Equal Rites: The Book of Mormon, Masonry, Gender, and American Culture

1. John L. Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire: The Making of Mormon Cosmology, 1644–1844 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

2. Clyde R. Forsberg Jr., “In Search of the Historical Nephi: The Book of Mormon, ‘Evangelicalisms’ and Antebellum American Popular Culture, c. 1830” (Ph.D. diss., Queen’s University, 1994), pp. 227–271.

3. Samuel Goodwin, “Mormonism and Masonry–Anti-Masonry in the Book of Mormon,” in The Builder 10 (November–December 1924), 363–364.

4. in this connection, see Anthony W. Ivins, The Relationship of Mormonism and Freemasonry (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1934); Elmer Cecil McGavin, Mormonism and Masonry (Salt Lake City: Stevens and Wallis, 1947); and Hugh Nibley, Temple and Cosmos: Beyond This Ignorant Present (Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1992), pp. 379–433.

5. Whitney Cross, The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1950).

6. Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), p. 64n.

7. John A. Widstoe, “Why Did Joseph Smith Become a Mason?” in Evidences and Reconciliations (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1988), pp. 357–359.

8. William G. McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607–1977 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).

9. Carol Berkin, Christopher Miller, Robert Cherny, and James Gormy, Making America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), pp. 299, 317.

10. In this connection, see Mary Beth Norton, Paul D. Escott, Howard P. Chudacoff, David M. Katzman, Thomas G. Paterson, and William M. Tuttle Jr., A People and a Nation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994); Robert A. Divine, T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, R. Hall Williams, America Past and Present (New York: HarperCollins College, 1995); and James West Davidson, William E. Gienapp, Christine Leigh Heyrman, Mark H. Lytle, and Michael B. Stoff, Nation of Nations: A Narrative History of the American Republic (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994).

11. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1991), p. 223.

12. J. M. Roberts, The Mythology of the Secret Societies (Frogmore, St. Albans, Herts.: Paladan, 1974), p. 23.

13. In this connection, see Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Dorothy Ann Lipson, Freemasonry in Federalist Connecticut, 1789–1835 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); and Paul Goodman, Towards a Christian Republic: Antimasonry and the Great Transition in New England, 1826–1836 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

14. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 72.

15. Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture: 1880–1930 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).

16. Harold Bloom, The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), pp. 79–128; Michael Homer, “Masonry and Mormonism in Utah, 1847–1984,” Journal of Mormon History 18 (fall 1992), 57–96; and Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire.

17. Douglas Smith, Working the Rough Stone: Freemasonry and Society in Eighteenth-Century Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1999), pp. 28–30.

18. See Paul E. Johnson and Sean Wilentz, The Kingdom of Matthias (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), which might be said to take this stance to a degree.

19. Rob Morris, Grand Master of Kentucky (1858–1859), is famous for his service to the Order of the Eastern Star, a women’s lodge, which operated separately and according to a streamlined ritual. The Eastern Star, with Morris’s help, was “adopted” by the Grand Lodge. Morris’s tolerance stopped short of admitting women as active and equal participants, however. In this connection, see Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:682.

20. In this connection, see Jill Mulvay Derr, Janath Russell Cannon, and Maureen Ursenbach Beecher, Women of Covenant: The Story of the Relief Society (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Company, 1992).

21. Mrs. T. B. H. Stenhouse, Tell It All: The Tyranny of Mormonism, intro. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1880; reprint, Fontwell, Sussex: Centaur, 1971).

22. D. Michael Quinn, “Mormon Women Have Had the Priesthood Since 1843,” in Women and Authority, ed. Maxine Hanks (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1992), pp. 365–409.

23. See in this connection, Thomas R. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), pp. 228–252.

24. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860).

25. In this connection, see Clyde R. Forsberg Jr., “Are Mormons Anabaptists? The Case of the Mormons and Heirs of the Anabaptist Tradition on the American Frontier, c. 1840,” in Radical Reformation Studies: Essays Presented to James M. Stayer, ed. Werner O. Packull and Geoffrey L. Dipple (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999), pp. 175–191. Also see Michael Driedger, “Crossing Max Weber’s ‘Great Divide’: Comparing Early Modern Jewish and Anabaptist Histories,” in ibid., pp. 157–174.

26. Henry Leonard Stillson and William James Hughan, History of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons and Concordant Orders (New York: Fraternity, 1891), p. 701.

27. In this connection, see Arthur E. Waite, The Secret Tradition in Freemasonry: And an Analysis of the Inter-Relation Between the Craft and the High Grades (London: Rebman, 1911), vols. 1 and 2.

1. In this connection, see T. Asad, “Religion, Nation-State, Secularism,” in Nation and Religion; Perspectives on Europe and Asia, ed. P. van der Veer and H. Lehman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 183, citing Margaret Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

2. Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas, The Hiram Key: Pharaohs, Freemasons, and the Discovery of the Secret Scrolls of Jesus (Boston: Element, 1997).

3. This sounds suspiciously like the story of the Jaredites in the Book of Mormon, who also use fiery stones, albeit to see in the dark as they make their way to the promised land by sea.

4. This, too, echoes the Book of Mormon. One is struck by the discussion of the Templar practice of wearing tight sheepskin breeches as a badge of chastity, refusing to remove them and thus prolonging their virginity rather effectively. See Knight and Lomas, The Hiram Key, p. 34.

5. In this connection, see the discussion of the antebellum New York rivalry between the two in Robert Freke Gould, A Library of Freemasonry (London: John D. Yorston, 1911), 5:213–219.

6. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1991), pp. 95–109.

7. John L. Brooke, “Ancient Lodges and Self-Created Societies: Voluntary Association and the Public Sphere in the Early Republic,” in Launching the “Extended Republic,” ed. Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), pp. 273–309 ff.

8. Douglas Smith, Working the Rough Stone: Freemasonry and Society in Eighteenth-Century Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1999), pp. 136–175.

9. Tony Fels, “The ‘Non-Evangelical Alliance’: Freemasonry in Gilded-Age San Francisco,” in Religion and Society in the American West, ed. Carl Guarneri and David Alvarev (New York: Lanham, 1987), pp. 221-254.

10. Dorothy Ann Lipson, Freemasonry in Federalist Connecticut, 1789–1835 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), p. 5.

12. Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 51.

15. Wilkins Tannehill, Sketches of the History of Literature, from the Earliest Period to the Revival of Letters in the Fifteenth Century (Nashville, Tenn., 1829).

18. Salem Town, A System of Speculative Masonry (Salem, N.Y.: Dodd, 1822), p. 67.

20. Oliver’s Masonic publications are legion, but a good sense of his essential position can be found in R. S. E. Sandbach’s introduction to Oliver’s The Book of the Lodge, 3d. ed. (1864; Wellingborough, Northamptonshire: Aquarian, 1986), pp. vii–xx.

21. In this connection, see George Oliver, The Antiquities of Freemasonry, comprising illustrations of the five Grand Periods of Masonry, from the Creation of the World to the Dedication of King Solomon’s Temple (1823) and The Star in the East (London, 1823). See also Robert I Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:733–735.

25. See Elnathan Winchester, A Discourse Delivered before the Ancient and Honorable Society of Free and Accepted Masons … (Norwich, Conn., 1795).

27. Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 36–40.

31. See Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), pp. 459–460. Lucinda is second in line in the long list of Smith’s polygamous wives, married another Mason, George Washington Harris, and then Smith.

32. Henry Leonard Stillson and William James Hughan, History of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons and Concordant Orders (New York: Fraternity, 1891), pp. 508–509.

33. Gentlemen belonging to the Jerusalem Lodge, Jachin and Boaz; or an Authentic Key to the Door of Freemasonry, both Ancient and Modern (London, England, 1762; reprint, Boston: Gilbert and Dean, 1803), p. iv.

34. William Preston, Illustrations of Freemasonry (London: J. Williams, 1772).

35. Rob Morris, preface to Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), p. vii.

38. Samuel Prichard, Masonry Dissected: Being an Universal and Genuine Description of All its Branches, from the Original to the Present Time (London: H. Teape, Tower Hill, n.d.), p. 10.

39. See Ronald P. Formisano and Kathleen Smith Kutolowski, “Antimasonry and Masonry: The Genesis of Protest, 1826–1827,” American Quarterly 29 (1977), 139–165.

40. See the chapter on Paine in my “Roots of Early Mormonism: An Exegetical Inquiry” (M.A. thesis, University of Calgary, April 1990), pp. 256–294.

41. Clegg points out that Paine claimed membership in the Craft, having numerous Masonic “colleagues” on both sides of the Atlantic. However, his knowledge of the order is said to have been purely academic. That Masons seem to want to distance themselves from Paine even now perhaps has something to do with his overt paganism. See Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia, 2:748.

42. In this connection, see William A. Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), pp. 31–42, 193–218. Loretta J. Williams, in her book Black Freemasonry and Middle-Class Realities (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1980), challenges the notion that Prince Hall Masonry gave itself over to integration to the extent that Muraskin seems to suggest.

1. Donna Hill discusses this with great sensitivity and insight in her book Joseph Smith: The First Mormon (Midvale, Utah: Signature, 1977), p. 10.

2. In this connection, see Wallace Stegner, The Uneasy Chair: A Biography of Bernard DeVoto (New York: Doubleday, 1974), pp. 130–131.

3. Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), p. 85.

4. Howe’s characterization of Smith is unflattering to say the least. Some of the adjectives he uses to describe the man—lazy, indolent, ignorant, and superstitious—reveal more perhaps about Howe than Smith. Indeed, Howe abandons his polemic for just a moment to offer a characterization of the Mormon prophet that seems right: Smith was a “natural genius, strong inventive powers of mind, a deep study, and an unusually correct estimate of the human passions and feelings.” But Howe sees this in a decidedly poor light. “In short, he is now endowed with all the requisite traits of character,” he intones, “to pursue most successfully the humbug which he has introduced” (E. D. Howe, Mormonism Unvailed [sic] [Painesville: self-published, 1834], pp. 12–13).

5. In this connection, see the latest of the Mormon psychobiographies, Robert D. Anderson, Inside the Mind of Joseph Smith: Psychobiography and the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1999), pp. ix–xlv, which has an up-to-date list of all such studies, adjudicating in favor of Anderson’s own diagnosis of Smith as possessing a narcissistic personality.

6. See William D. Morain, The Sword of Laban: Joseph Smith, Jr., and the Dissociative Mind (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric, 1998).

7. See David Persuitte, Joseph Smith and the Origin of the Book of Mormon (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1985).

8. Ivan J. Barrett, Joseph Smith and the Restoration: A History of the LDS Church to 1846 (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1973), pp. 81–82.

