later Chan tradition, such as the debate over sudden or gradual enlightenment, the rejection of traditional meditative techniques, etc. Numerous copies of this treatise were found in DUNHUANG, and citations of this text are found in the XU GAOSENG ZHUAN, LENGQIE SHIZI JI, and JINGDE CHUANDENG LU. The text was published in Korea as part of the SŎNMUN CH’WARYO and in Japan as the SHŌSHITSU ROKUMONSHŪ. A preface to this relatively short treatise was prepared by the monk Tanlin (fl. 506–574) and some editions of the treatise also contain two letters attributed to Bodhidharma’s disciple HUIKE.
er sheng. (S. yānadvaya; J. nijō; K. i sŭng 二乘). In Chinese, “two vehicles,” referring to adherents of the “two vehicles” of disciples (ŚRĀVAKA) and solitary buddhas (PRATYEKABUDDHA), and thus often functionally equivalent to the “lesser vehicle” (HĪNAYĀNA). The Chinese translates literally the Sanskrit yānadvaya (two vehicles), but the Chinese term is often used as an abbreviated translation for the Sanskrit compound śrāvaka-pratyekabuddha (disciples and solitary buddhas). In many contexts, therefore, the term means “two-vehicle adherents,” in distinction to the BODHISATTVAs and buddhas of the MAHĀYĀNA.
er shijian. (J. niseken; K. i segan 二世間). In Chinese, lit. “the two kinds of worlds.” Following the ABHIDHARMAKOŚABHĀṢYA, the Chinese distinguish between the reality associated with the sentient and inanimate realms. The sentient aspect of reality refers to the living beings who are endowed with consciousness (SATTVALOKA); the inanimate aspect is the physical environment in which sentient beings exist (BHĀJANALOKA). According to this cosmology, both the sentient and inanimate aspects of reality are created and conditioned by living beings’ KARMAN—the former by the so-called individual karman and the latter by “collective karman.” (cf. ER BAO and GONG BUGONG YE).
ershiwu yuantong. (J. nijūgoenzū; K. isibo wŏnt’ong 二十五圓通). In Chinese, “twenty-five kinds of consummate interpenetration.” According to the *ŚŪRAṂGAMASŪTRA (Shoulengyan jing), twenty-five of the Buddha’s disciples and bodhisattvas have each mastered a concentration (SAMĀDHI) pertaining to one of the twenty-five objects of meditation. The latter include the six sensory objects (liu chen; S. ĀLAMBANA), the six sensory faculties (liu gen; S. INDRIYA), the six sensory consciousnesses (liu shi; S. VIJÑĀNA), and the seven primary elements (qi da). It is said that enlightenment is possible by accessing any of the twenty-five masteries even though the bodhisattva AVALOKITEŚVARA’s mastery over the “ear faculty,” or auditory sense-base, has been singled out as a particularly efficacious method for practice.
er wozhi. (J. nigashū; K. i ajip 二我執). In Chinese, “two kinds of attachment to self” (ĀTMAGRĀHA): “self-attachment that arises from discriminatory cognition” (fenbie wozhi) and “innate self-attachment” (jusheng wozhi). The former is primarily an epistemic error resulting from improper thinking and exposure to fallacious doctrines (MITHYĀDṚṢṬI); it is eradicated at the stage of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA). The latter is primarily an affective, habitual, and instinctive clinging (conditioned for many lifetimes in the past) that may be present whether or not one subscribes to fenbie wozhi, the “view of self.” “Innate self-attachment” is only gradually attenuated through the successive stages of spiritual fruition until it is completely extinguished at the stage of the ARHAT. See FAZHI and PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA.
er wuchang. (J. nimujō; K. i musang 二無常). In Chinese, “two kinds of impermanence” (ANITYA): “impermanence marked by a successive period” (xiangxu wuchang; T. bya rdzogs kyi skad cig ma) and “impermanence that occurs at every instant” (niannian wuchang; T. dus mtha’i skad cig pa). The former is visible when an episodic event or arbitrary length of time has elapsed, such as the ending of a human life, the waning daylight at dawn, the extinguishing light at candle’s end, etc. The latter, by contrast, refers to the inexorable change that is taking place anytime and anywhere, even before an arbitrary episodic event has come to an end (e.g., even before a person’s biological death, the person “dies” every instant in the continuum of flux that defines his existence). Cf. FENDUAN SHENGSI and BIANYI SHENGSI, respectively.
er xiashi. (C) (二挾侍). See ER XIESHI.
