The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism

Bodhnāth Stūpa. (T. Bya rung kha shor). The popular Nepali name for a large STŪPA situated on the northeast edge of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. Venerated by both Newar and Tibetan Buddhists, it has become one of Nepal’s most important and active Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The base, arranged on three terraces in a multiangled shape called viṃśatikoṇa (lit. “twenty angles”), is more than 260 feet on each side with the upper dome standing some 130 feet high. At the structure’s south entrance stands a shrine to the Newar goddess known as Ajima or HĀRĪTĪ. Together with SVAYAṂBHŪ and NAMO BUDDHA, Bodhnāth forms a triad of great stūpas often depicted together in Tibetan literature. The stūpa’s origins are unclear and a variety of competing traditions account for its founding and subsequent development. Most Nepali sources agree that the mahācaitya was founded through the activities of King Mānadeva I (reigned 464–505), who unwittingly murdered his father but later atoned for his patricide through a great act of contrition. Among Newars, the stūpa is commonly known as the Khāsticaitya, literally “the dew-drop CAITYA.” This name is said to refer to the period in which King Mānadeva founded the stūpa, a time of great drought when cloth would be spread out at night from which the morning dew could be squeezed in order to supply water necessary for the construction. The site is also called Khāsacaitya, after one legend which states that Mānadeva was the reincarnation of a Tibetan teacher called Khāsā; another well-known tradition explains the name as stemming from the buddha KĀŚYAPA, whose relics are said to be enclosed therein. The major Tibetan account of the stūpa’s origin is found in a treasure text (GTER MA) said to have been hidden by the Indian sage PADMASAMBHAVA and his Tibetan consort YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL. According to this narrative, the monument was constructed by a widowed poultry keeper. The local nobility grew jealous that such a grand project was being undertaken by a woman of such low status. They petitioned the king, requesting that he bring the construction to a halt. The king, however, refused to intervene and instead granted permission for the work to be completed, from which its Tibetan name Bya rung kha shor (Jarung Kashor, literally “permission to do what is proper”) is derived. The stūpa was renovated under the guidance of Tibetan lamas on numerous occasions and it eventually came under the custodial care of a familial lineage known as the Chini Lamas. Once surrounded by a small village, since 1959 Bodhnāth has become a thriving center for Tibetan refugee culture and the location for dozens of relocated Tibetan monasteries.

bodhyaṅga. (P. bojjhaṅga; T. byang chub kyi yan lag; C. juezhi/qijuezhi; J. kakushi/shichikakushi; K. kakchi/ch’ilgakchi 覺支/七覺支). In Sanskrit, “branches of enlightenment,” or “limbs of awakening”; seven qualities attained at the point of realizing the path of vision (DARŚANAMĀRGA): mindfulness (SMṚTI; P. sati), investigation of factors (dharmapravicaya; P. dhammavicaya), energy (VĪRYA; P. viriya), rapture (PRĪTI; pīti), tranquility (PRAŚRABDHI; passaddhi), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and equanimity (UPEKṢĀ; upekkhā). In their roles as “branches of enlightenment,” mindfulness, first, refers to the “four foundations of mindfulness” (SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA; P. SATIPAṬṬHĀNA), where the practitioner dwells contemplating four types of objects: namely, the body (KĀYA), sensations (VEDANĀ), the mind (CITTA), and mental objects (DHARMA). Investigation of factors refers to investigating, examining, and reflecting on the teachings and numerical lists of factors taught by the Buddha. Energy refers to firm and unshaken energy that arises in the mind of the practitioner while investigating factors, etc. Rapture refers to the supersensuous bliss that arises as a consequence of contemplating with energy. Tranquility refers to the tranquility that arises as a consequence of the mind experiencing rapture. Concentration refers to the mental absorption that arises as a consequence of tranquility. Finally, equanimity refers to the sense of complete composure that arises as a consequence of the mind being well concentrated on an object. These are called factors of “enlightenment,” because they lead to awakening (BODHI) or more specifically to the attainment of the “threefold knowledge” (TRIVIDYĀ; P. tevijjā): “recollection of former lives” (S. PŪRVANIVĀSĀNUSMṚTI; P. pubbenivāsānussati), the “divine eye” (DIVYACAKṢUS; P. dibbacakkhu), which sees the death and rebirth of beings occurring according to their actions, and the “knowledge of the extinction of the contaminants” (ĀSRAVAKṢAYA JÑĀNA; P. āsavakhayañāṇa).

bodhyaṅgīmudrā. (T. byang chub mchog gi phyag rgya; C. zhiquan yin; J. chiken’in; K. chigwŏn in 智拳印). In Sanskrit, “gesture of the branches of enlightenment”; a gesture (MUDRĀ) found primarily with images of VAIROCANA, the DHARMAKĀYA buddha, the central figure of the esoteric traditions of Buddhism and the chief buddha of the TATHĀGATA family (see PAÑCAKULA). The gesture is typically formed with the right fist clasping the raised left index finger at the level of the heart, although the hand positions may be reversed. (This gesture is known in Chinese as the zhiquan yin, or “wisdom-fist gesture” a rendering often found in English accounts.) Alternatively, the raised thumb of the left fist may be clasped by the four fingers of the right fist, symbolizing the MAṆḌALA of the five buddhas (PAÑCATATHĀGATA). The gesture is interpreted to indicate the unity in the DHARMAKĀYA of the divergent experience of ordinary beings (PṚTHAGJANA) and buddhas, SAṂSĀRA and NIRVĀṆA, ignorance (AVIDYĀ) and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), and delusion (MOHA) and enlightenment (BODHI). See also JÑĀNAMUṢṬI.

Bo dong. Name of a place in central Tibet and of a small, institutionally independent Tibetan Buddhist sect with its major seat at Bo dong E monastery. The sect was founded in about 1049 in the Shigatse region of Tibet by the BKA’ GDAMS geshe (DGE BSHES) Mu dra pa chen po, who invited Sthirapāla (’Bum phrag gsum pa), a contemporary of ATIŚA DĪPAṂKARAŚRĪJÑĀNA, to stay in the monastery on his arrival from India. The monastery’s earlier history is not well known, though it is compared by some to the more famous Bka’ gdams monastery GSANG PHU NE’U THOG, founded by RNGOG LEGS PA’I SHES RAB. KO BRAG PA BSOD NAMS RGYAL MTSHAN, an abbot of Bo dong, is known for his teaching of the KĀLACAKRA Ṣaḍaṅgayoga practice, and for propagating a lineage of the LAM ’BRAS “path and result” teaching that was later subsumed into the SA SKYA tradition. The Bo dong sect, as it is now known, begins properly with BO DONG PHYOGS LAS RNAM RGYAL, who wrote a huge encyclopedic work De nyid ’dus pa (“Compendium of the Principles”) in 137 volumes (in the incomplete published edition). The monastary of Bsam lding (Samding) overlooking Yam ’brog mtsho retains an affiliation with the Bo dong sect; it was founded for a student of Phyogs las rnam rgyal, the Gung thang princess Chos kyi sgron me (1422–1455). It is the only Tibetan monastery whose abbot is traditionally a woman; her incarnations are said to be those of the goddess VAJRAVĀRĀHĪ (T. Rdo rje phag mo), “Sow-Headed Goddess.”

Bo dong Phyogs las rnam rgyal. (Chokle Namgyal) (1376–1451). The twenty-third abbot of Bo dong E monastery, founded in about 1049 by the BKA’ GDAMS geshe (DGE BSHES) Mu dra pa chen po, and the founder of the BO DONG tradition. His collected works, said to number thirty-six titles, include his huge encyclopedic work De nyid ’dus pa (“Compendium of the Principles”); it alone runs to 137 volumes in the incomplete edition published by Tibet House in Delhi. Phyogs las rnam rgyal (who is sometimes confused with Jo nang pa Phyogs las rnam rgyal who lived some fifty years earlier) was a teacher of DGE ’DUN GRUB (retroactively named the first DALAI LAMA) and MKHAS GRUB DGE LEGS DPAL BZANG, both students of TSONG KHA PA. Among his leading disciples was the king of Gung thang, Lha dbang rgyal mtshan (1404–1463), whose daughter Chos kyi sgron me (1422–1455) became a nun after the death of her daughter and then the head of Bsam lding (Samding) monastery, which her father founded for her. The monastery is the only Tibetan monastery whose abbot is traditionally a woman; incarnations are said to be those of the goddess VAJRAVĀRĀHĪ (T. Rdo rje phag mo), “Sow-Headed Goddess.”

Bo Juyi. [alt. Bai Juyi] (J. Haku Kyoi; K. Paek Kŏi 白居易) (772–846). A celebrated Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty; also known as Yaotian (Enjoying Heaven) and Layman Xiangshan. Bo Juyi was born in Henan to a destitute family with a scholarly background. He passed the civil examinations at the age of twenty-seven and held various government positions throughout his political career. Bo Juyi was exiled in 815 from the capital of Chang’an for his criticisms of governmental policies, after which he turned to Buddhism for solace. Bo Juyi befriended numerous CHAN masters of his time and studied under Foguang Ruman (d.u.), a disciple of the renowned Chan master MAZU DAOYI. He acquired his Buddhist toponym Xiangshan during his residence at the monastery of XIANGSHANSI. In addition to his famous collections of poems, such as the Changhen ge, Bo Juyi also left numerous funerary inscriptions that he composed for deceased monks. His writings were compiled together in his Baishi wenji, in seventy-five rolls.

bokuseki. (墨蹟). In Japanese, “ink traces”; generally referring to any sort of calligraphy executed by an ink brush on paper or silk. The Japanese monk Murata Jukō (1422–1502) is said to have hung in his tea room the calligraphy of the Song-dynasty CHAN master YUANWU KEQIN, which he had received from his teacher IKKYŪ SŌJUN, a practice that seems to have had no precedent in Japan. Following his lead, monks largely from the GOZAN lineage began to collect the calligraphy of eminent Song-dynasty Chan masters such as DAHUI ZONGGAO and XUTANG ZHIYU to display in their private quarters and tea rooms. From the time of the Zen and tea master Sen no Rikyū (Sōeki Rikyū; 1521–1591), the calligraphy of Japanese Zen monks such as MYŌAN EISAI, DŌGEN KIGEN, and MUSŌ SŌSEKI began to be seen as valuable commodities. The calligraphy of Zen masters belonging to the DAITOKUJI lineage such as SŌHŌ MYŌCHŌ, Ikkyū Sōjun, and TAKUAN SŌHŌ also came to be highly prized. Beginning with Sen no Rikyū, the practice of collecting relatively simple calligraphy, comprised largely of a single, horizontally executed line, came to be favored over those containing longer poems or sermons written in vertical lines.

Bon. In Tibetan, “reciter”; originally a term for a category of priest in the royal cult of pre-Buddhist Tibet. Traditional Tibetan histories present these priests as opponents of the introduction of Buddhism in Tibet during the seventh and eighth centuries. In the eleventh century, Bon emerged as fully elaborated sect of Tibetan religion, with its own buddha, its own pantheon, and its own path to liberation from rebirth. Bon should not be regarded as the pre-Buddhist religion of Tibet, but rather as the leading non-Buddhist religion of Tibet, which has had a long history of mutual influence and interaction with the Buddhist sects.

bonze. (J. bonsō/bossō 凡僧). An early English term for a Buddhist monk, especially in East Asia, deriving from the Portuguese pronunciation of the Japanese bonsō (“ordinary cleric”). Although occasionally still used in reference to Japanese Buddhist priests, this sixteenth-century term is long outmoded and should be discarded.

bore. (C) (般若). The preferred Sinographic transcription for “PRAJÑĀ”; the term is also sometimes seen transcribed as BANRUO or BORUO.

Bore wuzhi lun. (J. Hannya muchiron; K. Panya muji non 般若無知論). In Chinese, the “Nescience of Prajñā Treatise”; a subtreatise in a larger work entitled the ZHAO LUN, attributed to the Chinese monk SENGZHAO. In this treatise, the author claims that because wisdom (PRAJÑĀ) is quiescent, empty, and lacking any perduring essence, any conscious awareness of it is impossible. Although prajñā is itself formless, it interacts with the realm of perceived objects through a process known as GANYING, or “sympathetic resonance.” This treatise is said to have been based on KUMĀRAJĪVA’s translation of the PAÑCAVIṂŚATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA.

Borobudur. [alt. Barabuḍur]. A massive Indonesian Buddhist monument located in a volcanic area west of Yogyakarta, in the south-central region of the island of Java. Although there are no written records concerning the monument’s dating, archaeological and art-historical evidence suggests that construction started around 790 CE during the Śailendra dynasty and continued for at least another three-quarters of a century. The derivation of its name remains controversial. The anglicized name Borobudur was given to the site by the colonial governor Sir Thomas Raffles, when Java was under British colonial rule. The name “budur” occurs in an old Javanese text referring to a Buddhist site and Raffles may have added the “boro” to refer to the nearby village of Bore. Borobudur is a pyramid-shaped MAṆḌALA with a large central STŪPA, which is surrounded by three concentric circular tiers that include a total of seventy-two individual stūpas, and four square terraces, giving the monument the appearance of a towering mountain. The maṇḍala may have been associated with the pilgrimage of the lad SUDHANA described in the GAṆḌAVYŪHA (and its embedded version in the “Entering the Dharmadhātu” chapter of the AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA). This structure is without analogue anywhere else in the Buddhist world, but seems to have influenced Khmer (Cambodian) architectural traditions. The central stūpa houses a buddha image, and originally may have also enshrined a relic (ŚARĪRA). Each of the seventy-two smaller stūpas also enshrines an image of a BODHISATTVA, of whom MAÑJUŚRĪ and SAMANTABHADRA are most popular. The walls of Borobudur are carved with some 1,350 bas-reliefs that illustrate tales of the Buddha’s past and present lives from the JĀTAKA and AVADĀNA literature, as well as events from such texts as the LALITAVISTARA, Gaṇḍavyūha, and the BHADRACARĪPRAṆIDHĀNA. There are also niches at the upper parts of the walls that are enshrined with buddha images employing different hand gestures (MUDRĀ). The three circular tiers of Borobudur are presumed to correspond to the three realms of Buddhist cosmology (TRAIDHĀTUKA); thus, when pilgrims circumambulated the central stūpa, they may have also been traveling symbolically through the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU), the subtle-materiality realm (RŪPADHĀTU) and the immaterial realm (ĀRŪPYADHĀTU). There are also ten series of bas-reliefs, which suggest that pilgrims making their way through the monument were also ritually reenacting a bodhisattva’s progression through the ten stages (DAŚABHŪMI) of the bodhisattva path (MĀRGA). The monument is constructed on hilly terrain rather than flat land, and there is also some geological evidence that it may have originally been built on a lakeshore, as if it were a lotus flower floating in a lake. Borobudur is aligned with two other Buddhist temples in the area, Pawon and Mendu, an orientation that may well have had intentional ritual significance. By at least the fifteenth century, Borobudur was abandoned. There are two main theories regarding its fate. Since Borobudur was buried under several layers of volcanic ash at the time of its rediscovery, one theory is that a famine resulting from a volcanic eruption prompted the depopulation of the region and the monument’s abandonment. A second explanation is that the rise of Islam hastened the downfall of Buddhism in Java and the neglect of the monument.

Borommaracha I. (P. Paramarājā) (r. 1370–1388). Thai king of AYUTHAYA. During his reign, the Thai monk Dhammakitti Mahāsāmī returned to Ayuthaya from Sri Lanka and wrote the SADDHAMMASAṄGAHA, the earliest-known Buddhist chronicle written in Southeast Asia. The Saddhammasaṅgaha borrows its account of PARĀKRAMABĀHU’s reforms of the Buddhist order from the historical introduction of the MAHĀPARĀKRAMABĀHU-KATIKĀVATA.