9. Affidavit of Charles Anthon, New York, February 17, 1831, in Howe, Mormonism Unvailed, p. 270.

10. The Mormon understanding and that of the Scottish Rite are similar, though the latter uses the term in reference to persons rather than things. See Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947). Pike writes: “They [the Pharisees] styled themselves Interpreters; a name indicating their claim to the exclusive possession of the true meaning of the Holy Writings, by virtue of the oral tradition which Moses had received on Mount Sinai, and which successive generations of Initiates had transmitted, as they claimed, unaltered, unto them” (p. 259).

11. D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1987), pp. 144–145.

14. In this connection, see John Money, The Disabled Reader: Education of the Dyslexic Child (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), pp. 263–276. The case of Matthew in Money’s book is interesting: a poor reader whose writing curves downward.

15. Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1984).

16. In this connection, see Linda Sillitoe and Allen D. Roberts, Salamander: The Story of the Mormon Forgery Murders (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1988).

17. This revelation is found in Smith’s personal revelations known as Doctrine and Covenants, sect. 9.

19. Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:1071.

20. In this connection, see Joseph Henry Thayer, The New Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (Lafayette, Ind.: Christian Copyrights, 1979), p. 287. Notably, the phrase is used in connection with John the Revelator, though not in the Bible.

21. N is not a vowel, of course; however, a

—lowercase eta—may have been mistaken for the capital n in EN and thus dropped.

23. Pike, Morals and Dogma, in particular, the discussion of the 26th degree, the Prince of Mercy, or Scottish Trinitarian (pp. 524–577).

24. Francis Barrett, The Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer; Being a Complete System of Occult Philosophy (printed for the Temple of Muses) (London, 1801), 1:108–113, 2:107.

25. See Marcus Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Yerushalmi, and Midrashic Literature (New York: Judaica, 1982), p. 1317. If the transcription is correct, and the third letter is a mem in final rather than medial position, then it could be a genitive possessive, in which case the translation would be “first of the gods.” If the third letter is a samek, the text might be a corrupt spelling of qadosh and thus “holy God” or “God is holy,” a crude Hebrew translation of the Royal Arch motto “Holiness to the Lord.”

27. Jastrow, Dictionary, p. 365. If these are numbers, then one suspects that this is meant to be a quasi-Pythagorean formulation—geometry is among the Masonic sciences—but of a mystical type in this series. They could also refer to the advanced degrees of a Master Mason, suggesting the initiate has a long way to go if he means to reach number 33. If the 4, 5, and 6 pertain to the Scottish Rite, then the owner has been inducted as a Secret Master, Perfect Master, and Intimate Secretary; if they refer to the York Rite, then the 4, 5, and 6 suggest that he holds the degrees of Mark Master, Past Master, and Most Excellent Master.

29. Robert Freke Gould, A Library of Freemasonry (London: John D. Yorston, 1911), 5:194b.

31. The Orphic Egg is among the symbolism of the Knight of the Brazen Serpent, or 25th Degree, of the Scottish Rite. See Pike, Morals and Dogma, p. 472. Also see pp. 402, 783, 404, 254, 663, 400, 655, and 663.

32. The first three rows of characters, going from left to right, might read as follows: (1) the bull, the moon (or female principle of creation), something undecipherable, Cancer, crown (Knights Templar Degree), two crescent moons (another Templar symbol), Jupiter, G (or God?), “Signet of Truth” (Royal Arch Degree) or symbol of Yahweh (Scottish Rite, 33d Degree), cross, sword, crescent moon, Pisces, swastika (Scottish Rite), Masonic jewel (Scottish Rite, Knight of the Brazen Serpent, or 25th Degree), all-seeing eye, Royal Arch cipher for letter C (or Christ?), L (or Logos?), Aries, Enochian cipher, several unreadable characters; (2) G (or God?), Masonic jewel (Scottish Rite, Elected Knight of the Nine, or 9th Degree), square, compass, cross, symbol of family birth signs, Rosy Cross cipher for S (or Smith?), the bull, moon (or female principle of creation), square, compass, crown (Knights Templar Degree), two Enochian ciphers (or first and last letters of the Royal Arch Greek motto

ΛΟΓΟ

, “In the beginning was the Word”), L (or Logos?), two crescent moons, Royal Arch cipher for J.J. (or Joseph Jr.?), the bull, cross, Rosy Cross cipher for S (or Smith?), an undecipherable character, moon (or female principle of creation), and L (or Logos?); (3) the bull, an undecipherable character, Royal Arch cipher for J.J. (or Joseph Jr.?), sun (or male principle of creation), square, compass, Taurus or Mercury, G (or God?), an undecipherable character, Saturn, L (or Logos?), Aries, compass, square, G (or God?), double tau (Scottish Rite), Masonic jewel (Scottish Rite, Elected Knight of the Nine, or 9th Degree), Yod (or God), Second Yod (or second God?), G (or God?).

1. B. H. Roberts, New Witness for God (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1909), 3:484. Roberts argues, in fact, that the Book of Mormon does not have an anti-Masonic agenda.

2. Anthony W. Ivins, The Relationship of Mormonism and Freemasonry (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1934), pp. 171–179.

3. Dan Vogel, “Mormonism’s ‘Anti-Masonick Bible,’” John Whitmer Historical Association Journal 9 (1989): 17.

4. This is the theory to which I am partial, though the story it presents is no doubt apocryphal. See Rhett James, The Man Who Knew: Dramatic Biography of Martin Harris (Cache Valley, Utah: Martin Harris Pageant Committee, 1983).

6. Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), p. 65. Also see I. Woodbridge Riley, The Founder of Mormonism: A Psychological Study of Joseph Smith Jr. (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1902), pp. 160–163. See Walter Franklin Prince, “Psychological Tests for the Authorship of the Book of Mormon,” American Journal of Psychology 28 (July 1917): 376–377; Samuel Goodwin, “Mormonism and Masonry–Anti-Masonry in the Book of Mormon,” The Builder 10 (November–December 1924): 363–364; Thomas O’Dea, The Mormons (1957; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 35; Robert N. Hullinger, Mormon Answer to Skepticism (St. Louis: Clayton, 1980), pp. 100–103; David Persuitte, Joseph Smith and the Origins of the Book of Mormon (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1985), pp. 176–179; Brent T. Metcalfe, “Theologizing the Treasure Trove: An Experiment in Book of Mormon Exegesis” (unpublished paper presented at the Sunstone Symposium, Salt Lake City, 1987); and Marvin S. Hill, Quest for Refuge: The Mormon Flight from American Pluralism (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1989), p. 64.

7. Samuel Goodwin, Additional Studies in Mormonism and Masonry (Salt Lake City, 1927). This is a collection of various articles that first appeared in the Masonic periodical The Builder.

8. James C. Bilderback, “Masonry and Mormonism: Nauvoo Illinois, 1841–1847” (M.S. thesis, State University of Iowa, 1937), p. 85.

10. Cited in Scott Abbott, Fictions of Freemasonry: Freemasonry and the German Novel (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), p. 114.

11. Elmer Cecil McGavin, Mormonism and Masonry (Salt Lake City: Stevens and Wallis, 1947), p. 13.

12. Cited in Mervin B. Hogan, Mormonism and Masonry (New York: Allied Masonic Degrees, 1959), p. 12. Also see Stanley B. Kimball, “Heber C. Kimball and Family, the Nauvoo Years,” Brigham Young University Studies 15 (summer 1975): 458.

13. Sanford Porter, “Reminiscences, ca. 1872” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City); Thomas Steed, “The Life of Thomas Steed from his own Diary, 1826–1910” (Utah State University Library, Logan); Henry Larkin Southworth, “Journal, 1843–1846” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City).

14. Mervin B. Hogan, Mormon Involvement with Freemasonry on the Illinois and Iowa Frontier Between 1840–1846 (Salt Lake City: self-published, 1983), p. 39.

15. Mervin B. Hogan, Mormonism and Freemasonry: The Illinois Episode (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1980), pp. 286–287.

16. Note that Hyrum, Joseph Smith’s older brother, was a full-fledged member of Moriah Lodge No. 12, in Palmyra.

17. John L. Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire: The Making of Mormon Cosmology, 1644–1844 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 157.

18. In this connection, see ibid., as well as D. Michael Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1994), pp. 583–586.

19. D. Booth interview with William R. Kelly, cited in Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire, p. 365 n. 28.

20. Joseph Smith Jr., History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1964), 4:551–552.

21. Rob Morris, “A Practical Synopsis of Masonic Law and Usage, Alphabetically Arranged for General Use,” addendum to Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), pp. 258–259.

22. Albert G. Mackey, A Text Book of Masonic Jurisprudence; Illustrating the Written and Unwritten Laws of Freemasonry (1859; reprint, New York: Clark and Maynard, 1868), p. 189.

23. Ivan J. Barrett, Joseph Smith and the Restoration: A History of the Church to 1846 (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1983), p. 510.

24. D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1987), pp. 11–14. Also see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971; reprint, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1973).

25. See Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 1:8–9. Although the rather orthodox Clegg contests any connection between true Masonry and magic, he notes that among French Masons a tradition of “Occult Freemasonry” arose that attempted to use magic to elucidate certain Masonic mysteries (2:610–613).

32. Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon, 1978), pp. 147–148; Marcus Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Yerushalmi, and Midrashic Literature (New York: Judaica, 1982), p. 207.

34. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 69–72.

35. See Charles Grandison Finney, The Character, Claims, and Practical Workings of Freemasonry (Cincinnati: Western Tract and Book Society, 1869).

37. In this connection, see Mackey, A Textbook of Masonic Jurisprudence, pp. 83–154.

38. See the court record in appendix A of Brodie, No Man Knows My History, pp. 427–429.

42. Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 115–118.

43. Robert Freke Gould, The History of Freemasonry: Its Antiquities, Symbols, Constitutions, Customs, Etc. (London: Thomas C. Jack, 1886), 5:93–94.

44. Bernard J. Stern, Lewis Henry Morgan: Social Evolutionist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931), p. 16, cited in Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood, p. 98.

45. Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the ho-de-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois (Rochester: Sage and Brother, 1851), p. 60. Also see his Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1870).

1. Jan Shipps, Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. 58.

2. A famous healing handkerchief that Smith blessed and gave to missionary Wilford Woodruff to heal the sick has a similar pattern to that shown in figure 20—which is, no doubt, a coincidence. Perhaps the handkerchief was put to good Masonic ritual use, too. For a reproduction of the handkerchief, see figure 85 in D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1987).

3. Albert G. Mackey, A Lexicon of Freemasonry (London: Griffin, 1873), pp. 68–69.

4. Gentlemen belonging to the Jerusalem Lodge, Jachin and Boaz; or an Authentic Key to the Door of Freemasonry, both Ancient and Modern. London, England, 1762. Reprint, Boston: Gilbert and Dean, 1803, p. 13.