er xieshi. (J. nikyōji; K. i hyŏpsa 二脇士). In Chinese, “the two flanking attendants.” In Buddhist art and literature, ŚĀKYAMUNI and other buddhas are often depicted flanked by two companions, usually either BODHISATTVAs or disciples (ŚRĀVAKA). In the case of Śākyamuni, typically ŚĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA, the bodhisattvas MAÑJUŚRĪ and SAMANTABHADRA, or the disciples ĀNANDA and MAHĀKĀŚYAPA are at his sides. In the case of the buddha AMITĀBHA, the bodhisattvas AVALOKITEŚVARA and MAHĀSTHĀMAPRĀPTA are his “two flanking attendants.” In the case of BHAIṢAJYAGURU, the bodhisattvas Sunlight (C. Riguang; S. Sūryaprabha) and Moonlight (C. Yueguang; S. Candraprabha) are his ancillary companions. See MCHOG ZUNG.
er xu. (J. nijo; K. i sŏ 二序). In Chinese, the “two kinds of prefaces” appearing in most SŪTRAs according to Chinese Buddhist exegetical traditions. The first kind is the so-called generic preface (tongxu)—the phrase “thus have I heard” (C. rushi wowen; S. EVAṂ MAYĀ ŚRUTAM). The second kind is called the “specific preface” (biexu), which stipulates the particular location and audience of a sermon and is different between sūtras. See also NIDĀNA.
er yingshen. (J. niōjin; K. i ŭngsin 二應身). In Chinese, “the two kinds of emanation bodies” (NIRMĀṆAKĀYA): superior transformation body (sheng yingshen) and inferior transformation body (lie yingshen). In the MAHĀYĀNA, the Buddha’s magical “emanation body” (nirmāṇakāya) is said to correspond to the audience’s karmic predispositions and spiritual attainments. The “superior transformation body”—with its celestial features and immeasurable longevity—is said to be only visible to highly advanced bodhisattvas (those who have attained the tenth BHŪMI or higher). All other beings have only access to the Buddha’s “inferior transformation body.” See SPRUL SKU.
erzhong gongyang. (J. nishu no kuyō; K. ijong kongyang 二種供養). In Chinese, “two kinds of offerings” (S. PŪJĀ/pūjanā). There are several lists. (1) The offering that is in accord with principle (LI gongyang), and the offering that is in accord with phenomena (SHI gongyang). The former is the “glorifying” of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) by means of attaining spiritual realization and undertaking spiritual practice; the latter are offerings of material support. (2) The offering made to those who are freed from the fetters, or SAṂYOJANA (chuchan gongyang), and the offering made to those who are still subject to the fetters (zaichan gongyang). (3) Material offerings (cai gongyang) and offerings of the DHARMA (fa gongyang): the former involves material goods; the latter involves the explication, promotion, implementation, and promulgation of the Buddhist teachings.
erzhong sanguan. (J. nishu no sangan; K. ijong samgwan 二種三觀). See SANGUAN.
erzhong yuanli. (J. nishuonri; K. ijong wŏlli 二種遠離). In Chinese, “two kinds of seclusion” (S. VIRATI; VIVEKA): physical seclusion (shen yuanli) and seclusion of the mind (xin yuanli). Removing oneself from a distracting, unwholesome, and disquieting environment by leaving it behind constitutes “physical seclusion.” Seclusion of the mind usually refers to “guarding one’s senses” (see INDRIYASAṂVARA) with mindfulness so that the mind will neither cling to nor be repulsed by, sensory stimuli; it also refers to the “withdrawal” from sensory stimulations and the collectedness of attention during meditative states (see DHYĀNA).
er zong. (J. nishū; K. i chong 二宗). In Chinese, “the two [primary] scholastic traditions,” or “two [rival] tenets,” of which there are three different schemata. (1) kong zong vs. you zong: In this model, Buddhism is divided into the school that posits the insubstantiality of things (C. kong; S. ŚŪNYATĀ) and that which posits the substantiality of things (C. you; S. BHAVA), respectively. One such dichotomy involves the BAHUŚRUTĪYA, the school associated with the CHENGSHI LUN (*Tattvasiddhi), which teaches the “emptiness of everything” (sarva-ŚŪNYATĀ), including factors (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA), and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, which assumes that things could be reduced to fundamentally real, indivisible factors (DHARMA) that exist independently and are endowed with unique, irreducible properties. (2) XING ZONG vs. XIANG ZONG: In this model, Buddhist teaching is said to consist of the doctrine that deals with the “nature of things” (C. xing; this doctrine has been variously interpreted as being associated with the MADHYAMAKA and TATHĀGATAGARBHA schools), and the doctrine that deals with the “characteristics/phenomenal aspects of things” (C. xiang; this doctrine has been variously interpreted to be associated with the YOGĀCĀRA and Sarvāstivāda schools), respectively. (3) kong zong vs. xing zong: In the third model, Buddhism is said to contain two antithetical strands of thought (that may or may not be ultimately complementary). One strand upholds the reality of “emptiness” (C. kong) and denies any “self” or substantiality in all dharmas. The other strand affirms a discoverable and real “essence” (C. xing) of dharmas. Traditionally, Madhyamaka has been identified to be the paradigmatic “school of emptiness,” and tathāgatagarbha to be the paragon of the “school of [real] nature.”