Borommaracha II. (P. Paramarājā) (r. 1424–1448). Thai king of AYUTHAYA, who expanded the city-state’s boundaries, turning it into a regional power. He destroyed the Khmer empire of Ankhor to the east and absorbed the kingdom of SUKHOTHAI. In 1442 he attacked the Thai kingdom of Lānnā, beginning a century of warfare between Ayuthaya and Chiangmai. Toward the end of his life he received a delegation of reordained monks from Sri Lanka headed by MEDHAṄKARA AND ÑĀṆAGAMBHĪRA and at their prompting made their reformed Sinhalese NIKĀYA the only orthodox fraternity in the kingdom. The PADAENG CHRONICLE states that the senior monk of Ayuthaya, Mahā Dhammasārada, ordered all younger monks laicized and reordained at the residence of Ñāṇagambhīra. The delegation resided at Ayuthaya for four years, during which time they reordained many local monks. Afterward, they traveled to Chiangmai and other northern city-states to propagate their reforms.

boruo. (C) (般若). Alternate Chinese transcription for Sanskrit PRAJÑĀ (wisdom); the preferred transcription is BORE. See BORE for related Chinese terms and PRAJÑĀ for Sanskrit equivalents.

Brag dkar rta so. (Drakar Taso). In Tibetan, lit. “White Rock Horse Tooth”; a complex of meditation caves and small temples located close to the Nepalese border in the SKYID GRONG valley of southwestern Tibet. It was one of the primary meditation retreats of the eleventh-century yogin MI LA RAS PA, who was born nearby and later spent many years in the area in strict meditation retreat, especially at the site called Dbu ma rdzong (Uma dzong), “Fortress of the Central [Channel].” In the sixteenth century, a small monastery was founded at Brag dkar rta so by the ’BRUG PA BKA’ BRGYUD master LHA BTSUN RIN CHEN RNAM RGYAL, and the location became an important xylographic printing house specializing in the biographies of BKA’ BRGYUD masters. The center also became the seat of an important incarnation lineage, the Brag dkar rta so incarnations.

Brag yer pa. [alt. Yer pa; G.yer pa] (Drak Yerpa). A complex of meditation caves and temples northeast of LHA SA, regarded as one of the premier retreat locations of central Tibet. The ancient hermitage complex was founded by queen Mong bza’ khri lcam (Mongsa Tricham) and her children and was inhabited during the imperial period by Tibet’s religious kings SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO, KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN, and RAL PA CAN. The Indian sage PADMASAMBHAVA is said to have spent some seven months in retreat there and hid numerous treasure texts (GTER MA) in the area. Brag yer pa is considered one of his three primary places of attainment (grub gnas), together with CHIMS PHU and Shel brag (Sheldrak). Lha lung Dpal gyi rdo rje (Lhalung Palgyi Dorje), assassin of King GLANG DAR MA, is said to have spent more than twenty-two years in retreat there. Brag yer pa later gained prominence under the influence of the BKA’ GDAMS sect after the Bengali scholar ATIŚA passed some three years at the site.

Brahmā. [alt. Mahābrahmā] (T. Tshangs pa; C. Fantian; J. Bonten; K. Pŏmch’ŏn 梵天). An Indian divinity who was adopted into the Buddhist pantheon as a protector of the teachings (DHARMAPĀLA) and king of the BRAHMALOKA (in the narrow sense of that term). A particular form of the god Brahmā, called SAHĀṂPATI, plays a crucial role in the inception of the Buddhist dispensation or teaching (ŚĀSANA). During the seven weeks following his enlightenment, the newly awakened buddha GAUTAMA was unsure as to whether he should teach, wondering whether there would be anyone in this world who would be able to duplicate his experience. Brahmā descended to earth and convinced him that there were persons “with little dust in their eyes” who would be able to understand his teachings. The Buddha then surveyed the world to determine the most suitable persons to hear the DHARMA. Seeing that his former meditation teachers had died, he chose the “group of five” (PAÑCAVARGIKA) and proceeded to ṚṢIPATANA, where he taught his first sermon, the “Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma” (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASŪTRA; P. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA). Because of this intervention, Brahmā is considered one of the main dharmapālas. BUDDHAGHOSA explains, however, that the compassionate Buddha never had any hesitation about teaching the dharma but felt that if he were implored by the god Brahmā, who was revered in the world, it would lend credence to his mission. Brahmā is depicted with four faces and four arms, and his primary attributes are the lotus and the CAKRA. The figure of Brahmā also fused with early Indian BODHISATTVAs such as PADMAPĀṆI (AVALOKITEŚVARA). In Tibet the dharmapāla TSHANGS PA DKAR PO is a fusion of Brahmā and PE HAR RGYAL PO.

brahmacarya. (P. brahmacariya; T. tshangs spyod; C. fanxing; J. bongyō; K. pŏmhaeng 梵行). In Sanskrit, lit. “holy lifeway” or “religious life”; a term used most typically to mean “celibacy,” viz., a religious way of life based on renunciation and chastity, and by extension to the monks and ascetics who follow that way of life. Within the Brahmanical tradition, brahmacarya refers to unmarried students of the Vedas, but the term was adopted by the Buddhists to refer more broadly to a religious mendicant’s celibate way of life. Cf. PĀRĀJIKA.

Brahmajālasuttanta. (C. Fandong jing; J. Bondōkyō; K. Pŏmdong kyŏng 梵動經) In Pāli, “Discourse on BRAHMĀ’s Net”; the first sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the twenty-first SŪTRA in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA). While dwelling in the Ambalaṭṭhikā grove, the Buddha preaches this sermon to the ascetic Supiyya and his disciple Brahmadatta, in order to allay their disagreement over the merits and demerits of the Buddha. The Buddha first explains that there are some who praise him for his observation of moral precepts (sīla; S. ŚĪLA), which, he notes, are merely abstentions from wrongdoing. These he elaborates in increasing detail in three sections and concludes by saying that those who judge him by these abstentions have only a trivial understanding of his virtues. The Buddha then describes sixty-two theories regarding the existence of the self (attan; S. ĀTMAN) advocated by other recluses (samaṇa, S. ŚRAMAṆA) and brāhmaṇas, all of which he rejects. These he classifies as the doctrines of eternalism (sassatavāda, see S. ŚĀŚVATADṚṢṬI), semieternalism (ekaccasassatavāda), extensionism (antānantavāda), equivocation or eel-wriggling (amarāvikkhepavāda), causeless originationism (adhiccasamuppannavāda), the belief in conscious existence after death (saññīvāda), unconscious existence after death (asaññīvāda), existence after death that is neither conscious or unconscious (nevasaññīnāsaññīvāda), annihilationism (UCCHEDAVĀDA), and hedonism (diṭṭhadhammanibbānavāda). All of these theories the Buddha rejects as examples of wrong views (diṭṭhi, S. DṚṢṬI), which are advocated by other recluses and brāhmaṇas through their contact with, and experience of, sensory objects. Because of their wrong views, these theories produce craving (taṇhā, S. TṚṢṆĀ) and grasping (UPĀDĀNA), which in turn fuel the process of becoming (BHAVA) and leads to continued rebirth (JĀTI), old age and death (JARĀMARAṆA), sorrow (śoka), lamentation (parideva), pain (DUḤKHA), grief (daurmanasya), and despair (upāyāsa) (see PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). The Brahmajālasuttanta is valued by scholars as a source for understanding the range of philosophical views present in India at the time of the early Buddhist community.

brahmakāyika. (P. brahmapārisajjā; T. tshangs ris; C. fanzhong tian; J. bonshuten; K. pŏmjung ch’ŏn 梵衆天). In Sanskrit, “brahmā’s retainers”; the lowest of the three heavens that constitute the first concentration (DHYĀNA) of the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU) in the Buddhist cosmological system. In Pāli, the term brahmakāyika seems to be used at times for a general term for all the inhabitants of the BRAHMALOKA; the inhabitants of the lowest of the three heavens are instead called brahmāpārisajjā (the “assembly of BRAHMĀ”). However, brahmakāyika more commonly refers to the lowest of the three heavens, whose inhabitants are divinities (DEVA) who are subordinates of the god Brahmā. As with the other inhabitants of the realm of subtle materiality, the divinities there have only three sense organs: of sight, hearing, and touch. Also as with all the heavens of the subtle-materiality realm, one is reborn as a divinity there through mastering during one’s meditative practice in a preceding lifetime the same level of dhyāna as those divinities.

brahmaloka. (T. tshangs pa’i ’jig rten; C. fanjie; J. bonkai; K. pŏmgye 梵界). In Sanskrit and Pāli, the “BRAHMĀ worlds.” In its narrowest sense, brahmaloka refers to the first three heavens of the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU), whose denizens live perpetually immersed in the bliss of the first meditative absorption (DHYĀNA; P. jhāna): BRAHMAKĀYIKA (heaven of Brahmā’s followers), BRAHMAPUROHITA (heaven of Brahmā’s vassals), and MAHĀBRAHMĀ (heaven of Brahmā himself). The ruler of these three heavens is named either Brahmā or Mahābrahmā, and he mistakenly believes that he is the creator of the universe. In a more general sense, the brahmaloka can also refer collectively to all the heavens of both the realm of subtle materiality and the immaterial realm (ĀRŪPYADHĀTU). The two realms are divided into twenty heavens, the top four of which comprise the immaterial realm. Denizens of the immaterial realm have no physical dimension but are entirely mental and are perpetually immersed in one of the four immaterial absorptions (ĀRŪPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). The realm of subtle materiality is divided into sixteen heavens, the top five of which are called the “pure abodes” (ŚUDDHĀVĀSA), where nonreturners (ANĀGĀMIN) are reborn. When the time is right, inhabitants of the pure abodes descend to earth in the guise of brāhmaṇas to leave portents of the advent of future buddhas so that they can be recognized when they appear in the human realm. One heaven in the realm of subtle materiality is reserved for unconscious beings (S. asaṃjñisattva; P. asaññasatta) who pass their entire lives (which can last eons) in dreamless sleep, only to die the moment they awaken. As with the immaterial realm, the realm of subtle materiality is also divided into four broad strata that correspond to the four form-based meditative absorptions (RŪPĀVACARADHYĀNA) and the denizens of these strata perpetually experience the bliss of the corresponding dhyāna. Regardless of the particular heaven they occupy, all inhabitants of the brahmaloka are all classified as Brahmā gods and live in splendor that far exceeds that of the divinities in the lower sensuous realm of existence (KĀMADHĀTU).

Brahmanimantanikasutta. (C. Fantian qing fo jing; J. Bonten shōbutsukyō; K. Pŏmch’ŏn ch’ŏngbul kyŏng 梵天請佛經). In Pāli, “Discourse on the Invitation of a BRAHMĀ”; the forty-ninth sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA, preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks at the JETAVANA Grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. ŚRĀVASTĪ). (A separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA version appears as the seventy-eighth SŪTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA.) The Buddha recounts to his disciples how he once visited the divine abode of the brahmā god Baka to dissuade him of the wrong view of eternalism (S. ŚĀŚVATADṚṢṬI). Because Baka had lived a very long time as lord of his realm—so long that his memory had failed him—the wrong view occurred to him that everything in his heaven was permanent, everlasting, and eternal; that nothing was beyond it; that nothing in his heaven was born, grew old, or died; that nothing passed away or reappeared; and that beyond his heavenly realm there was no escape. The Buddha tells Baka he knows more than Baka knows, that there are in fact other heavens more resplendent than his, and that because of their awakening, the Buddha and his disciples are quite beyond and free from all realms of existence.

brahmapurohita. (T. tshangs pa’i mdun na ’don; C. fanfu tian; J. bonhoten; K. pŏmbo ch’ŏn 梵輔天). In Sanskrit and Pāli “brahmā’s ministers”; the second of the three heavens that constitute the first concentration (DHYĀNA) of the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU) in the Buddhist cosmological system. The inhabitants of this heaven are divinities (DEVA) who serve as the attendants, ministers, and officials of the god BRAHMĀ. As with the other inhabitants of the realm of subtle materiality, the divinities there have only three physical sense organs: of sight, hearing, and touch. As with all the heavens of the subtle-materiality realm, one is reborn as a god there through mastering during one’s meditative practice in a preceding lifetime the same level of dhyāna as those divinities.

brahmavihāra. (T. tshangs pa’i gnas; C. fanzhu; J. bonjū; K. pŏmju 梵住). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “divine abidings,” or “highest religious state.” This is a classification of four meditative topics used for the cultivation of tranquility meditation (ŚAMATHĀ): loving-kindness (MAITRĪ; P. mettā), compassion (KARUṆĀ), empathetic joy (MUDITĀ), and equanimity or impartiality (UPEKṢĀ; P. upekkhā). The meditator is taught to take up each of the divine abidings in the same way: starting with the first brahmavihāra, for example, filling his mind with loving-kindness, he pervades the world with it, first in one direction; then in a second direction; then a third and a fourth; then above, below, and all around; always identifying himself with all beings and keeping himself free from hatred and ill will. In the same way, he develops compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity. These four factors are taken up as objects of meditation to counter the influence of specific unwholesome (AKUŚALA) states of mind: viz., loving-kindness counteracts hostility (VYĀPĀDA), compassion counters harmfulness (VIHIṂSĀ), empathetic joy counters dissatisfaction or envy regarding others achievements (arati), and equanimity counters both the desire and hostility arising from sensuality (kāmarāgavyāpāda) as well as the desire to win the approval of others (anunaya). Of these divine abidings, the first three are capable of producing the first three of the four meditative absorptions (DHYĀNA); the fourth divine abiding is the only one capable of producing the fourth meditative absorption. The four divine abidings are listed in the VISUDDHIMAGGA as four of the forty meditative topics (KAMMAṬṬHĀNA) that may be pursued by the meditator. The Visuddhimagga notes they are useful only for the cultivation of tranquility (P. samatha; S. śamatha), and not for the cultivation of insight (P. VIPASSANĀ; S. VIPAŚYANĀ). Taken as objects of concentration and extended in meditation to all beings without limit, the divine abidings also come to be known as the “boundless states” (APRAMĀṆA).

Brāhmī. In Sanskrit, “Holy Script”; name for one of the two predominant scripts (along with KHAROṢṬHĪ) used in the GANDHĀRA region of northwest India; Buddhist texts using this script are found in Sanskritized Gāndhārī and other Prakrit vernaculars (known as BUDDHIST HYBRID SANSKRIT). Buddhist documents were written in the Kharoṣṭhī script at least as early as the first half of the first century CE; these are now generally conceded to be the oldest extant Indian and Buddhist documents, although stone and coin inscriptions and edicts in Aśokan Brāhmī date from considerably earlier. Documents using the Brāhmī script date from about one or two centuries later, during the second or third centuries CE; the latest Brāhmī documents date from the eighth century CE, around the time that Buddhism begins to vanish from the Gandhāra region. The Brāhmī manuscripts are often written on palm leaves, while many of the Kharoṣṭhī manuscripts instead use birch bark. The greatest cache of Brāhmī manuscripts discovered so far are extensive fragments of a Sanskrit recension of the DĪRGHĀGAMA (“Long Discourses”; see also DĪGHANIKĀYA) attributed to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school or its MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA offshoot. Aśokan-period Brāhmī has ten vowels and thirty-eight consonants and is written like all Indian alphabets from left to right; Kharoṣṭhī is written from right to left and appears to be based on an Aramāic script. In the modern period, the Brāhmī script was deciphered by James Prinsep (1799–1840) of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Brāhmī is also related to the SIDDHAM script used in East Asian for transcribing Sanskit DHĀRAṆĪs and MANTRAs.