5. All three names are derived from the biblical name Jubal (Genesis 4:21), a descendant of Cain. This word making is similar to that in the Book of Mormon. See my discussion of Book of Mormon name making in “The Roots of Early Mormonism: An Exegetical Inquiry” (M.A. thesis, University of Calgary, April 1990), pp. 49–92.

7. Cited in Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1984), p. 5.

8. See Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), pp. 60–72.

9. Anon., The Royal Arch of Enoch: The Thirteenth Degree of the Ancient and Accepted Egyptian Rite of Memphis (1880) (microfiche, Special Collections, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario), p. 64.

12. Rob Morris, “A Practical Synopsis of Masonic Law and Usage, Alphabetically Arranged for General Use,” addendum to Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor, p. 206.

14. See Milton V. Backman Jr., Joseph Smith’s First Vision (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1980), p. 167.

18. Thomas Smith Webb, private manuscript, published in Morris, “A Practical Synopsis,” pp. 290–292.

21. See Richard L. Bushman, Joseph Smith and the Beginnings of Mormonism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), pp. 55 ff.

22. John L. Brooke, “Ancient Lodges and Self-Created Societies: Voluntary Association and the Public Sphere in the Early Republic,” n Launching the “Extended Republic,” ed. Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), pp. 273–377.

24. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 44.

25. In this connection, see Jacob O. Doesburg, Freemasonry Illustrated (Chicago: Ezra R. Cook, 1886), p. 547.

28. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 70.

29. Thomas Sargant, The Royal Arch Companion: A Manual of Royal Arch Masonry (Toronto: Masonic, n.d.), p. 66.

34. C. Jess Groesbeck, “The Smiths and Their Dreams and Visions,” Sunstone 12 (March 1988): 22–29.

35. For an illuminating defense of tree and river worship in Masonry, see Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:1049–1051.

36. Lucy Mack Smith, Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet and His Progenitors for Many Generations (1912; reprint, Independence, Mo.: Herald House, 1969), pp. 54–57.

38. Scott Abbott, Fictions of Freemasonry: Freemasonry and the German Novel (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), p. 21.

43. Arthur Edward Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 1:3.

45. Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947), p. 642.

51. Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), p. 65.

52. Tubaloth is the name of a Lamanite king in the Book of Helaman who leads a very successful open-air frontal assault against the Nephite capital of Zarahemla. His general, Coriantumr, is described as “a large and a mighty man,” which comes close to Josephus’s description of Tubal-Cain in his Antiquities of the Jews—the great love of apocalyptic Masonry. See William Whiston, trans. and ed., Josephus Complete Works, foreword William Sanford LaSor (Grand 1737; reprint, Rapids, Mich.: Kregel, 1981), p. 27.

57. Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 294.

58. See William Ellery Channing, “Remarks on Association,” in The Works of William Ellery Channing (Boston, 1875), pp. 138–139.

60. For the clearest example of this type of argument made by Smith’s Masonic contemporaries, see Henry Brown, A Narrative of the Anti-Masonick Excitement, in the Western Part of the State of New York, during the Years 1826, ’7,’8, and a Part of 1829 (Batavia, N.Y., 1829). Also see A. P. Bentley, History of the Abduction of William Morgan, and the Anti-Masonic Excitement of 1826–1830 (Mount Pleasant, Iowa, 1874).

63. Elmer Cecil McGavin, Mormonism and Masonry (Salt Lake City: Stevens and Wallis, 1947), pp. 49–56. See Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, 2:209–211. Waite criticizes George Oliver, the English cleric and Christian Mason, for lacking discernment and for being influenced by what he calls “the conduits of Jacob Bryant, Faber, Higgins, Vallancey, and other makers of dreary Noachian myth … [that saw] Masonry everywhere as a firstborn of Holy Writ … the grand periods of which began with creation itself and reached their zenith at the building of King Solomon’s temple” (pp. 209–210). In this connection, also see D. W. Pike, Secret Societies: Their Origin, History and Ultimate Fate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1939), pp. 28–39.

4. AS THE WORDS OF A BOOK THAT IS SEALED: THE BOOK OF MORMON AS ESOTERIC MALE (HI)STORY

1. Mrs. T. B. H. Stenhouse, Tell It All: The Tyranny of Mormonism, intro. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1880; reprint, Fontwell, Sussex: Centaur, 1971), p. 224.

2. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 110.

3. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 124.

4. Scott Abbott, Fictions of Freemasonry: Freemasonry and the German Novel (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), p. 32.

5. James Anderson, Constitutions of the Free Masons, containing the History, Charges, Regulations etc. of the most Ancient and Right Worshipful Fraternity (London, 1723).

7. See Sten Flygt, The Notorious Dr. Bahrdt (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1963), p. 254.

8. The testimony of the eight witnesses in the 1830 edition also identifies Smith as the “Author and Proprietor of this work.”

9. Alexander Campbell, Delusions: An Analysis of the Book of Mormon; with an Examination of the Internal and External Evidences (Boston: Joshua V. Himes, 1832). “And as Joseph Smith is a very ignorant man and is called the author on the title page,” Campbell writes, “I cannot doubt for a single moment that he is the sole author and proprietor of it” (pp. 19–20).

10. Russell R. Rich, “The Dogberry Papers and the Book of Mormon,” Brigham Young University Studies 10 (spring 1970): 314–320.

11. Donald Harman Akenson, Surpassing Wonder: The Invention of the Bible and the Talmuds (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1998), p. 24.

12. Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1910; reprint, New York: Macmillan, 1961).