Eshin Sōzu. (J) (惠心僧都). See GENSHIN.
evaṃ mayā śrutam. (P. evaṃ me sutaṃ; T. ’di skad bdag gis thos pa; C. rushi wowen; J. nyozegamon; K. yŏsi amun 如是我聞). In Sanskrit, “thus have I heard,” the stock phrase that begins most SŪTRAs, certifying that the teachings about to be recounted were heard from the mouth of the Buddha (or, in some cases, were spoken with his sanction by insightful disciples). The “I” in the phrase is generally assumed to refer to the Buddha’s attendant ĀNANDA, who recited the SŪTRAPIṬAKA at the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST) following the Buddha’s PARINIRVĀṆA. In MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature, however, where the argument is made that the Buddha taught many sūtras that were not heard by Ānanda, it is sometimes advocated that the “I” instead refers to a particular BODHISATTVA who serves as the interlocutor for the scripture, such as MAÑJUŚRĪ . There is also some debate within scholarly circles, following the commentarial interpretations of certain Buddhist traditions, whether this stock opening should also include the phrase “at one time” (ekasmin samaye) that usually follows, viz., “thus I have heard at one time” or “thus I once heard” (evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ ekasmin samaye). See also ER XU; cf. GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA.
Evans-Wentz, Walter Y. (1878–1965). American Theosophist, best known as the editor of THE TIBETAN BOOK OF THE DEAD. Walter Wentz was born in Trenton, New Jersey, the son of a German immigrant and an American Quaker. As a boy he took an early interest in books on spiritualism he found in his father’s library, reading as a teen both Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine by Madame HELENA PETROVNA BLAVATSKY of the Theosophical Society. He moved to California at the turn of the century, where in 1901, he joined the American section of the Theosophical Society. After graduating from Stanford University, Wentz went to Jesus College at Oxford in 1907 to study Celtic folklore. He later traveled to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and then on to India. In 1919, he arrived in the British hill station of Darjeeling, where he acquired a Tibetan manuscript. The manuscript was a portion of a cycle of treasure texts (GTER MA) discovered by RATNA GLING PA, entitled “The Profound Doctrine of Self-Liberation of the Mind [through Encountering] the Peaceful and Wrathful Deities” (Zab chos zhi khro dgongs pa rang grol), said to have been discovered in the fourteenth century. Since he could not read Tibetan, Evans-Wentz took the text to KAZI DAWA SAMDUP, the English teacher at a local school. Kazi Dawa Samdup provided Evans-Wentz with a translation of a portion of the text, which Evans-Wentz augmented with his own introduction and notes, publishing it in 1927 as The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Since its publication, various editions of the book have sold over 500,000 copies in English, making it the most famous Tibetan Buddhist text in the world. The text describes the process of death and rebirth, focusing on the intervening transition period called the BAR DO, or “intermediate state” (ANTARĀBHAVA). The text provides instructions on how to recognize reality in the intermediate state and thus gain liberation from rebirth. Through listening to the instructions in the text being read aloud, the departed consciousness is able to gain liberation; the Tibetan title of the text, BAR DO THOS GROL CHEN MO, means “Great Liberation in the Intermediate State through Hearing.” Evans-Wentz’s approach to the text reflects his lifelong commitment to Theosophy. Other translations that Kazi Dawa Samdup made for Evans-Wentz were included in Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (1935). In 1924, after Kazi Dawa Samdup’s death, Evans-Wentz visited his family in Kalimpong, from whom he received a manuscript translation of the MI LA RAS PA’I RNAM THAR, a biography of MI LA RAS PA, which Evans-Wentz subsequently edited and published as Tibet’s Great Yogi Milarepa (1928). He returned to Darjeeling in 1935 and employed two Sikkimese monks to translate another work from the same cycle of texts as the Bar do thos grol, entitled “Self-Liberation through Naked Vision Recognizing Awareness” (Rig pa ngo sprod gcer mthong rang grol). During the same visit, he received a summary of a famous biography of PADMASAMBHAVA. These works formed the last work in his series, The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation, eventually published in 1954.
exchange of self and other. See PARĀTMAPARIVARTANA.
eye-opening ceremony. See DIANYAN; KAIYAN; NETRAPRATIṢṬHĀPANA.