’Bras spungs. (Drepung). In Tibetan, literally “Rice Heap”; one of the three monastic seats (GDAN SA GSUM) of the DGE LUGS sect of Tibetan Buddhism; located eight kilometers west of the Tibetan capital of LHA SA. The monastery is named after the Dhanyakaṭaka stūpa in AMARĀVATĪ in southern India, where the Buddha is said to have first taught the KĀLACAKRATANTRA. It was founded in 1416 by ’JAM DBYANGS CHOS RJE BKRA SHIS DPAL LDAN, one of TSONG KHA PA’s leading disciples, and after only a few years in operation already housed over 2,000 monks. In the early sixteenth century, the second DALAI LAMA Dge ’dun rgya mtsho (Gendün Gyatso, 1475–1542) became the monastery’s abbot; in 1530, he established a residence and political institution there called the DGA’ LDAN PHO BRANG or “Palace of TUṢITA.” Following him, Bsod nams grags pa (Sönam Drakpa, 1478–1554) became the abbot. Thereafter, until the ascendancy of the Dalai Lamas, the most powerful religious dignitaries in the monastery were the Dalai Lamas and the reincarnations of Bsod nams grags pa. In the seventeenth century, under the direction of the fifth Dalai Lama NGAG DBANG BLO BZANG RGYA MTSHO, the Dga’ ldan pho brang (also known as the gzims khang ’og ma or “lower chambers” to distinguish it from the “upper chambers,” gzims khang gong ma, where the incarnations of Bsod nams grags pa resided), was moved to the PO TA LA palace. There it functioned as the seat of the Tibetan government until the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959. The monastery is an enormous complex of assembly halls, temples, chapels, living quarters and mountain hermitages. At the time of the fifth Dalai Lama, ’Bras spungs housed over 10,000 monks divided into seven (and later four) colleges (grwa tshang), more than fifty regional dormitories (khams tshan), and occupied an area of some 180,000 square feet, easily forming the largest monastery in Tibet. At the height of its florescence, ’Bras spungs drew applicants from all quarters of the Tibetan cultural world including the far east and northeast in A mdo, as well as Mongolia, Kalmykia, and Buryatia. The monastery was large enough to accommodate individuals of a wide range of capacities and interests. A large percentage of its monks engaged in little formal intellectual study, instead choosing to work for the institution as laborers, cooks, and ritual assistants. Even so, ’Bras spungs’s numerous monastic colleges also attracted some of Tibet’s most talented and gifted scholars, producing a line of elite academicians and authors. The complex was sacked a number of times, first by the King of Gtsang (Tsang) during a civil war in 1618, then by the Mongol army in 1635, and again by Lha bzang Khan in 1706. It was most recently plundered by the People’s Liberation Army during the Chinese Cultural Revolution but opened again in 1980 with five hundred monks.

bṛhatphala. (P. vehapphala; T. ’bras bu che; C. guangguo tian; J. kōkaten; K. kwanggwa ch’ŏn 廣果天). In Sanskrit, “great fruition,” the third and lowest of the eight heavens of the fourth concentration (DHYĀNA) of the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU); in Pāli sources, this is the lowest of the seven heavens of the fourth DHYĀNA of the realm of subtle materiality (RŪPADHĀTU).The heaven is so called because it is the greatest fruition among all places of rebirth in SAṂSĀRA for ordinary persons (PṚTHAGJANA) who have not achieved the state of ĀRYAPUDGALA or noble person. As with all the heavens of the subtle-materiality realm, one is reborn as a god there through mastering during one’s meditative practice in a preceding lifetime the same level of dhyāna as those divinities.

’Bri gung bka’ brgyud. (Drigung Kagyü). A subsect of the BKA’ BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism, counted among the “four major and eight minor Bka’ brgyud subsects” (BKA’ BRGYUD CHE BZHI CHUNG BRGYAD). The lineage stems from the twelfth-century meditation master ’JIG RTEN GSUM MGON, who founded the sects seat at ’BRI GUNG MTHIL monastery in 1179, from which the lineage derives its name. Although the ’Bri gung bka’ brgyud wielded political power at times during the thirteenth century, members of the tradition are primarily renowned as great meditators. The sect established prominent retreat centers around Mount KAILĀSA in western Tibet and LA PHYI in the south. It has remained an active Bka’ brgyud subsect under the guidance of its principal reincarnate teachers, the Che tshang and Chung tshang lamas. The former has established an exile seat in Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh in northern India, with numerous affiliated centers in India, Nepal, and the West, while the latter remains in Tibet.

’Bri gung mthil. (Drigung Til). An important monastery affiliated with the ’BRI GUNG BKA’ BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism, located northeast of the Tibetan capital of LHA SA. A hermitage was initially established at the site in 1167 by Mi nyag sgom ring (Minyak Gomring), a disciple of the influential Bka’ brgyud hierarch PHAG MO GRU PA RDO RJE RGYAL PO. In 1179 Phag mo gru pa’s disciple ’JIG RTEN GSUM MGON, founder of the ’Bri gung bka’ brgyud sect, constructed a monastery there, deriving its name (literally “back of a female yak”) from the contour of the surrounding ridge. The institution was renowned for its excellence in meditative training and gained great political power during the thirteenth century when it rivaled even the SA SKYA establishment. ’Bri gung mthil was sacked by the Mongol-backed Sa skyas in 1290 but was rebuilt and later flourished as an active, though politically insignificant, religious center for the ’Bri gung bka’ brgyud teachings. One of central Tibet’s most famous sky-burial sites is affiliated with the monastery.

Brin. (Drin) A village and its surrounding region of the Rongshar Valley in southern Tibet, close to the Nepalese border, chiefly associated with the eleventh-century Tibetan YOGIN MI LA RAS PA. According to the yogin’s biographies, the region was home to numerous patrons, and many of his favored retreat caves are located here. Also spelled Ding ma brin, or Brin thang.

’Brog mi Shākya Ye shes. (Drogmi Shākya Yeshe) (c. 992–1072?). Tibetan scholar and founder of the SA SKYA sect of Tibetan Buddhism; one of the foremost translators of the new traditions (GSAR MA) in Tibet. Also known as ’Brog mi Lo tsā ba (“Drokmi the Translator”), ’Brog mi traveled to Nepal and India and studied for thirteen years under numerous masters and at the monastic university of VIKRAMAŚĪLA. After returning to Tibet, he translated a variety of Sanskrit works, including important tantric treatises and commentaries. Chief among these were the HEVAJRATANTRA and the RDO RJE TSHIG RKANG (“Vajra Verses”) of the adept VIRŪPA. He received the latter in Tibet from the Indian master Gyadhara (d. 1103) and it formed a scriptural basis for the seminal Sa skya tradition known as LAM ’BRAS, or “path and result.” His chief disciple, DKON MCHOG RGYAL PO, is credited with founding SA SKYA monastery.

’Brom ston Rgyal ba’i ’byung gnas. (Dromton Gyalwe Jungne) (1004–1064). The foremost Tibetan disciple of the Bengali scholar ATIŚA, and central figure in the founding of the BKA’ GDAMS sect of Tibetan Buddhism during the period known as the later dissemination (PHYI DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet. Born in central Tibet, he began his education at an early age. Toward the middle years of his life, news of Atiśa’s arrival in western Tibet reached him, and he set out on the arduous journey to meet the master. ’Brom ston pa became an early and close student of AtiŚa and made arrangements for his Indian guru’s tour of central Tibet in 1045. After Atiśa’s death, ’Brom ston pa established RWA SGRENG monastery in 1056, consolidating his career as translator and teacher at this important religious institution. He is remembered especially for the firm austerity of his religious practice. ’Brom ston pa’s instructions, as recorded in Bka’ gdams pa works such as the Bka’ gdams gtor bu (“Bka’ gdams Miscellania”), perhaps wary of the potential abuses of tantric practice, instead emphasize meditation on impermanence and compassion coupled with adherence to strict ethical principles and monastic discipline.

brtan [alt. bstan] ma bcu gnyis. (denma chunyi). A group of twelve pre-Buddhist Tibetan deities converted to Buddhism by PADMASAMBHAVA. The site of their subjugation is said to have been either Kha la brag (Kaladrak) or ’U yug, although individual members have variant legends. They are considered to be subordinate to the BKRA SHIS TSHE RING MCHED LNGA, “five long-life sisters,” and, like that group of deities, frequently appear in the retinue of DPAL LDAN LHA MO. Their status in the world is ambiguous, considered by some to be enlightened, by others to be mundane. Rdo rje g.yu sgron ma (Dorje Yudronma) is generally considered to be their leader, though sometimes Rdo rje grags mo rgyal (Dorje Drakmo Gyel) is given that honor. All members are said to take possession of female mediums, some of whom were sponsored by the powerful DGE LUGS monasteries of SE RA and ’BRAS SPUNGS. The brtan ma are divided into three groups of four members each: the bdud mo (dumo) (female BDUD), gnod sbyin (nöjin) (female YAKṢA), and sman mo (menmo). Their names, without the epithet “Rdo rje” (i.e., “Vajra”) are Kun grags ma, G.ya’ ma skyong, Kun bzang mo, and Bgegs kyi gtso in the group of bdud mo; Spyan gcig ma, Dpal gyi yum, Drag mo rgyal, and Klu mo dkar in the group of gnod sbyin chen mo; and Bod khams skyong, Sman gcig ma, G.yar mo sil, and G.yu sgron ma in the group of sman mo. There are numerous variations in the names.

’Brug chen incarnations. (Drukchen). An important “incarnate lama” (SPRUL SKU) lineage of Tibetan masters, esteemed as prominent teachers of the ’BRUG PA BKA’ BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The recognized line began in the fifteenth century, although the first embodiment is held to be GTSANG PA RGYA RAS YE SHES RDO RJE who lived several centuries earlier. Perhaps most famous among the ’Brug chen incarnations was the fourth, PADMA DKAR PO, an exceptional scholar and prolific author and historian. The current ’Brug chen incarnation established a residence in India following the Chinese occupation of Tibet. The lineage includes:

1. Gtsang pa rgya ras Ye shes rdo rje (1161–1211)

2. Chos rje Kun dga’ dpal ’byor (Chöje Kunga Paljor, 1426–1476)

3. ’Jam dbyangs chos grags (Jamyang Chödrak, 1477–1523),

4. Padma dkar po (1527–1592)

5. ’Phags bsam dbang po (Paksam Wangpo, 1593–1641)

6. Mi pham dbang po (Mipam Wangpo, 1641–1717)

7. Phrin las shing rta (Trinle Shingta, 1718–1766)

8. Kun gzigs chos kyi snang ba (Kunsik Chökyi Nangwa, 1767–1822)

9. ’Jigs med mi ’gyur dbang rgyal (Jikme Migyur Wangyal, 1823–1883)

10. Mi pham chos kyi dbang po (Mipam Chökyi Wangpo, 1884–1930)

11. Bstan ’dzin mkhyen rab dge legs dbang po (Tendzin Khyenrap Gelek Wangpo, 1931–1960)

12. ’Jigs med padma dbang chen (Jikme Pema Wangchen, b. 1963).

’Brug pa bka’ brgyud. (Drukpa Kagyü). A lineage counted among the four major and eight minor BKA’ BRGYUD subsects (BKA’ BRGYUD CHE BZHI CHUNG BRGYAD) of Tibetan Buddhism, which maintained an active presence throughout central and western Tibet and became a predominant tradition in neighboring Bhutan. Its practitioners were widespread and renowned for their simple lifestyle and intensive meditative practices. For this reason, a Tibetan proverb arose that said, “Half of the people are ’Brug pas. Half of the ’Brug pas are beggars. Half of the beggars are saints.” The lineage originated with GLING RAS PA PADMA RDO RJE (1128–1188), student of renowned Bka’ brgyud master PHAG MO GRU PA RDO RJE RGYAL PO, and his disciple GTSANG PA RGYA RAS YE SHES RDO RJE. The sect eventually divided into three branches, known as (1) Upper ’Brug (stod ’brug), established by Gtsang pa rgya ras’s disciple RGOD TSHANG PA MGON PO RDO RJE; (2) Middle ’Brug (bar ’brug), established by Gtsang pa rgya ras’s disciple Lo ras pa Dar ma [alt. Grags pa] dbang phyug (Lorepa Darma Wangchuk) (1187–1250); and (3) Lower ’Brug (smad ’brug) established by Gtsang pa rgya ras himself. It was the Middle ’Brug tradition that was transmitted to Bhutan by ZHAB DRUNG NGAG DBANG RNAM RGYAL.

’Brug pa kun legs. (Drukpa Kunlek) (1455–1529). Also known as ’Brug smyon pa, “the Drukpa madman”; stories about his exploits, similar to the exploits of A khu ston pa (Aku Tönpa), are much beloved in Tibetan society; they draw on Tibetan folk narratives, the Indian SIDDHA tradition, and the Tibetan holy madman (smyon pa) tradition, poking fun at powerful interests and figures of religious authority, particularly monks, and often referring obliquely to esoteric tantric practices; the stories often suggest he engages in profane sexual and scatological activities in order to awaken people from ignorance to an understanding of Buddhist truths. The historical ’Brug pa kun leg (his given name was Kun dga’ legs pa; ’Brug pa is short for ’BRUG PA BKA’ BRGYUD, a BKA’ BRYUD subsect) was born into the noble Rgya (Gya) lineage of RWA LUNG; he was a student of Lha btsun Kun dga’ chos kyi rgya mtsho and possibly the Bhutanese saint and RNYING MA treasure revealer (GTER STON) PADMA GLING PA. His lineage was carried on after his death by his son. In his autobiography he describes himself as a difficult and contrary person from an early age; he was an adept at the practice of MAHĀMUDRĀ. Later biographies of Kun dga’ legs pa give anachronistic accounts of him making fun of SA SKYA PAṆḌITA and TSONG KHA PA, iconic figures in Tibetan Buddhism, describe his appetite for barley beer and his fantastic love life; some accounts say he was the paramour of over five thousand women whom he enlightened by his teaching and practice. There is a small monastery of ’Brug pa kun legs with a phallic symbol in Bhutan where he is especially revered.

Bsam gtan mig sgron. (Samten Mikdrön). In Tibetan, literally “Lamp of the Eye of Concentration”; the title of a ninth-century treatise by GNUBS CHEN SANGS RGYAS YE SHES that discusses four main philosophical approaches prevalent during the early spread (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet. These include (1) the gradual path (rim gyis pa); (2) the sudden path (cig car ba); (3) the tradition of MAHĀYOGA; and (4) the RDZOGS CHEN teachings. The text is an important source for understanding the range of meditative practice and theory in Tibet in the period after the BSAM YAS DEBATE and before the persecution of Buddhism under King GLANG DAR MA. The work makes clear reference to the teachings of the Chinese CHAN school in its discussion of the sudden teachings (see DUNJIAO).