13. John Kenneth Kuntz, The People of Ancient Israel: An Introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), p. 49.

14. In this connection, see Raymond E. Brown, The Community of the Beloved Disciple: The Lives, Loves, and Hates of an Individual Church in New Testament Times (New York: Paulist, 1979).

15. Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition, 100–600, vol. 1 of The Christian Tradition: A History of Christian Doctrine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 18, 31.

16. Preface to Daniel Defoe, The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: Now First Correctly Reprinted From the Original Edition of 1719, With Introduction by William Lee Esq. (London: Fredrick Warne, 1869), i.

17. David S. Reynolds, Faith in Fiction: The Emergence of Religious Literature in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 123.

18. Bernard Wishy, The Child and the Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1968), pp. 50–76.

20. Allene Stuart Phy, “Retelling the Greatest Story Ever Told,” in The Bible and Popular Culture in America, ed. Allene Stuart Phy (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), pp. 43–44.

21. Orasmus Turner, “Origin of the Mormon Imposture,” Littel’s Living Age 30 (July–September 1851): 429–431.

22. Arthur E. Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 1:465.

1. Melodie Moench Charles, “Precedents for Mormon Women from Scriptures,” in Sisters in Spirit, ed. Maureen Ursenbach Beecher and Lavina Fielding Anderson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), p. 49.

2. Doctrine and Covenants, sect. 25. See Jill Mulvay Derr, Janath Russell Cannon, and Maureen Ursenbach Beecher, Women of Covenant: The Story of the Relief Society (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1992), p. 10.

4. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 278.

6. Carol Lynn Pearson, “Could Feminism Have Saved the Nephites?” (unpublished paper presented at the Sunstone Symposium, Salt Lake City, August 1993), p. 3.

7. Lynn Matthews Anderson, “The Book of Mormon as a Feminist Resource” (paper presented at the Sunstone Symposium, Salt Lake City, August 1993), p. 7.

9. Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 180.

10. [Abigail Stickney Lyon], Observations on Free Masonry; with a Masonic Vision, Addressed, by a Lady In Worcester, to Her Female Friend (Worcester, Mass., 1798), pp. 4–8.

11. Sally Sayward Barrell Wood, Julia and the Illuminated Baron … (Portsmouth, N.H., 1800), pp. viii–ix, 284. Also see David Brion Davis, “Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 (September 1960): 207.

12. Douglas Knoop and G. P. Jones, Early Masonic Pamphlets (Manchester, England, 1945), pp. 158–159.

13. Paul Goodman, Towards a Christian Republic: Antimasonry and the Great Transition in New England, 1826–1836 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 82.

14. Dorothy Ann Lipson, Freemasonry in Federalist Connecticut, 1789–1835 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), p. 330.

15. Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 60–104.

18. Rob Morris, “A Practical Synopsis of Masonic Law and Usage, Alphabetically Arranged for General Use,” addendum to Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), p. 276.

20. See Malcolm C. Duncun, Duncan’s Masonic Ritual and Monitor (Chicago: Ezra A. Cook, n.d.), p. 257.

21. Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947), p. 88.

23. Henry Leonard Stillson and William James Hughan, History of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons and Concordant Orders (New York: Fraternity, 1891), p. 858.

24. Mrs. T. B. H. Stenhouse, Tell It All: The Tyranny of Mormonism, intro. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1880; reprint, Fontwell, Sussex: Centaur, 1971), pp. 189–201.

25. Arthur E. Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 1:4.

1. Wesley P. Walters, “The Use of the Old Testament in the Book of Mormon” (M.T. thesis, Covenant Theological Seminary, 1981).

2. Jacob quotes Isaiah 49:22–23 verbatim (2 Nephi 6:6–7, p. 74), and Isaiah 49:23–52:2 (2 Nephi 6:15–8:25, pp. 75–78). He emphasizes restoration, focusing on the issue of the “righteous branch.”

3. The Book of Mormon Jesus quotes Isaiah 52:9–10, 7, 11–15; Micah 5:8–11; Isaiah 54:1–17; and Malachi 3, 4.

4. Aaron, Abel, Abraham, Adam, Aha, Ahaz, Aiath, Alpha, Amalekites, Aminadab, Ammah, Ammon, Ammonites, Amos, Amoz, Anathoth, Antipas, Arabian, Arpad, Assyria, Babylon, Bashan, Benjamin, Bethabara, Cain, Calno, Carchemish, Chaldeans, Chaldee, Christ, Cush, Damascus, David, Eden, Edom, Egypt, Elam, Elijah, Enos, Ephraim, Esrom, Ether, Eve, Gad, Galilee, Gallim, Geba, Gebim, Gibeah, Gentiles, Gideon, Gilead, Gilgal, Gomorrah, Hamath, Helam, Helem, Heth, Horeb, Immanuel, Isaac, Isaiah, Ishmael, Israel, Jacob, Jared, Jeberechiah, Jehovah, Jeremiah, Jerusalem, Jesse, Jesus, Jews, John, Jonas, Jordan, Joseph, Joshua, Jotham, Judea, Judah, Kish, Laban, Laish, Leah, Lebanon, Lehi, Lemuel, Levi, Lucifer, Madmenah, Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz, Malachi, Mary, Mammon, Medes, Melchizedek, Messiah, Michmash, Midian, Migron, Moab, Moses, Naphtali, Nazareth, Nimrah, Nimrod, Noah, Nob, Omega, Omer, Ophir, Oreb, Palestina, Pathros, Pekah, Pharaoh, Philistines, Raca, Rahab, Ramah, Ramath, Remaliah, Rezin, Salem, Samaria, Samuel, Sarah, Satan, Saul, Seth, Shearjashub, Shem, Shiloah, Shinar, Sidon, Sinim, Sodom, Solomon, Syria, Tabeal, Tarshish, Timothy, Uriah, Uzziah, Zebulon, Zechariah, Zedekiah, Zion.