Bsam yas. (Samye). Tibet’s first Buddhist monastery, constructed on the north bank of the Gtsang po (Tsangpo) River in central Tibet, probably circa 779. The Tibetan king KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN invited the renowned Indian Buddhist preceptor ŚĀNTARAKṢITA to found the institution and ordain Tibet’s first monks. According to traditional accounts, local spirits hostile to Buddhism blocked the completion of the project. Unable to continue his work, Śāntarakṣita convinced the Tibetan ruler to invite the powerful Indian tantric master PADMASAMBHAVA to his kingdom in order to subdue these autochthonous spirits. Padmasambhava reached the site and, from atop the nearby hill called He po ri, he subjugated the demons, binding them by oath to become protectors of the dharma (DHARMAPĀLA). The Bsam yas complex was subsequently constructed in the form of a MAṆḌALA arranged in the shape of the universe according to Buddhist cosmological accounts, based on the model of ODANTAPURĪ, a Pāla-dynasty monastery located in the present-day Indian state of Bihar. At the center stands the main basilica, serving as Mount SUMERU, surrounded by chapels representing the four continents and eight subcontinents in the four cardinal directions, all of which is ringed by a massive wall capped with a thousand STŪPAs. According to Tibetan and Chinese sources, in about 797 the monastery served as the venue for a great dispute between proponents of Indian and Chinese Buddhist perspectives on enlightenment and meditation. The outcome of this famous BSAM YAS DEBATE, in which the Indian view is said to have prevailed, greatly influenced the development of Buddhism in Tibet, which subsequently became a tradition that looked more to India than China for inspiration. Bsam yas was a religiously and politically vibrant institution from its inception up to the tenth century, after which its influence waned under BKA’ GDAMS, SA SKYA, and eventually DGE LUGS control. Bsam yas’s central basilica is renowned for its art and its architectural design, said to be a fusion of styles from India, China, Tibet, and Central Asia. The complex suffered on numerous occasions due to fires and, most recently, at the hands of the Chinese military during the Cultural Revolution. Extensive reconstruction and renovations were begun in the 1980s and Bsam yas remains an important pilgrimage destination and a potent symbol of Tibet’s Buddhist heritage.

Bsam yas debate. An important event in the early dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet. During the reign of the king KHRI SRONG LDE BRTSAN at the end of the eighth century, there were two Buddhist factions at court, a Chinese faction led by the Northern Chan (BEI ZONG) monk Heshang MOHEYAN (the Chinese transcription of “Mahāyāna”) and an Indian faction associated with the recently deceased ŚĀNTARAKṢITA who, with the king and PADMASAMBHAVA, had founded the first Tibetan monastery at BSAM YAS. According to traditional accounts, Śāntarakṣita foretold of dangers and left instructions in his will that his student KAMALAŚĪLA be called from India. A conflict seems to have developed between the Indian and Chinese partisans (and their allies in the Tibetan court) over the question of the nature of enlightenment, with the Indians holding that enlightenment takes place as the culmination of a gradual process of purification, the result of combining ethical practice (ŚĪLA), meditation (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ). The Chinese spoke against this view, holding that enlightenment was the intrinsic nature of the mind itself rather than the goal of a protracted path of practice. Therefore, to recognize the presence of this innate nature of enlightenment, one need only enter a state of awareness beyond distinctions; all other practices were superfluous. According to both Chinese and Tibetan records, a debate was held between Kamalaśīla and Moheyan at Bsam yas, circa 797, with the king himself serving as judge. According to Tibetan records (contradicted by Chinese accounts), Kamalaśīla was declared the winner and Moheyan and his party were banished from Tibet, with the king proclaiming that the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhist philosophy (to which Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla belonged) would thereafter be followed in Tibet. Kamalaśīla died shortly after the debate, supposedly assassinated by members of the Chinese faction. Scholars have suggested that although a controversy between the Indian and Chinese Buddhists (and their Tibetan partisans) occurred, it is unlikely that a face-to-face debate took place or that the outcome of the controversy was so unequivocal. The “debate” may instead have been an exchange of statements; indeed, Kāmalaśīla’s third BHĀVANĀKRAMA seems to derive from this exchange. It is also important to note that, regardless of the merits of the Indian and Chinese philosophical positions, China was Tibet’s chief military rival at the time, whereas India posed no such threat. The debate’s principal significance derives from the fact that from this point on, Tibet largely sought its Buddhism from India; no school of Chinese Buddhism subsequently exerted any major influence in Tibet. It is said that when he departed, Moheyan left behind one shoe, indicating that traces of his view would remain in Tibet; some scholars have suggested possible connections between Chan positions and the RDZOGS CHEN teachings that developed in the ninth century. In Tibetan polemics of later centuries, it was considered particularly harsh to link one’s opponent’s views to the antinomian views of Moheyan. Moheyan himself was transformed into something of a trickster figure, popular in Tibetan art and drama. This event is variously referred to in English as the Council of Samye, the Council of Lha sa, and the Samye Debate. See also DUNWU.

bsdus grwa. (dudra). A distinctively Tibetan genre of monastic textbook (used widely in DGE LUGS monasteries) that introduces beginners to the main topics in PRAMĀṆA (T. tshad ma) and ABHIDHARMA. The genre probably originated with the summaries (bsdus pa) of important pramāṇa texts composed by the translator RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB of GSANG PHU NE’U THOG monastery. PHYWA PA CHOS KYI SENG GE is credited with originating the distinctively Tibetan dialectical form that strings together a chain of consequences linked by a chain of reasons that distinguishes bsdus grwa. Beginners are introduced to the main topics in abhidharma and pramāṇa using this formal language, a language that has been heard in Tibetan debate institutions (RTSOD GRWA) down to the present day.

bshad grwa. (shedra). In Tibetan, lit. “commentarial institution” or simply “teaching institute”; a part of a monastic complex devoted to the study of scripture, sometimes contrasted with a meditation center (sgrub khang, literally “practice house”). The institution possibly originates with SA SKYA PAṆḌITA who in his Mkhas pa la ’jug pa’i sgo proposed a model of intellectual inquiry based on exposition, composition, and debate. In a traditional bshad grwa, the teacher explains line by line an authoritative Indian text, often referring to a Tibetan commentary; this may be followed by a formal period of debate; the teacher then calls on the monks during the next class to give an explanation of the part of the Indian text they have learned. The bshad grwa is contrasted with the RTSOD GRWA (tsödra) “debating institution,” the origins of which may go back to the model of study followed in BKA’ GDAMS monasteries like GSANG PHU NE’U THOG. The best known rtsod grwa are the six great DGE LUGS monasteries of pre-1959 Tibet, which rarely emphasized the ability to give an explanation of the Indian text, but rather followed strict debating periods where particular points of doctrine were investigated in great detail. In the rtsod grwa, debate was raised to a high level, forming a central part of the curriculum, and the examination system that provided access to important and remunerative ecclesiastical postings in the Dge lugs establishment was based almost entirely on debating, as distinct from the ability to give a full commentary on an Indian text. The bshad grwa appears to have gained particular importance in areas of Khams, in Eastern Tibet, after the rise of the so-called RIS MED (rime) movement in the nineteenth century; of particular note there is the Khams bye bshad grwa in the RDZONG GSAR region of SDE DGE, and the considerable number of new bshad grwa opened by learned monks from the Khams region as annexes of older monasteries that earlier were devoted entirely to ritual. See RDZONG GSAR.

Bsod nams rgya mtsho. (Sönam Gyatso) (1543–1588). A Tibetan Buddhist prelate officially identified as the third DALAI LAMA, although he was the first to actually hold the title. Recognized as an accomplished scholar and Buddhist master, he served as the abbot of ’BRAS SPUNGS Monastery. In 1578 he traveled to Mongolia at the invitation of the Tūmed ruler Altan Khan, and served as religious instructor to the court. He convinced the Mongols to ban blood sacrifice and other indigenous rites in favor of Buddhist practice. In return, the Mongol Khan bestowed upon his guru the title “Dalai Lama,” literally translating the Tibetan’s name rgya mtsho (“ocean”) into the Mongolian equivalent dalai. The name Dalai Lama was posthumously applied to Bsod nams rgya mtsho’s two previous incarnations, DGE ’DUN GRUB and Dge ’dun rgya mtsho (Gendün Gyatso), who became respectively the first and second members of the lineage. Bsod nams rgya mtsho traveled widely throughout eastern Tibet and China, teaching and establishing monastic centers.

Bsod nams rtse mo. (Sönam Tsemo) (1142–1182). A renowned scholar of the SA SKYA sect of Tibetan Buddhism, considered one of the five Sa skya forefathers (SA SKYA GONG MA RNAM LNGA). He was born the second son of the great Sa skya founder SA CHEN KUN DGA’ SNYING PO. His brother was another of the Sa skya forefathers, Grags pa rgyal mtshan (Drakpa Gyaltsen). He was the uncle of SA SKYA PAṆḌITA. Bsod nams rtse mo was a devoted student of PHYWA PA CHOS KYI SENG GE, studying MADHYAMAKA and PRAMĀṆA with him over the course of eleven years. Bsod nams rtse mo was famous for his commentarial work on Indian tantra, which he categorized in works such as his Rgyu sde spyi rnam par bzhag pa (“A General Presentation on the Divisions of Tantra”).

bstan ’gyur. (tengyur). In Tibetan, “the translated treatises,” or ŚĀSTRA collection; referring to the second of the two major divisions of the Tibetan Buddhist canon, along with the BKA’ ’GYUR, or “translated word [of the Buddha].” The bstan ’gyur collection contains approximately 225 volumes of commentarial literature and independent works, comprising more than 3,500 texts, most of which were written by Indian Buddhist exegetes. It exists in numerous editions, but was less frequently printed than its companion collection, the bka’ ’gyur. Subjects covered include hymns of praise (stotra), SŪTRA commentaries, works on PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ, MADHYAMAKA and YOGĀCĀRA philosophies, ABHIDHARMA, and VINAYA, TANTRA commentaries, and technical treatises on logic, grammar, poetics, medicine, and alchemy.

bstan rim. (tenrim). In Tibetan, “stages of the doctrine”; a genre of Tibetan Buddhist literature similar to the “stages of the path” (LAM RIM), of which it is a precursor. Bstan rim texts present a systematic and comprehensive outline of Tibetan Buddhist thought, although they generally differ from “stages of the path” works by referring strictly to MAHĀYĀNA doctrine and avoiding the typology of three spiritual levels of individuals (skyes bu gsum): these are, following the explanation of TSONG KHA PA in his LAM RIM CHEN MO, the individual whose practice leads to a good rebirth, a middling type of individual whose practice leads to NIRVĀṆA, and the great person whose Mahāyāna practice as a BODHISATTVA leads to buddhahood for the sake of all beings. However, the differences between bstan rim and lam rim texts are often blurred; the THAR PA RIN PO CHE’I RGYAN (“Jewel Ornament of Liberation”) by SGAM PO PA BSOD NAMS RIN CHEN, for example, is often designated as a “stages of the path” work, although it might more precisely be classified as “stages of the doctrine.” Early examples of bstan rim treatises were written at GSANG PHU NE’U THOG monastery by RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB and his followers.

btsan. (tsen). A class of Tibetan harmful deities that antedate the introduction of Buddhism. The btsan are said to be subservient to the converted ’BAR BA SPUN BDUN, although they continue to be seen as malicious disease-causing demons. As such, they are sometimes the object of the wrath of the dharma-protectors (DHARMAPĀLA), who carry snares designed to catch them. There are numerous subcategories of btsan, including combinations with other spirits, such as klu btsan and lha btsan; as well as listings according to their abodes: e.g., sa btsan, who live in the soil, brag btsan, who live in rock faces, and so forth.

Bu chu. In Tibetan, one of the four “extra taming temples” or “extra pinning temples” (YANG ’DUL GTSUG LAG KHANG) said to have been constructed during the time of the Tibetan king SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO to pin down the limbs of the demoness (T. srin mo) who was impeding the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. The temple is located in Kong po and pins down her right elbow.

bucidi sanguan. (J. fushidai no sangan; K. pulch’aje samgwan 不次第三觀). See SANGUAN.

Budai. (J. Hotei; K. P’odae 布袋) (d. 916). A legendary Chinese monk, whose name literally means “Hemp Sack”; also occasionally referred to as Fenghua Budai, Changtingzi, and Budai heshang. He is said to have hailed from Fenghua county in Ningbo prefecture of Zhejiang province. Budai is often depicted as a short figure with an enormous belly and a staff or walking stick on which he has hung a hemp bag or sack (budai), whence derives his name. Budai wandered from one town to the next begging for food, some of which he saved in his sack. This jolly figure is remembered as a thaumaturge who was particularly famous for accurately predicting the weather. On his deathbed, Budai left the following death verse, which implied he was in fact a manifestation of the BODHISATTVA MAITREYA: “Maitreya, true Maitreya, / His thousands, hundreds, and tens of millions of manifestations, / From time to time appear among his fellow men, / But remain unrecognized by his fellow men.” Budai is also associated in China with AṄGAJA, the thirteenth of the sixteen ARHATs (see ṢOḌAŚASTHAVIRA) who serve as protector figures. Aṅgaja had been a snake wrangler before he ordained, so whenever he went into the mountains, he carried a cloth bag with him to catch snakes, which he would release after removing their fangs so they would not injure people. For this reason, he earned the nickname “Cloth-Bag Arhat” (Budai luohan/heshang). In Zhejiang province, many images of Budai were made for worship, and an image of Budai installed in the monastery of MANPUKUJI on Mt. Ōbaku in Japan is still referred to as that of the bodhisattva Maitreya. The local cult hero and thaumaturge Budai was quickly appropriated by the CHAN community as a trickster-like figure, leading to Budai often being as called the “Laughing Buddha.” In Japan, Budai is also revered as one of the seven gods of virtue (see SHICHIFUKUJIN). It is Budai who is commonly depicted in all manner of kitschy knickknacks and called the “Fat Buddha.” He has never been identified with, and is not to be mistaken for, ŚĀKYAMUNI Buddha.

buddha. (T. sangs rgyas; C. fo; J. butsu/hotoke; K. pul 佛). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “awakened one” or “enlightened one”; an epithet derived from the Sanskrit root √budh, meaning “to awaken” or “to open up” (as does a flower) and thus traditionally etymologized as one who has awakened from the deep sleep of ignorance and opened his consciousness to encompass all objects of knowledge. The term was used in ancient India by a number of different religious groups, but came to be most strongly associated with followers of the teacher GAUTAMA, the “Sage of the ŚĀKYA Clan” (ŚĀKYAMUNI), who claimed to be only the most recent of a succession of buddhas who had appeared in the world over many eons of time (KALPA). In addition to Śākyamuni, there are many other buddhas named in Buddhist literature, from various lists of buddhas of the past, present, and future, to “buddhas of the ten directions” (daśadigbuddha), viz., everywhere. Although the precise nature of buddhahood is debated by the various schools, a buddha is a person who, in the far distant past, made a previous vow (PŪRVAPRAṆIDHĀNA) to become a buddha in order to reestablish the dispensation or teaching (ŚĀSANA) at a time when it was lost to the world. The path to buddhahood is much longer than that of the ARHAT—as many as three incalculable eons of time (ASAṂKHYEYAKALPA) in some computations—because of the long process of training over the BODHISATTVA path (MĀRGA), involving mastery of the six or ten “perfections” (PĀRAMITĀ). Buddhas can remember both their past lives and the past lives of all sentient beings, and relate events from those past lives in the JĀTAKA and AVADĀNA literature. Although there is great interest in the West in the “biography” of Gautama or Śākyamuni Buddha, the early tradition seemed intent on demonstrating his similarity to the buddhas of the past rather than his uniqueness. Such a concern was motivated in part by the need to demonstrate that what the Buddha taught was not the innovation of an individual, but rather the rediscovery of a timeless truth (what the Buddha himself called “an ancient path” [S. purāṇamārga, P. purāṇamagga]) that had been discovered in precisely the same way, since time immemorial, by a person who undertook the same type of extended preparation. In this sense, the doctrine of the existence of past buddhas allowed the early Buddhist community to claim an authority similar to that of the Vedas of their Hindu rivals and of the JAINA tradition of previous tīrthaṅkaras. Thus, in their biographies, all of the buddhas of the past and future are portrayed as doing many of the same things. They all sit cross-legged in their mother’s womb; they are all born in the “middle country” (madhyadeśa) of the continent of JAMBUDVĪPA; immediately after their birth they all take seven steps to the north; they all renounce the world after seeing the four sights (CATURNIMITTA; an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a mendicant) and after the birth of a son; they all achieve enlightenment seated on a bed of grass; they stride first with their right foot when they walk; they never stoop to pass through a door; they all establish a SAṂGHA; they all can live for an eon if requested to do so; they never die before their teaching is complete; they all die after eating meat. Four sites on the earth are identical for all buddhas: the place of enlightenment, the place of the first sermon that “turns the wheel of the dharma” (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), the place of descending from TRĀYASTRIṂŚA (heaven of the thirty-three), and the place of their bed in JETAVANA monastery. Buddhas can differ from each other in only eight ways: life span, height, caste (either brāhmaṇa or KṢATRIYA), the conveyance by which they go forth from the world, the period of time spent in the practice of asceticism prior to their enlightenment, the kind of tree they sit under on the night of their enlightenment, the size of their seat there, and the extent of their aura. In addition, there are twelve deeds that all buddhas (dvādaśabuddhakārya) perform. (1) They descend from TUṢITA heaven for their final birth; (2) they enter their mother’s womb; (3) they take birth in LUMBINĪ Garden; (4) they are proficient in the worldly arts; (5) they enjoy the company of consorts; (6) they renounce the world; (7) they practice asceticism on the banks of the NAIRAÑJANĀ River; (8) they go to the BODHIMAṆḌA; (9) they subjugate MĀRA; (10) they attain enlightenment; (11) they turn the wheel of the dharma; and (12) they pass into PARINIRVĀṆA. They all have a body adorned with the thirty-two major marks (LAKṢAṆA; MAHĀPURUṢALAKṢAṆA) and the eighty secondary marks (ANUVYAÑJANA) of a great man (MAHĀPURUṢA). They all have two bodies: a physical body (RŪPAKĀYA) and a body of qualities (DHARMAKĀYA; see BUDDHAKĀYA). These qualities of a buddha are accepted by the major schools of Buddhism. It is not the case, as is sometimes suggested, that the buddha of the mainstream traditions is somehow more “human” and the buddha in the MAHĀYĀNA somehow more “superhuman”; all Buddhist traditions relate stories of buddhas performing miraculous feats, such as the ŚRĀVASTĪ MIRACLES described in mainstream materials. Among the many extraordinary powers of the buddhas are a list of “unshared factors” (ĀVEṆIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA) that are unique to them, including their perfect mindfulness and their inability ever to make a mistake. The buddhas have ten powers specific to them that derive from their unique range of knowledge (for the list, see BALA). The buddhas also are claimed to have an uncanny ability to apply “skill in means” (UPĀYAKAUŚALYA), that is, to adapt their teachings to the specific needs of their audience. This teaching role is what distinguishes a “complete and perfect buddha” (SAMYAKSAṂBUDDHA) from a “solitary buddha” (PRATYEKABUDDHA) who does not teach: a solitary buddha may be enlightened but he neglects to develop the great compassion (MAHĀKARUṆĀ) that ultimately prompts a samyaksaṃbuddha to seek to lead others to liberation. The Mahāyāna develops an innovative perspective on the person of a buddha, which it conceived as having three bodies (TRIKĀYA): the DHARMAKĀYA, a transcendent principle that is sometimes translated as “truth body”; an enjoyment body (SAṂBHOGAKĀYA) that is visible only to advanced bodhisattvas in exalted realms; and an emanation body (NIRMĀṆAKĀYA) that displays the deeds of a buddha to the world. Also in the Mahāyāna is the notion of a universe filled with innumerable buddha-fields (BUDDHAKṢETRA), the most famous of these being SUKHĀVATĪ of Amitābha. Whereas the mainstream traditions claim that the profundity of a buddha is so great that a single universe can only sustain one buddha at any one time, Mahāyāna SŪTRAs often include scenes of multiple buddhas appearing together. See also names of specific buddhas, including AKṢOBHYA, AMITĀBHA, AMOGHASIDDHI, RATNASAMBHAVA, VAIROCANA. For indigenous language terms for buddha, see FO (C); HOTOKE (J); PHRA PHUTTHA JAO (Thai); PUCH’Ŏ(NIM) (K); SANGS RGYAS (T).

Buddhabhadra. (C. Fotuobatuoluo; J. Butsudabatsudara; K. Pult’abaltara 佛陀跋陀羅) (359–429). Important early translator of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese, also known by the Chinese translation of his name, Juexian, or “Enlightened Sage” (the Chinese above is the more common transcription of his Sanskrit name). According to the “Biographies of Eminent Monks” (GAOSENG ZHUAN), Buddhabhadra was born in north India and joined the SAṂGHA after losing both his parents at an early age. Buddhabhadra studied various scriptures and was adept in both meditation and observing the precepts; he was also renowned for his thaumaturgic talents. At the behest of a Chinese monk named ZHIYAN, Buddhabhadra traveled to China along the southern maritime route. Upon learning of the eminent Kuchean monk KUMĀRAJĪVA’s arrival in Chang’an, Buddhabhadra went to the capital in 406 to meet him. Due to a difference of opinion with Kumārajīva, however, Buddhabhadra left for LUSHAN, where he was welcomed by LUSHAN HUIYUAN and installed as the meditation instructor in Huiyuan’s community; Buddhabhadra came to be known as one of the eighteen worthies of Lushan. He devoted the rest of his career to translating such scriptures as the DAMODUOLUO CHAN JING, Guanfo sanmei hai jing, and AVATAṂSAKASŪTRA, to name just a few. Buddhabhadra also translated the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA VINAYA with the assistance of FAXIAN and contributed significantly to the growth of Buddhist monasticism in China.

Buddhabhūmiśāstra. (C. Fodijing lun; J. Butsujikyōron; K. Pulchigyŏng non 佛地經論). In Sanskrit, “Exposition of the Stage of Buddhahood”; an influential commentary on the BUDDHABHŪMISŪTRA, attributed to Bandhuprabha (Qinguang; d.u.), a disciple of DHARMAPĀLA (530–561), and collaborators. The commentary is extant only in a seven-roll Chinese translation made by XUANZANG and his translation team in 649–650.

Buddhabhūmisūtra. (T. Sangs rgyas kyi sa’i mdo; C. Fodi jing; J. Butsujikyō; K. Pulchi kyŏng 佛地經). In Sanskrit, “Scripture on the Stage of Buddhahood,” an important MAHĀYĀNA scripture on the experience of enlightenment. The sūtra begins with a description of the PURE LAND in which the scripture is taught and its audience of BODHISATTVAs, mahāŚrāvakas, and MAHĀSATTVAs. The text goes on to describe the five factors that exemplify the stage of buddhahood (buddhabhūmi). The first of these is (1) the wisdom of the DHARMADHĀTU, which is likened to space (ĀKĀŚA) itself, in that it is all-pervasive and uncontained. The next two factors are (2) mirror-like wisdom, or great perfect mirror wisdom (ĀDARŚAJÑĀNA), in which the perfect interfusion between all things is seen as if reflected in a great mirror, and (3) the wisdom of equality, or impartial wisdom (SAMATĀJÑĀNA), which transcends all dichotomies to see everything impartially without coloring by the ego. The scripture then describes (4) the wisdom of specific knowledge (PRATYAVEKṢAṆĀJÑĀNA) and (5) the wisdom of having accomplished what was to be done (KṚTYĀNUṢṬHĀNAJÑĀNA), both of which are attained as a result of the subsequently attained wisdom (TATPṚṢṬHALABDHAJÑĀNA); these two types of knowledge clarify that the dharmadhātu is a realm characterized by both emptiness (ŚŪNYATĀ) and compassion (KARUṆĀ). Finally, similes are offered to elucidate the nature of these wisdoms. The Chinese translation, in one roll, was made by XUANZANG and his translation team in 645 CE. In tantric Buddhism, these five wisdoms or knowledges (JÑĀNA) are linked with the five “buddha families” (see PAÑCATATHĀGATA).

buddhacakṣus. (P. buddhacakkhu; T. sangs rgyas kyi spyan; C. foyan; J. butsugen; K. puran 佛眼). In Sanskrit, “buddha eye”; one of the five eyes or five sorts of vision (PAÑCACAKṢUS) similar to the five (or six) “clairvoyances” or “superknowledges” (ABHIJÑĀ). In mainstream Buddhist materials, the buddha eye is one of the five sorts of extraordinary vision of a buddha and includes the other four sorts of vision: fleshly eye (MĀṂSACAKṢUS, P. māṄsacakkhu), divine eye (DIVYACAKṢUS, P. dibbacakkhu), wisdom eye (PRAJÑĀCAKṢUS, P. paññācakkhu), and all-seeing eye (samantacakṣus, P. samantacakkhu). In Mahāyāna texts, the buddha eye is described as the eye that knows all dharmas in the full awakening of final enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAṂBODHI).

Buddhacarita. (T. Sangs rgyas kyi spyod pa; C. Fosuoxing zan; J. Butsushogyōsan; K. Pulsohaeng ch’an 佛所行讚). In Sanskrit, “Acts [viz., Life] of the Buddha”; the title of two verse compositions written in the first and second centuries CE that were intended to serve as a complete biography of the historical Buddha. The first was by the monk Saṅgharakṣa (c. first century CE), whose work survives today only in its Chinese translation. The second version, which became hugely popular across Asia, was composed by the well-known Indian philosopher–poet AŚVAGHOṢA (c. second century), who was supposedly an opponent of Buddhism until he converted after losing a debate with the VAIBHĀṢIKA teacher PĀRŚVA. Because of the early date of Aśvaghoṣa’s epic poem, it is of great importance for both the history of Indian Buddhism, as well as the study of classical Indian linguistics and thought. Aśvaghoṣa’s version of the Buddha’s life begins with a description of his parents—King ŚUDDHODANA and Queen MĀYĀ—and ends with the events that immediately follow his death, or PARINIRVĀṆA. His text is written in the style of high court poetry, or kāvya. In keeping with this style, the Buddhacarita is characterized by lengthy digressions and elaborate descriptions. For example, one entire canto is devoted to a detailed description of the sight of the women sleeping in the palace that precedes GAUTAMA’s renunciation (pravrajya; see PRAVRAJITA). Canto XII provides an invaluable outline of the ancient Indian Sāṃkhya philosophical system. The Buddhacarita has served an important role within the Buddhist tradition itself, as the canonical works do not offer a systematic, chronological account of the Buddha’s life from his birth through his death. Only the first half of the Buddhacarita is extant in its original Sanskrit; the remainder survives in Tibetan and Chinese translations.

Buddhadāsa. (1906–1993). Prominent Thai monk, Buddhist reformer, teacher of meditation, and ecumenical figure. Born the son of a merchant in the village of Pum Riang in southern Thailand, he was educated at Buddhist temple schools. It was customary for males in Thailand to be ordained as Buddhist monks for three months at the age of twenty and then return to lay life. Buddhadāsa decided, however, to remain a monk and quickly gained a reputation as a brilliant thinker, meditator, and teacher. He dwelled for several years in the Thai capital of Bangkok to further his studies but grew disillusioned with the prevailing practices of the SAṂGHA in the city, which he perceived to be lax and corrupt. In 1932, he returned home to an abandoned monastery near his native village to live a simple life, practice meditation, and teach the dharma. He named his monastery Wat Suan Mokkhabalārāma (Garden of the Power of Liberation), which is usually abbreviated to Suan Mokkh, the Garden of Liberation. The monastery became one of the first VIPASSANĀ (S. VIPAŚYANĀ) (insight meditation) centers in southern Thailand. Buddhadāsa spent most of his life at this forest monastery overlooking the sea. Although his formal scholastic training was limited, Buddhadāsa studied Pāli scriptures extensively, in particular the SUTTAPIṬAKA, to uncover their true meaning, which he felt had become obscured by centuries of commentarial overlays, ritual practices, and monastic politics. A gifted orator, his numerous sermons and talks were transcribed and fill an entire room of the National Library in Bangkok. In his writings, many of which are his transcribed sermons, he eschewed the formal style of traditional scholastic commentary in favor of a more informal, and in many ways controversial, approach in which he questioned many of the more popular practices of Thai Buddhism. For example, he spoke out strongly against the practice of merit-making in which lay people offer gifts to monks in the belief that they will receive material reward in their next life. Buddhadāsa argued that this traditionally dominant form of lay practice only keeps the participants in the cycle of rebirth because it is based on attachment, whereas the true form of giving is the giving up of the self. Instead, Buddhadāsa believed that, because of conditioned origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), people are naturally connected through a shared environment and are in fact capable of living harmoniously together. The hindrance to such a harmony comes from attachments to “I” and “mine,” which must therefore be severed. Modern and ecumenical in perspective, Buddhadāsa sought to strip traditional Buddhism of what he regarded as obscurantism and superstition, and present the Buddha’s teachings in a rational scientific idiom that acknowledged kindred teachings in other religions. Buddhadāsa’s interpretations of the dharma have had a great impact on contemporary Buddhist thought in Thailand and are especially influential among the urban intelligentsia, social reformers, and environmentalists. His teachings are often cited as foundational by advocates of engaged Buddhism. The monastery he founded has become a venue for the training of foreign monks and nuns and for interfaith dialogue between Buddhists of different traditions, as well as between Buddhists and adherents of other religions.

Buddhadatta. (fl. c. fifth century CE). A prominent Pāli scholar-monk from South India who is presumed by the tradition to have been a personal acquaintance of the preeminent Pāli commentator BUDDHAGHOSA. Buddhadatta lived and wrote his several works at Bhūtamangalagāma monastery in the Cōḷa country (Tamil Nadu) of South India, although it is also said he trained at the MAHĀVIHĀRA in ANURĀDHAPURA in Sri Lanka. Buddhadatta is best known as the author of the ABHIDHAMMĀVATĀRA, the oldest of the noncanonical Pāli works on ABHIDHAMMA (S. ABHIDHARMA). The text is a primer of Pāli abhidhamma, divided into twenty-four chapters called niddesa (S. nirdeśa; “exposition”), which displays many affinities with Buddhaghosa’s VISUDDHIMAGGA. Other works attributed to Buddhadatta include the Vinayavinicchaya, the Uttaravinicchaya, and the Rūpārūpavibhāga. Some authorities also attribute to him the Madhuratthavilāsinī and the Jinālaṅkāra.

buddhadharma. (P. buddhadhamma; T. sangs rgyas pa’i chos; C. fofa; J. buppō; K. pulpŏp 佛法). In Sanskrit, “the teachings of the Buddha”; one of the closest Indian equivalents to what in English is called “Buddhism,” along with DHARMAVINAYA (teaching and discipline), BUDDHĀNUŚĀSANA (teaching, dispensation, or religion of the Buddha), and ŚĀSANA (teaching or dispensation). ¶ This term is also used with reference to the “unshared factors” (ĀVEṆIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA), a list of eighteen (or sometimes as many as 140) special qualities (dharma) that are unique to the buddhas, such as their perfect mindfulness and their inability to make a physical or verbal mistake, or for all the qualities that together make up a buddha.

buddhadhātu. (T. sangs rgyas kyi khams; C. foxing; J. busshō; K. pulsŏng 佛性). In Sanskrit, “buddha-element,” or “buddha-nature”; the inherent potential of all sentient beings to achieve buddhahood. The term is also widely used in Buddhist Sanskrit with the sense of “buddha relic,” and the term DHĀTU alone is used to mean “buddha-element” (see also GOTRA, KULA). The term first appears in the MAHĀYĀNA recension of the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA, now available only in Chinese translation, which states that all sentient beings have the “buddha-element” (FOXING). (The Chinese translation foxing literally means “buddha-nature” and the Chinese has often been mistakenly back-translated as the Sanskrit buddhatā; buddhadhātu is the accepted Sanskrit form.) The origin of the term may, however, be traced back as far as the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ, one of the earliest Mahāyāna SŪTRAs, where the fundamental substance of the mind is said to be luminous (prakṛtiś cittasya prabhāsvarā), drawing on a strand of Buddhism that has its antecedents in such statements as the Pāli AṄGUTTARANIKĀYA: “The mind, O monks, is luminous but defiled by adventitious defilements” (pabhassaraṃ idaṃ bhikkhave cittaṃ, tañ ca kho āgantukehi upakkilesehi upakkiliṭṭhaṃ). Because the BODHISATTVA realizes that the buddha-element is inherent in him at the moment that he arouses the aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) and enters the BODHISATTVAYĀNA, he achieves the profound endurance (KṢĀNTI) that enables him to undertake the arduous training, over not one, but three, incalculable eons of time (ASAṂKHYEYAKALPA), that will lead to buddhahood. The buddhadhātu is a seminal concept of the Mahāyāna and leads to the development of such related doctrines as the “matrix of the tathāgatas” (TATHĀGATAGARBHA) and the “immaculate consciousness” (AMALAVIJÑĀNA). The term is also crucial in the development of the teachings of such indigenous East Asian schools of Buddhism as CHAN, which telescope the arduous path of the bodhisattva into a single moment of sudden awakening (DUNWU) to the inherency of the “buddha-nature” (foxing), as in the Chan teaching that merely “seeing the nature” is sufficient to “attain buddhahood” (JIANXING CHENGFO).