5. John A. Tvedtnes, “A Phonemic Analysis of Nephite and Jaredite Proper Names,” TVE-₇₇ (Prove, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1977), p. 2.

6. Blake T. Ostler, “The Book of Mormon as a Modern Expansion of an Ancient Source,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 20 (spring 1987): 110.

7. John R. Krueger, An Analysis of the Names of Mormonism (Bloomingdale, Ind.: Selbstverlag, 1979), p. 18.

8. Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), p. 73.

9. See my discussion in “The Roots of Early Mormonism: An Exegetical Inquiry” (M.A. thesis, University of Calgary, April 1990), pp. 49–92.

10. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), p. 28.

11. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 50.

12. The seed referred to in Genesis 7:3 is not vegetable but animal, from the Hebrew zera‘, which means “offspring.” See Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon, 1978), p. 282.

13. Albert G. Mackey, A Lexicon of Freemasonry (London: Griffin, 1873), p. 18.

14. Arthur E. Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 1:62, 189.

18. Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:714.

20. Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 315. See Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor, pp. 124–126.

21. Alexander Slade, The Freemason Examin’d (London: P. Griffiths, n.d.), p. 12.

22. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 553–554.

25. The Rev. George Oliver published seventeen books of his own, editing three others. His pre-1830 publications consist of The Antiquities of Freemasonry, comprising illustrations of the five Grand Periods of Masonry, from the Creation of the World to the Dedication of King Solomon’s Temple (1823) and The Star in the East (London, 1823). For a full bibliography, see Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, 2:210–211.

1. Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:1029.

2. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 8.

4. See Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon, 1978), pp. 526–527.

5. Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947), p. 797.

7. Rob Morris, “A Practical Synopsis of Masonic Law and Usage, Alphabetically Arranged for General Use,” addendum to Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), p. 276.

8. John L. Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire: The Making of Mormon Cosmology, 1644–1844 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 158.

9. Ritual described in Arkon Daraul, Secret Societies (London: Muller, 1961), p. 133.

10. Albert G. Mackey, A Lexicon of Freemasonry (London: Griffin, 1873), p. 56.

11. Thomas Sargant, The Royal Arch Companion: A Manual of Royal Arch Masonry (Toronto: Masonic, n.d.), p. 103.

14. Alexander Slade, The Freemason Examin’d (London: P. Griffiths, n.d.), pp. 9, 11, 13.

16. Henry Leonard Stillson and William James Hughan, History of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons and Concordant Orders (New York: Fraternity, 1891), p. 736.

20. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), pp. 173–174.

21. See William Whiston, trans. and ed., Josephus’ Complete Works (1737), foreword William Sanford LaSor (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Kregel, 1981), p. 237.

25. George Oliver, The Book of the Lodge 3d ed. (1864; reprint, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire: Aquarian, 1986), p. 48 n. 7.

28. Though I once thought so. In this connection, see my “King-men or Free-men? The Book of Mormon and the Dilemma of Canadian Mormonism,” The Third Eye: The Canadian Journal of Mormon Studies 1 (1996): 114–145.

38. Gentlemen belonging to the Jerusalem Lodge, Jachin and Boaz; or an Authentic Key to the Door of Freemasonry, both Ancient and Modern (London, England, 1762; reprint, Boston: Gilbert and Dean, 1803), p. 35.

1. Robert N. Hullinger, Joseph Smith’s Response to Skepticism (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1992), p. xv.

2. In this connection, see Douglas Smith, Working the Rough Stone: Freemasonry and Society in Eighteenth-Century Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1999), pp. 29, 134, 151–153, 163–164.

3. Albert G. Mackey, A Lexicon of Freemasonry (London: Griffin, 1873), p. 271.

4. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 508.

6. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), pp. 191–192.

7. Anon., United Orders of the Temple and Malta: Rituals of the Sovereign Great Priory…. 1878 (n.p., 1878), p. 61.

11. In this connection, see Joseph Bates Noble, “Reminiscences,” 1836 (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City); Rebecca Swain Williams, “Letter, June 1834, Kirtland Mills [Ohio] to Isaac Swain, Youngstown [sic] New York” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City); Lewis Barney, “Reminiscences,” 1888 (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City), p. 2; and Charles W. Wandell, “Open letter of Charles W. Wandell to the President of the United States” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City).

12. Clyde R. Forsberg Jr., “In Search of the Historical Nephi: The Book of Mormon, ‘Evangelicalisms’ and Antebellum American Popular Culture, c. 1830” (Ph.D. diss., Queen’s University, 1994).

13. Philip L. Barlow, Mormons and the Bible: The Place of the Latter-day Saints in American Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 44.

14. Gordon D. Pollock, “In Search of Security: The Mormons and the Kingdom of God on Earth” (Ph.D. diss., Queen’s University, 1977), pp. 268 ff.

15. Jan Shipps, Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. x.

16. Jan Shipps and John W. Welch, eds., The Journals of William E. McLellin, 1831–1836 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995).

17. Gordon Pollock, “Me, You, Mark Hofmann and William E. McLellin,” Canadian Mormon Studies Newsletter 1 (autumn 1995): 3–4.