Buddhaghosa. (S. Buddhaghoṣa) (fl. c. 370–450 CE). The preeminent Pāli commentator, who translated into Pāli the Sinhalese commentaries to the Pāli canon and wrote the VISUDDHIMAGGA (“Path of Purification”), the definitive outline of THERAVĀDA doctrine.There are several conflicting accounts of Buddhaghosa’s origins, none of which can be dated earlier than the thirteenth century. The Mon of Lower Burma claim him as a native son, although the best-known story, which is found in the CŪḶAVAṂSA (chapter 37), describes Buddhaghosa as an Indian brāhmaṇa who grew up in the environs of the MAHĀBODHI temple in northern India. According to this account, his father served as a purohita (brāhmaṇa priest) for King Saṅgāma, while he himself became proficient in the Vedas and related Brahmanical sciences at an early age. One day, he was defeated in a debate by a Buddhist monk named Revata, whereupon he entered the Buddhist SAṂGHA to learn more about the Buddha’s teachings. He received his monk’s name Buddhaghosa, which means “Voice of the Buddha,” because of his sonorous voice and impressive rhetorical skills. Buddhaghosa took Revata as his teacher and began writing commentaries even while a student. Works written at this time included the Ñāṇodaya and AṬṬHASĀLINĪ. To deepen his understanding (or according to some versions of his story, as punishment for his intellectual pride), Buddhaghosa was sent to Sri Lanka to study the Sinhalese commentaries on the Pāli Buddhist canon (P. tipiṭaka; S. TRIPIṬAKA). These commentaries were said to have been brought to Sri Lanka in the third century BCE, where they were translated from Pāli into Sinhalese and subsequently preserved at the MAHĀVIHĀRA monastery in the Sri Lankan capital of ANURĀDHAPURA. At the Mahāvihāra, Buddhghosa studied under the guidance of the scholar-monk Saṅghapāla. Upon completing his studies, he wrote the great compendium of Theravāda teachings, Visuddhimagga, which summarizes the contents of the Pāli tipiṭaka under the threefold heading of morality (sīla; S. ŚĪLA), meditative absorption (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (paññā; S. PRAJÑĀ). Impressed with his expertise, the elders of the Mahāvihāra allowed Buddhaghosa to translate the Sinhalese commentaries back into Pāli, the canonical language of the Theravāda tipiṭaka. Attributed to Buddhaghosa are the VINAYA commentaries, SAMANTAPĀSĀDIKĀ and Kaṅkhāvitaraṇī; the commentaries to the SUTTAPIṬAKA, SUMAṄGALAVILĀSINĪ, PAPAÑCASŪDANĪ, SĀRATTHAPPAKĀSINĪ, and MANORATHAPŪRAṆĪ; also attributed to him is the PARAMATTHAJOTIKĀ (the commentary to the KHUDDAKAPĀṬHA and SUTTANIPĀTA). Buddhaghosa’s commentaries on the ABHIDHAMMAPIṬAKA (see ABHIDHARMA) include the SAMMOHAVINODANĪ and PAÑCAPPAKARAṆAṬṬHAKATHĀ, along with the Aṭṭhasālinī. Of these many works, Buddhaghosa is almost certainly author of the Visuddhimagga and translator of the commentaries to the four nikāyas, but the remainder are probably later attributions. Regardless of attribution, the body of work associated with Buddhaghosa was profoundly influential on the entire subsequent history of Buddhist scholasticism in the Theravāda traditions of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Buddhaguhya. (fl. c. 760) (T. Sangs rgyas gsang ba). Sanskrit proper name of the author of a detailed commentary on the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAṂBODHISŪTRA (“Great Vairocana’s Enlightenment Discourse”); his commentary (Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendrarāja-nāma-dharmaparyāyabhāṣya), and his Tantrārthā-vatāra (“Introduction to the Meaning of the Tantras”) are said to have been the primary resource for Tibetan translators of tantra during the earlier spread of the doctrine (SNGA DAR). He is claimed to have been the teacher of VIMALAMITRA. His views on KRIYĀTANTRA and CARYĀTANTRA are considered authoritative by later Tibetan writers.

buddhakāya. (T. sangs rgyas sku; C. foshen; J. busshin; K. pulsin 佛身). In Sanskrit, literally “body of the buddha.” Throughout the history of the Buddhist tradition, there has been a great deal of debate, and a good many theories, over the exact nature of a buddha’s body. In the Pāli NIKĀYAs and the Sanskrit ĀGAMAs, we find a distinction made between various possible bodies of ŚĀKYAMŪNI Buddha. There are references, for example, to a pūtikāya, or corruptible body, which was born from the womb of his mother; a MANOMAYAKĀYA, or mind-made body, which he uses to visit the heavens; and a DHARMAKĀYA, the buddhas’ corpus of unique qualities (ĀVEṆIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA), which is worthy of greater honor than the other two bodies and is the body of the buddha in which one seeks refuge (ŚARAṆA). Perhaps the most popular of these theories on the nature of the buddhakāya is the MAHĀYĀNA notion of the “three bodies,” or TRIKĀYA. According to this doctrine, a buddha is indistinguishable from absolute truth, but will still appear in various guises in the relative, conditioned world in order to guide sentient beings toward enlightenment. To distinguish these differing roles, Mahāyāna thus distinguishes between three bodies of a buddha. First, a buddha has a dharmakāya, which is identical to absolute reality. Second, a buddha has a SAṂBHOGAKĀYA, or “enjoyment body,” which resides in a buddha land (BUDDHAKṢETRA); this is the body that is visible only to the BODHISATTVAs. Finally, a buddha possesses a NIRMĀṆAKĀYA, a “transformation” or “emanation body,” which are the various earthly bodies that a buddha makes manifest in order to fulfill his resolution to help all different types of sentient beings; this type of body includes the Buddha who achieved enlightenment beneath the BODHI TREE. These are many other theories of the buddhakāya that have developed within the tradition.

buddhakṣetra. (T. sangs rgyas zhing; C. focha; J. bussetsu; K. pulch’al 佛刹). In Sanskrit, “buddha field,” the realm that constitutes the domain of a specific buddha. A buddhakṣetra is said to have two aspects, which parallel the division of a world system into a BHĀJANALOKA (lit. “container world,” “world of inanimate objects”) and a SATTVALOKA (“world of sentient beings”). As a result of his accumulation of merit (PUṆYASAṂBHĀRA), his collection of knowledge (JÑĀNASAṂBHĀRA), and his specific vow (PRAṆIDHĀNA), when a buddha achieves enlightenment, a “container” or “inanimate” world is produced in the form of a field where the buddha leads beings to enlightenment. The inhabitant of that world is the buddha endowed with all the BUDDHADHARMAs. Buddha-fields occur in various levels of purification, broadly divided between pure (VIŚUDDHABUDDHAKṢETRA) and impure. Impure buddha-fields are synonymous with a world system (CAKRAVĀḌA), the infinite number of “world discs” in Buddhist cosmology that constitutes the universe; here, ordinary sentient beings (including animals, ghosts, and hell beings) dwell, subject to the afflictions (KLEŚA) of greed (LOBHA), hatred (DVEṢA), and delusion (MOHA). Each cakravāḍa is the domain of a specific buddha, who achieves enlightenment in that world system and works there toward the liberation of all sentient beings. A pure buddha-field, by contrast, may be created by a buddha upon his enlightenment and is sometimes called a PURE LAND (JINGTU, more literally, “purified soil” in Chinese), a term with no direct equivalent in Sanskrit. In such purified buddha-fields, the unfortunate realms (APĀYA, DURGATI) of animals, ghosts, and hell denizens are typically absent. Thus, the birds that sing beautiful songs there are said to be emanations of the buddha rather than sentient beings who have been reborn as birds. These pure lands include such notable buddhakṣetras as ABHIRATI, the buddha-field of the buddha AKṢOBHYA, and SUKHĀVATĪ, the land of the buddha AMITĀBHA and the object of a major strand of East Asian Buddhism, the so-called pure land school (see JŌDOSHŪ, JŌDO SHINSHŪ). In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEŚA, after the buddha reveals a pure buddha land, ŚĀRIPUTRA asks him why ŚĀKYAMUNI’s buddha-field has so many faults. The buddha then touches the earth with his toe, at which point the world is transformed into a pure buddha-field; he explains that he makes the world appear impure in order to inspire his disciples to seek liberation.

buddhakula. (T. sangs rgyas rigs; C. rulai jia; J. nyoraike; K. yŏrae ka 如來家). In Sanskrit, “buddha family”; synonymous with GOTRA (“lineage”); buddhakula and gotra, like BUDDHADHĀTU and TATHĀGATAGARBHA refer to the potential inherent in all sentient beings to achieve buddhahood. The RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA describes a confluence of three necessary factors: the altruistic effort that buddhas make out of their great compassion (MAHĀKARUṆĀ) to disseminate their doctrines; the ultimate nature of beings that is purified of any essential defilement; and, last, buddhakula or gotra, i.e., belonging to a lineage that does not lead to endless rebirth or to a final end in the limited NIRVĀṆA of HĪNAYĀNA adepts, but rather to the royal state of a buddha. The defining mark of the buddhakula is the seed of great compassion (mahākaruṇā). Because of the confluence of these three factors, all beings are said to have the TATHĀGATAGARBHA, which in this interpretation of the compound means the womb or embryo of a tathāgata. In tantric Buddhism, there are typically five (but sometimes more and sometimes less, depending on the tantra) buddha families (see PAÑCAJINA, PAÑCATATHĀGATA), the families of VAIROCANA, AKṢOBHYA, RATNASAMBHAVA, AMITĀBHA, and AMOGHASIDDHI. These buddhas (regarded as the final purification and transformation of the five SKANDHAs) are the forms in which adepts with differing personality types, those in whom the five KLEŚAs of delusion (MOHA), hatred (DVEṢA), pride (MĀNA), desire (RĀGA), and jealousy (ĪRṢYĀ), respectively, predominate, reach the goal. The five buddha families are also connected with the five YOGĀCĀRA knowledges or wisdoms (JÑĀNA) (see BUDDHABHŪMISŪTRA; PAÑCAJÑĀNA).

Buddhamitra. (C. Fotuomiduoluo; J. Butsudamitsutara; K. Pult’amiltara 佛陀蜜多羅). In Sanskrit, literally “Friend of the Buddha”; one of the Indian patriarchs listed in Chinese lineage records. He is variously listed in Chinese sources as the ninth (e.g., in the LIDAI FABAO JI and BAOLIN ZHUAN), the eighth (e.g., FU FAZANG YINYUAN ZHUAN), or the fifteenth (e.g., LIUZU TAN JING) patriarch of the Indian tradition. He is said to have been born into the vaiśya caste of agriculturalists, in the kingdom of Daigya. His master was the patriarch BUDDHANANDI. According to tradition, when Buddhamitra was fifty years old, Buddhanandi was passing by the house in which Buddhamitra lived; seeing a white light floating above the house, Buddhanandi immediately recognized that his successor was waiting inside. Buddhamitra is also said to be one of the teachers of the Indian Buddhist philosopher VASUBANDHU and is considered the author of a work known as the Pañcadvāradhyānasūtramahārthadharma.

Buddhanandi. (C. Fotuonanti; J. Butsudanandai; K. Pult’ananje 佛陀難提). In Sanskrit, literally “Joy of the Buddha”; one of the Indian patriarchs listed in Chinese lineage records. He is variously listed in Chinese sources as the eighth (e.g., in the LIDAI FABAO JI and BAOLIN ZHUAN), the seventh (e.g., FU FAZANG YINYUAN ZHUAN), or the fourteenth (e.g., LIUZU TAN JING) patriarch of the Indian tradition. He is said to hail from the Indian country of Kamala, and is a member of the Gautama family. According to some records (e.g., BAOLIN ZHUAN), his master was the patriarch VASUMITRA.

buddhānusmṛti. (P. buddhānussati; T. sangs rgyas rjes su dran pa; C. nianfo; J. nenbutsu; K. yŏmbul 念佛). In Sanskrit, “recollection of the Buddha”; one of the common practices designed to develop concentration, in which the meditator reflects on the meritorious qualities of the Buddha, often through contemplating a series of his epithets. The oldest list of epithets of the Buddha used in such recollection, which is found across all traditions, is worthy one (ARHAT), fully enlightened (SAMYAKSAṂBUDDHA), perfect in both knowledge and conduct (vidyācaraṇasampanna), well gone (SUGATA), knower of all worlds (lokavid), teacher of divinities (or kings) and human beings (śāsṭṛ devamanuṣyānaṃ), buddha, and BHAGAVAT. Buddhānusmṛti is listed among the forty meditative exercises (KAMMAṬṬHĀNA) discussed in the VISUDDHIMAGGA and is said to be conducive to gaining access concentration (UPACĀRASAMĀDHI). In East Asia, this recollection practice evolved into the recitation of the name of the buddha AMITĀBHA (see NIANFO) in the form of the phrase namo Amituo fo (“homage to Amitābha Buddha”; J. NAMU AMIDABUTSU). This recitation was often performed in a ritual setting accompanied by the performance of prostrations, the burning of incense, and the recitation of scriptures, all directed toward gaining a vision of Amitābha’s PURE LAND (SUKHĀVATĪ), which was considered proof that one would be reborn there. Nianfo practice was widely practiced across schools and social strata in China. In Japan, repetition of the phrase in its Japanese pronunciation of namu Amidabutsu (homage to Amitābha Buddha) became a central practice of the Japanese Pure Land schools of Buddhism (see JŌDOSHŪ, JŌDO SHINSHŪ).

buddhapāda. (T. sangs rgyas kyi zhabs; C. fozu; J. bussoku; K. pulchok 佛足). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. “the feet of the Buddha”; typically referring to “the Buddha’s footprints,” which became objects of religious veneration in early Buddhism. There are typically three kinds of footprints of the Buddha, all of which are treated as a type of relic (ŚARĪRA, DHĀTU). At the incipiency of the tradition, the Buddha’s footprints were a popular aniconic representation of the Buddha; the oldest of these, from the BHĀRHUT reliquary mound (STŪPA), dates to the second century BCE. The second are natural indentations in rock that are said to have been made by the Buddha’s feet; an example is the Sri Lankan mountain known as Śrī Pāda, or “Holy Foot,” which is named after an impression in the rock of the mountain’s summit that the Sinhalese people believe to be a footprint of GAUTAMA Buddha. Both these first and second types are concave images and are presumed to be a sign of the Buddha’s former presence in a specific place. Such footprints are also often important as traditional evidence of a visit by the Buddha to a distant land. The third form of footprint are convex images carved in stone, metal, or wood (or in some cases painted), which represent the soles of the Buddha’s feet in elaborate detail and are often covered with all manner of auspicious symbols. They may bear the specific physical marks (LAKṢAṆA) said to be present on the feet of a fully awakened being, such as having toes that are all the same length, or having dharma-wheels (DHARMACAKRA) inscribed on the soles (see MAHĀPURUṢALAKṢAṆA). In the Pāli tradition, there is a practice of making buddhapāda in which the central wheel is surrounded by a retinue (parivāra) of 108 auspicious signs, called MAṄGALA. Symbolically, the footprints point to the reality of the Buddha’s erstwhile physical presence in our world. At the same time, the footprints also indicate his current absence and thus may encourage the observer to reflect on nonattachment. Veneration of the Buddha’s footprints occurs throughout the Buddhist world but is particularly popular in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand. Of his footprints, tradition reports that the Buddha said, “In the future, intelligent beings will see the scriptures and understand. Those of less intelligence will wonder whether the Buddha appeared in the world. In order to remove their doubts, I have set my footprints in stone.”

Buddhapālita. (T. Sangs rgyas bskyang) (c. 470–540). An Indian Buddhist scholar of the MADHYAMAKA school, who is regarded in Tibet as a key figure of what was dubbed the *PRĀSAṄGIKA school of Madhyamaka. Little is known about the life of Buddhapālita. He is best known for his commentary on NĀGĀRJUNA’s MŪLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, a commentary that was thought to survive only in Tibetan translation, until the recent rediscovery of a Sanskrit manuscript. Buddhapālita’s commentary bears a close relation in some chapters to the AKUTOBHAYĀ, another commentary on Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of uncertain authorship, which is sometimes attributed to Nāgārjuna himself. In his commentary, Buddhapālita does not adopt some of the assumptions of the Buddhist logical tradition of the day, including the need to state one’s position in the form of an autonomous inference (SVATANTRĀNUMĀNA). Instead, Buddhapālita merely states an absurd consequence (PRASAṄGA) that follows from the opponent’s position. In his own commentary on the first chapter of Nāgārjuna’s text, BHĀVAVIVEKA criticizes Buddhapālita’s method, arguing for the need for the Madhyamaka adept to state his own position after refuting the position of the opponent. In his commentary on the same chapter, CANDRAKĪRTI in turn defended the approach of Buddhapālita and criticized Bhāvaviveka. It was on the basis of these three commentaries that later Tibetan exegetes identified two schools within Madhyamaka, the SVĀTANTRIKA, in which they included Bhāvaviveka, and the Prāsaṅgika, in which they included Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti.

buddhapātramudrā. (T. sangs rgyas kyi lhung bzed phyag rgya; C. foboyin; J. buppatsuin; K. pulbarin 佛鉢印). In Sanskrit, “the gesture of the Buddha’s begging bowl.” In this symbolic posture or gesture (MUDRĀ), the Buddha holds a begging bowl (PĀTRA) that sits in his lap. In some variations, the hands hold a jewel, or ornate treasure box, instead. In esoteric rituals, variations of this mudrā may be used for a number of different outcomes. For example, one Chinese indigenous SŪTRA (see APOCRYPHA) suggests that forming and holding this gesture will cure stomach ailments. In another Japanese ritual, this mudrā is used to invite autochthonous deities to join the audience in attendance. The buddhapātramudrā is typically associated with images of the Buddha AMITĀBHA, whose begging bowl is filled with the nectar of immortality (AMṚTA).

Buddhatrāta. (C. Fotuoduoluo; J. Butsudatara; K. Pult’adara 佛陀多羅). Proper name of the putative translator of the YUANJUE JING (Dafangguang yuanjue xiuduoluo liaoyi jing; “Book of Perfect Enlightenment”). According to the KAIYUAN SHIJIAO LU, Zhisheng’s catalogue of Chinese Buddhist scriptural translations, Buddhatrāta hailed from Kashmir (see KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA) and translated this text, in 693, at BAIMASI outside the Chinese capital of Luoyang. Although Zhisheng’s attribution is followed by all subsequent cataloguers, this scripture is now generally recognized to be an indigenous Chinese Buddhist scripture (see APOCRYPHA) from the eighth century CE, so his ascription is dubious. There are a few other works attributed to a Buddhatrāta in the Chinese catalogues, including a vinaya text and a commentary to the YULANBEN JING, but it is unclear whether these are the same Buddhatrāta; nothing else is known about his life or activities in China.

buddhavacana. (T. sangs rgyas kyi bka’; C. foyu; J. butsugo; K. purŏ 佛語). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “word of the Buddha”; those teachings accepted as having been either spoken by the Buddha or spoken with his sanction. Much traditional scholastic literature is devoted to the question of what does and does not qualify as the word of the Buddha. The SŪTRAPIṬAKA and the VINAYAPIṬAKA of the Buddhist canon (TRIPIṬAKA), which are claimed to have been initially redacted at the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST), held in RĀJAGṚHA soon after the Buddha’s death, is considered by the tradition—along with the ABHIDHARMAPIṬAKA, which was added later—to be the authentic word of the Buddha; this judgment is made despite the fact that the canon included texts that were spoken, or elaborated upon, by his direct disciples (e.g., separate versions of the BHADDEKARATTASUTTA, which offer exegeses by various disciples of an enigmatic verse the Buddha had taught) or that included material that clearly postdated the Buddha’s death (such as the MAHĀPARINIRVĀṆASŪTRA, which tells of the events leading up to, and immediately following, the Buddha’s demise, or the Nāradasutta, which refers to kings who lived long after the Buddha’s time). Such material could still be considered buddhavacana, however, by resort to the four references to authority (MAHĀPADEŚA; CATURMAHĀPADEŚA). These four types of authority are found listed in various SŪTRAs, including the eponymous Pāli Mahāpadesasutta, and provide an explicit set of criteria through which to evaluate whether a teaching is the authentic buddhavacana. Teachings could be accepted as authentic if they were heard from four authorities: (1) the mouth of the Buddha himself; (2) a SAṂGHA of wise elders; (3) a group of monks who were specialists in either the dharma (dharmadhara), vinaya (vinayadhara), or the proto-abhidharma (mātṛkādhara); or (4) a single monk who was widely learned in such specializations. The teaching should then be compared side by side with the authentic SŪTRA and VINAYA; if found to be compatible with these two strata of the canon and not in contradiction with reality (DHARMATĀ), it would then be accepted as the buddhavacana and thus marked by the characteristics of the Buddha’s words (buddhavacanalakṣaṇa). Because of this dispensation, the canons of all schools of Buddhism were never really closed, but could continue to be reinvigorated with new expressions of the Buddha’s insights. In addition, completely new texts that purported to be from the mouths of the buddha(s) and/or BODHISATTVAs, such as found in the MAHĀYĀNA or VAJRAYĀNA traditions, could also begin to circulate and be accepted as the authentic buddhavacana since they too conformed with the reality (dharmatā) that is great enlightenment (MAHĀBODHI). For example, a Mahāyāna sūtra, the Adhyāśayasañcodanasūtra, declares, “All which is well-spoken, Maitreya, is spoken by the Buddha.” The sūtra qualifies the meaning of “well spoken” (subhāṣita), explaining that all inspired speech should be known to be the word of the Buddha if it is meaningful and not meaningless, if it is principled and not unprincipled, if it brings about the extinction and not the increase of the afflictions (KLEŚA), and if it sets forth the qualities and benefits of NIRVĀṆA and not the qualities and benefits of SAṂSĀRA. However, the authenticity of the Mahāyāna sūtras (and later the tantras) was a topic of great contention between the proponents of the Mahāyāna and mainstream schools throughout the history of Indian Buddhism and beyond. Defenses of the Mahāyāna as buddhavacana appear in the Mahāyāna sūtras themselves, with predictions of the terrible fates that will befall those who deny their authenticity; and arguments for the authenticity of the Mahāyāna sūtras were a stock element in writings by Mahāyāna authors as early as NĀGĀRJUNA and extending over the next millennium. Related, and probably earlier, terms for buddhavacana are the “teaching of the master” (S. śāstuḥ śāsanam) and the “dispensation of the Buddha” (buddhānuśāsanam). See also APOCRYPHA, DAZANGJING, GTER MA.

Buddhavaṃsa. In Pāli, “The Chronicle of the Buddhas”; the fourteenth book of the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA of the Pāli SUTTAPIṬAKA. A work in verse, it contains the life histories of twenty-five buddhas, concluding with that of the historical Buddha, Gotama (S. GAUTAMA). Details of each buddha are given, such as the species of the BODHI TREE under which he sat at the time of attaining enlightenment, as well as the name that the future buddha Gotama assumed under each previous buddha. The final chapter concerns the distribution of the relics (sarīra; S. ŚARĪRA) of Gotama Buddha. According to Theravāda tradition, the Buddhavaṃsa was preached at the request of the Buddha’s disciple Sāriputta (S. ŚĀRIPUTRA), following the Buddha’s display of the “jeweled-walk” (ratanacaṅkama) miracle, which is the name of the chronicle’s first chapter. The Madhuratthavilāsinī is the Pāli commentary to the Buddhavaṃsa.

buddhavarṣa. (P. buddhavassa; T. sangs rgyas kyi lo; C. foji; J. butsuki; K. pulgi 佛紀). In Sanskrit, “Buddhist Era.” The term used for the Buddhist calendar calculated from the date of the final demise (S. PARINIRVĀṆA; P. parinibbāna) of the Buddha. There is general agreement among Buddhist traditions that the Buddha died in his eightieth year, but no consensus as to the date of his death and hence no agreement regarding the commencement of the Buddhist era. Dates for the parinirvāṇa given in texts and inscriptions from across Buddhist Asia range from 2420 BCE to 290 BCE. One of the more commonly used dates is 544/543 BCE, which is the year asserted for the Buddha’s death by the THERAVĀDA tradition of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Use of the Theravāda calendar most likely originated in Sri Lanka, where it is attested in inscriptions dating from as early as the first century BCE. The same calendar appears in Burmese inscriptions beginning in the eleventh century, which coincides with that country’s adoption of Theravāda Buddhism as its dominant faith. The earliest known record of its use in India is likewise relatively late, and dates from the thirteenth century in an inscription erected at BODHGAYĀ. Since at least the fifth century, the Theravāda traditions have asserted that the religion of the Buddha (P. buddhasāsana; see ŚĀSANA) would endure for five thousand years. Accordingly, in 1956 the halfway point in the life span of the religion was presumed to have been reached, an event that was celebrated with considerable millenarian overtones throughout the Theravāda world in the Buddha Jayantī (“Celebration of Buddhism”). A historically significant feature of the Theravāda calendar is that it places the coronation of the Mauryan emperor AŚOKA 218 years after the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha. This contrasts with another ancient Buddhist calendar tradition, preserved primarily in Sanskrit sources, which instead places Aśoka’s coronation one hundred years after the parinirvāṇa. The two calendars have come to be designated in modern scholarship as the “long chronology” and “short chronology,” respectively. According to the long chronology, the Buddha’s dates would be 566–486 BCE. According to the short chronology, they would be 448–368 BCE. The precise dating of the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa has been a contested issue among scholars for well over a century, and both the long and the short chronologies, as well as permutations thereof, have had their supporters. At present, there is widespread consensus, based primarily on Greek accounts and Aśoka’s own inscriptions, that Aśoka ascended to the Mauryan throne in c. 265 BCE, or approximately sixty years later than what is reported in the long chronology. Scholars who accept this dating, but who still adhere to the Theravāda claim that the Buddha died 218 years before this event, therefore place the parinirvāṇa at c. 480 BCE. This is known as the “corrected long chronology” and is the theory upheld by many contemporary scholars of Indian Buddhism. Recently however, a number of historians have argued, based primarily on a reevaluation of evidence found in the DĪPAVAṂSA, that the short chronology is the earlier and more accurate calendar, and that the parinirvāṇa should be moved forward accordingly to between c. 400 and 350 BCE. Many contemporary traditions of East Asian Buddhism now also follow the modern Theravāda system in which the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa is calculated as 544/543 BCE.

buddhayāna. (T. sangs rgyas kyi theg pa; C. fo sheng; J. butsujō; K. pul sŭng 佛乘). In Sanskrit, “buddha vehicle,” the conveyance leading to the state of buddhahood. In general, the buddhayāna is synonymous with both the BODHISATTVAYĀNA and the MAHĀYĀNA, although in some contexts it is considered superior to them, being equivalent to a supreme EKAYĀNA. When this path is perfected, the adept achieves the full range of special qualities unique to the buddhas (ĀVEṆIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA), which result from mastery of the perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). This understanding of the term buddhayāna and its significance is explained in chapter two of the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA (“Lotus Sūtra”). There, the Buddha compares three means of salvation to three carts promised to children in an effort to convince them to come out from a burning house. The three carts are said to correspond to the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA). The first is the ŚRĀVAKAYĀNA, the vehicle for ŚRĀVAKAs (“disciples”), in which teachings were learned from a buddha and which culminates in becoming a “worthy one” (ARHAT). Next is the PRATYEKABUDDHAYĀNA, the vehicle of the PRATYEKABUDDHA or “solitary buddha,” those who strive for enlightenment but do not rely on a buddha in their last life. The third is the bodhisattvayāna, the path followed by the BODHISATTVA to buddhahood. In the parable in the “Lotus Sūtra,” the Buddha uses the prospect of these three vehicles to entice the children to leave the burning house; once they are safely outside, they find not three carts waiting for them but instead a single magnificent cart. The Buddha then declares the three vehicles to be a form of skillful means (UPĀYAKAUŚALYA), for there is in fact only one vehicle (ekayāna), also referred to as the buddha vehicle (buddhayāna). Later exegetes, especially in East Asia, engaged in extensive scholastic investigation of the relationships between the terms bodhisattvayāna, buddhayāna, and ekayāna.

Buddhayaśas. (C. Fotuoyeshe; J. Butsudayasha; K. Pult’ayasa 佛陀耶舍) (d.u.; fl. c. early fifth century). A monk from Kashmir (see KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA) who became an important early translator of Indic Buddhist texts into Chinese. Buddhayaśas is said to have memorized several million words worth of both mainstream and Mahāyāna materials and became a renowned teacher in his homeland. He later taught the SARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA to the preeminent translator KUMĀRAJĪVA and later joined his star pupil in China, traveling to the capital of Chang’an at Kumārajīva’s invitation in 408. While in China, he collaborated with the Chinese monk ZHU FONIAN (d.u.) in the translation of two massive texts of the mainstream Buddhist tradition: the SIFEN LÜ (“Four-Part Vinaya,” in sixty rolls), the vinaya collection of the DHARMAGUPTAKA school, which would become the definitive vinaya used within the Chinese tradition; and the DĪRGHĀGAMA, also generally presumed to be associated with the Dharmaguptakas. Even after returning to Kashmir four years later, Buddhayaśas is said to have continued with his translation work, eventually sending back to China his rendering of the Ākāśagarbhasūtra.

buddhi. (T. blo; C. siwei; J. shiyui; K. sayu 思惟). In Sanskrit and Pāli, “intelligence,” “comprehension,” or “discernment”; referring specifically to the ability to fashion and retain concepts and ideas (related etymologically to the words buddha and BODHI, from the root √budh “to wake up”). In Buddhist usage, buddhi sometimes denotes a more elevated faculty of mind that surpasses the rational and discursive in its ability to discern truth. Buddhi is thus a kind of intuitive intelligence, comprehension, or insight, which can serve to catalyze wisdom (PRAJÑĀ) and virtuous (KUŚALA) actions. According to some strands of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy, this discernment is an inherent and fundamental characteristic of the mind, which is essentially free of all mistaken discriminations and devoid of distinction or change. In such contexts, buddhi is often associated with the original nature of the mind. See RIG PA.

Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. A term coined by the Sanskritist FRANKLIN EDGERTON, who compiled the definitive grammar and dictionary of the language, to refer to the peculiar Buddhist argot of Sanskrit that is used both in many Indic MAHĀYĀNA scriptures, as well as in the MAHĀVASTU, a biography of the Buddha composed within the LOKOTTARAVĀDA subgroup of the MAHĀSĀṂGHIKA school. Edgerton portrays Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit texts as the products of a gradual Sanskritization of texts that had originally been composed in various Middle Indic dialects (PRAKRIT). Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) texts were not wholesale renderings of vernacular materials intended to better display Sanskrit vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but rather were ongoing, and often incomplete, reworkings of Buddhist materials, which reflected the continued prestige of Sanskrit within the Indic scholarly community. This argot of Sanskrit is sometimes called the “GĀTHĀ dialect,” because its peculiarities are especially noticeable in Mahāyāna verse forms. Edgerton describes three layers of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit based on the extent of their hybridization (and only loosely chronological). The first, and certainly earliest, class consists solely of the Mahāvastu, the earliest extant BHS text, in which both the prose and verse portions of the scripture contain many hybridized forms. In the second class, verses remain hybridized, but the prose sections are predominantly standard Sanskrit and are recognizable as BHS only in their vocabulary. This second class includes many of the most important Mahāyāna scriptures, including the GAṆḌAVYŪHA, LALITAVISTARA, SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA, and SUKHĀVATĪVYŪHASŪTRA. In the third class, both the verse and prose sections are predominantly standard Sanskrit, and only in their vocabulary would they be recognized as BHS. Texts in this category include the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ, BODHISATTVABHŪMI, LAṄKĀVATĀRASŪTRA, MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA, and VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀSŪTRA.

buli wenzi. (J. furyūmonji; K. pullip muncha 不立文字). In Chinese, lit. “not establishing words and letters”; a line summarizing the CHAN school’s unique sense of its own pedigree, as a school of Buddhism that does not rely on the scriptural teachings of Buddhism but has a direct connection through the “buddhas and patriarchs” (FOZU) to the mind of the Buddha himself. The saying is later attributed to the school’s traditional founder, BODHIDHARMA. According to GUIFENG ZONGMI’s CHANYUAN ZHUQUANJI DUXU, the Indian monk Bodhidharma taught that the mind was the DHARMA and he transmitted this teaching from mind to mind (YIXIN CHUANXIN) without establishing words or letters. This phrase also often appears together with three other phrases: JIAOWAI BIECHUAN (“a special transmission outside the teachings”), ZHIZHI RENXIN (“directly pointing to the human mind”), and JIANXING CHENGFO (“seeing one’s own nature and becoming a buddha”). They appear together for the first time in the ZUTING SHIYUAN compiled in 1108 and soon became a normative teaching in the subsequent CHAN, SŎN, THIỀN, and ZEN traditions. As a radical interpretation of the notion of UPĀYA, the phrase buli wenzi remains to this day a controversial and frequently debated topic. Song-dynasty exponents of “lettered Chan” (WENZI CHAN), such as JUEFAN HUIHONG (1071–1128), decried the bibliophobic tendencies epitomized in this line and advocated instead that Chan insights were made manifest in both Buddhist SŪTRAs as well as in the uniquely Chan genres of discourse records (YULU), lineage histories (see CHUANDENG LU), and public-case anthologies (GONG’AN).

Bum thang. A district of central Bhutan. Considered one of the country’s most sacred regions, it was the birthplace of PADMA GLING PA and is home to numerous important monasteries including GTAM ZHING, Sku rje (Kuje), and Byams pa lha khang (Jampa Lhakang).

Bunkyō hifuron. (文鏡秘府論). In Japanese, “A Mirror on Literature and a Treasury of Marvels Treatise”; a work on classical Chinese poetics and prosody, composed by the Japanese SHINGONSHŪ monk KŪKAI, probably in the early ninth century. The work was intended to serve as a vade mecum on classical Chinese writing style and literary allusions for Japanese ranging from novice monks who needed to know how to parse Buddhist MANTRAs and DHĀRAṆĪs to diplomats or scribes who had to compose elegant Chinese prose and verse. The treatise is titled a “mirror on literature” because it describes correct Chinese style and a “treasury of marvels” because it serves as a literary compendium and thesaurus. The text is significant not only because of its impact on the development of Japanese classical-Chinese writing, but also because its extensive extracts of original Chinese sources (most now lost) stand as a valuable resource for the study of Tang literature.

Burnouf, Eugène. (1801–1852). French orientalist and seminal figure in the development of Buddhist Studies as an academic discipline. He was born in Paris on April 8, 1801, the son of the distinguished classicist Jean-Louis Burnouf (1775–1844). He received instruction in Greek and Latin from his father and studied at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. He entered the École des Chartes in 1822, receiving degrees in both letters and law in 1824. He then turned to the study of Sanskrit, both with his father and with Antoine Léonard de Chézy (1773–1832). In 1826, Burnouf published, in collaboration with the young Norwegian-German scholar Christian Lassen (1800–1876), Essai sur le pâli (“Essay on PĀLI”). After the death of Chézy, Burnouf was appointed to succeed his teacher in the chair of Sanskrit at the Collège de France. His students included some of the greatest scholars of day; those who would contribute to Buddhist studies included Philippe Edouard Foucaux (1811–1894) and FRIEDRICH MAX MÜLLER. Shortly after his appointment to the chair of Sanskrit, the Société Asiatique, of which Burnouf was secretary, received a communication from BRIAN HOUGHTON HODGSON, British resident at the court of Nepal, offering to send Sanskrit manuscripts of Buddhist texts to Paris. The receipt of these texts changed the direction of Burnouf’s scholarship for the remainder his life. After perusing the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ and the LALITAVISTARA, he decided to translate the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA. Having completed the translation, he decided to precede its publication with a series of studies. He completed only the first of these, published in 1844 as Introduction à l’histoire du Buddhisme indien. This massive work is regarded as the foundational text for the academic study of Buddhism in the West. It contains Burnouf’s highly influential analyses of various aspects of Sanskrit Buddhism as he understood them from the works received from Hodgson. It also contains hundreds of pages of translations of previously unknown works, drawn especially from the DIVYĀVADĀNA and the AVADĀNAŚATAKA. Burnouf died, apparently of kidney failure, on May 28, 1852. His translation of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, Le Lotus de la bonne loi, appeared that same year.

Bu ston chos ’byung. (Butön Chöjung). A history of Buddhism in India and Tibet composed in 1322 by the Tibetan polymath BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB. The full name of the work is Bde bar gshegs pa’i bstan pa’i gsal byed chos kyi ’byung gnas gsung rab rin po che’i mdzod; it is available in English in the 1931–1932 translation of major parts by EUGÈNE OBERMILLER, done in collaboration with Mongolian monks educated in Tibetan monasteries. The text is in two parts: a history and an important general catalogue of Tibetan Buddhist canonical literature, one of the first of its kind. The first chapter of the Chos ’byung draws on the VYĀKHYĀYUKTI and is a general discussion of the exposition and study of Buddhist doctrine. The second chapter is a traditional history dealing with the spread of the doctrine in the human world, the three turnings of the wheel of DHARMA (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), the councils (SAṂGĪTI), the collection of the Buddhist doctrine into authoritative scriptures, the date of the Buddha, the followers who came after him, and the decline of the doctrine in India. The history of Buddhism in Tibet is divided into a section on the earlier (SNGA DAR) and later spread (PHYI DAR) of the doctrine. The third section is the general catalogue of Buddhist canonical literature in Tibetan translation. It is divided into SŪTRAs and TANTRAs, then again into the words of the Buddha (bka’) and authoritative treatises (bstan bcos). The words of the Buddha are subdivided based on the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma with a separate section on MAHĀYĀNA sūtras; treatises are divided into treatises explaining specific works of the Buddha (again subdivided based on the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma), general expositions, and miscellaneous treatises. Bu ston similarly divides the tantras into words of the Buddha and authoritative treatises and deals with both under the division into four “sets” (sde) of KRIYĀ, CARYĀ, and YOGA, and MAHĀYOGA tantras. This latter division is again subdivided into method (UPĀYA), wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), and both (ubhaya) tantras. In MKHAS GRUB DGE LEGS DPAL BZANG’s explanation (Rgyud sde spyi’i rnam bzhag), a work based on Bu ston’s model, but incorporating the influential scheme of TSONG KHA PA, the divisions of mahāyoga are subsumed under the general category of ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA (highest yoga tantra). The tantric commentaries are organized following the same schema.

Bu ston rin chen grub. (Butön Rinchen Drup) (1290–1364). A Tibetan scholar, translator, and encyclopedist, renowned for systematizing the Tibetan Buddhist canon into its present form. According to Tibetan hagiographies, Bu ston was born into a lineage of tantric practitioners and considered a reincarnation of the Kashmiri master ŚĀKYAŚRĪBHADRA. Having mastered tantric ritual at an early age, he then received ordination at the age of eighteen. He trained under numerous teachers, studying all branches of Buddhist learning and eventually earned a reputation especially for his knowledge of the KĀLACAKRATANTRA. At age thirty, Bu ston accepted the abbacy of ZHWA LU monastery in central Tibet, where he authored and taught his most influential works; his entire corpus fills twenty-eight volumes in one edition. Bu ston’s tenure at Zhwa lu was so influential that it provided the name for a new lineage, the so-called Zhwa lu pa (those of Zhwa lu) or the Bu lugs tshul (the tradition of Bu ston). In about 1332 Bu ston completed his famous history of Buddhism (BU STON CHOS ’BYUNG) and it was during this time that, based on previous canonical lists, he began to reformulate a classification system for organizing the Tibetan canon. Bu ston was not the only editor (among them were Dbu pa blo gsal and Bcom ldan rig pa’i ral gri), but he was the most important figure in the final redaction of the BKA’ ’GYUR and BSTAN ’GYUR; he compared manuscripts from the two major manuscript collections at SNAR THANG and ’Tshal, added other works not found there, eliminated indigenous Tibetan works, decided on criteria for inclusion in the canon, standardized terminology, and decided on categories under which to include the many volumes. It is customary in modern works to include Bu ston in the SA SKYA sect and indeed his explanations of the ABHISAMAYĀLAṂKĀRA and the ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA, among others, are considered authoritative by that sect. But his influence is not limited to that sect; for example, TSONG KHA PA’s commentary on the perfection of wisdom (LEGS BSHAD GSER ’PHRENG), and his explanation of the different types of tantra (SNGAGS RIM CHEN MO) (both authoritative texts in the DGE LUGS sect) borrow heavily from Bu ston’s work. Bu ston is one of several key figures in the history of Tibetan Buddhism to be referred to as kun mkhyen, or “all knowing.”

butsudan. (佛壇). In Japanese, literally “buddha platform”; a platform on which an image of a buddha and/or BODHISATTVA is placed and worshipped; also known as SHŪMIDAN (“SUMERU platform”). A butsudan can be made of stone, clay, or wood and can take the shape of a lotus platform, niche, or portable shrine. According to the BAIZHANG QINGGUI, a butsudan houses the image of the SAṂBHOGAKĀYA of the Buddha. The Nihon shoki also notes that the practice of making butsudan had spread widely among Japanese commoners as early as the Nara and Heian periods. Nowadays, butsudan are owned by most households and take the form of a portable shrine that houses icons, sacred objects of a particular school or sect, and mortuary tablets, known as ihai, for deceased family members. They are thus used primarily for private worship and mortuary practice.

Byang chub ’od. (Jangchup Ö) (late tenth century). Grandnephew of King YE SHES ’OD who successfully invited the Indian Buddhist monk and scholar ATIŚA DĪPAṂKARAŚRĪJÑĀNA to Tibet. During the second half of the tenth century, Ye shes ’od (also known as Song nge) became the king of Mnga’ ris (Ngari), now the far western region of Tibet. He sent a number of Tibetans to Kashmir (see KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA) to study Buddhism, among them the translator RIN CHEN BZANG PO whose return to Tibet in 978 marks the beginning of the later spread of Buddhism (PHYI DAR). (Others date the beginning to the start of the second MŪLASARVĀSTIVĀDA ordination line, which began at about the same period.) According to a well-known story, Ye shes ’od wanted to invite the foremost Indian Buddhist scholar of the day, Atiśa, to Tibet and traveled to the Qarluq (T. gar log) kingdom (probably to KHOTAN in present-day Chinese Xianjiang province), to raise funds. He was captured by the chieftain and held for ransom. Ye shes ’od sent a letter to his nephew Byang chub ’od, saying that rather than use money for a ransom to free him, he should use any money collected for his release to invite Atiśa. Ye shes ’od died in captivity, but Byang chub ’od succeeded in convincing Atiśa to come to Tibet where he had a great influence, particularly on the earlier followers of the BKA’ GDAMS sect. The history of this period becomes more important in later Tibetan history when TSONG KHA PA, the founder of the DGE LUGS sect, described Atiśa as the perfect teacher in his seminal work the LAM RIM CHEN MO. In the seventeenth century, when the Dge lugs rose to political power under the fifth DALAI LAMA and his supporters, Byang chub ’od and Atiśa were incorporated into a complex founding myth legitimating Dge lugs ascendancy and the DGA’ LDAN PHO BRANG government.

Byōdōin. (平等院). A famous Japanese temple located in Uji, south of Kyōto, now associated with the TENDAISHŪ and JŌDOSHŪ sects. Byōdōin is especially famous for its Phoenix Hall (Hōōdō), which houses a magnificent image of AMITĀBHA made by the artist Jōchō (d. 1057). The hall, the statue, and fifty-two other small sculptures of BODHISATTVAs making offerings of music to the central Amitābha statue have been designated as national treasures. The Byōdōin Amitābha image is highly regarded as a representative piece of the refined art of the Fujiwara period (894–1185). Byōdōin was originally a villa that belonged to the powerful regent Fujiwara no Michinaga (966–1027). The private villa was later transformed by Michinaga’s son Yorimichi (992–1074) into a temple in 1052, and the Phoenix Hall was constructed the following year. Many halls dedicated to the buddha Amitābha were built in this period by powerful aristocrats who were influenced by the growing belief in the notion of mappō (see MOFA), or “the demise of the dharma,” wherein the only means of salvation was the practice of nenbutsu, the recitation of Amitābha’s name (see also NIANFO; BUDDHĀNUSMṚTI). The monk Myōson (d. 1063), originally the abbot of another temple called ONJŌJI, was installed as the first abbot of Byōdōin.