18. David W. R. Plaxton, “Emergence of an Ethos? Revivalisms and Evangelicalisms in the Northern United States, 1800–1860” (M.A. thesis, Queen’s University, 1992). Also see Newell G. Bringhurst, “Joseph Smith, the Mormons, and Antebellum Reform—A Closer Look” (paper presented at the John Whitmer Historical Association Annual Meeting, Independence, Mo., 1993).

19. Richard Carwardine, Trans-Atlantic Revivalism (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1978).

20. B. Carmon Hardy, Solemn Covenant: The Mormon Polygamous Passage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 84–126.

21. See Ezekiel 37:17, which Mormons interpret as a prophecy of the coming forth of the Book of Mormon. In this connection, see LeGrand Richards, A Marvelous Work and a Wonder (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1975), pp. 66–68.

22. Brigham Young, The Discourses of Brigham Young, ed. John A. Widstoe (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1977), pp. 126–127.

23. Richard T. Hughes, ed., The American Quest for the Primitive Church (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

24. See Richard L. Bushman, “The Book of Mormon in Early Mormon History,” in New Views of Mormon History: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Arrington, ed. Davis Bitton and Maureen Ursenbach Beecher (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1987), pp. 3–18.

1. In this connection, see Charles G. Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Paul E. Johnson and Sean Wilentz, The Kingdom of Matthias: A Story of Sex and Salvation in 19th Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

2. Timothy Dwight, Theology; Explained and Defended, in a Series of Sermons, with a Memoir of the Life of the Author (Middletown, Conn.: Clark and Lyman, 1818–1819), sermon 8, 1:138.

3. Nathaniel W. Taylor, Practical Sermons (New York: Clark, Austin, and Smith, 1858), p. 406.

5. William Ellery Channing, The Works of William E. Channing, D.D. (Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1903), p. 380.

6. Lyman Beecher, “Lyman Beecher to N. S. S. Beeman, January 1827,” in Letters of the Rev. Dr. Beecher and Rev. Mr. Nettleton on the “New Measures” in Conducting Revivals of Religion (New York, 1828), p. 98 ff.

7. See Albert Baldwin Dodd’s attacks, published under the titles “Finney’s Sermons” and “Finney’s Lectures” in Biblical Repertory and Theological Review 7 (July 1835): 482–527; (October 1835): 626–674.

8. For a concise summary of Finney’s life and works, see William G. McLoughlin’s introduction in Charles Grandison Finney, Lectures on Revivals of Religion, ed. William G. McLoughlin (1835; reprint, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), pp. vii–lii.

10. Sect. 2:1–12, in The Pearl of Great Price, addendum to Doctrine and Covenants.

11. Alexander Campbell, The Christian System, ed. Edwin S. Gaustad (New York: Arno, 1969), pp. 3–5.

12. Robert C. Whittemore, The Transformation of the New England Theology (New York: Peter Lang, 1987), pp. 241–288.

14. Charles Grandison Finney, Lectures on Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdman’s, 1953), pp. 209–210.

15. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 65.

16. For a firsthand account of Sidney Rigdon’s association and quarrel with Alexander Campbell and subsequent conversion to Mormonism, see Hans Rollman, “The Early Baptist Career of Sidney Rigdon in Warren, Ohio,” Brigham Young University Studies 21 (winter 1981): 37–50.

17. Cited in Dale R. Stoffer, “Background and Development of Brethren Doctrines,” in Brethren Encyclopedia (Elgin, Ill.: Brethren, 1989), p. 109.

18. I discuss these parallels at length in “The Roots of Early Mormonism: An Exegetical Inquiry” (M.A. thesis, University of Calgary, April 1990), pp. 238–241.

20. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion. 7th American ed. (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Christian Education, 1936), chap. 4, par. 16.

21. Cited in Ernest Cassara, Universalism in America: A Documentary History (Boston: Beacon, 1971), pp. 53–54.

22. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor; or Illustrations of Masonry (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), pp. 124–125.

23. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 46.

24. Arthur E. Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 2:331.

25. Henry Leonard Stillson and William James Hughan, History of the Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons and Concordant Orders (New York: Fraternity, 1891), pp. 145–146.

27. George Oliver, The Book of the Lodge, 3d ed. (1864; reprint, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire: Aquarian, 1986), p. 176.

30. Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947), p. 92.

31. Klaus J. Hansen, Quest for Empire: The Political Kingdom of God and the Council of the Fifty (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1967).

1. For a discussion of the antithetical relationship between Universalism and Evangelicalism, see Curtis D. Johnson, Islands of Holiness: Rural Religion in Upstate New York, 1790–1860 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 21, 68, 97–100, 170n, 171n.

2. Grant Underwood, “‘Saved and Damned’: Tracing a Persistent Protestantism in Early Mormon Thought,” Brigham Young University Studies 25 (summer 1985): 85–103.

3. Dan Vogel, “Anti-Universalist Rhetoric in the Book of Mormon,” in New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology, ed. Brent T. Metcalfe (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1992), pp. 21–52.

4. Sarah Studevant Leavitt, “History of Sarah Studevant Leavitt from her Journal, 1799–1847” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City), p. 1.

5. Milo Andrus, “Journal of Milo Andrus, 1814–1893” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City).

6. Oren Jefferds, “Reminiscences and diary, 1856–1864” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City).

7. James Allen Browning, “Autobiography, ca. 1851–1883” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City).

9. Thomas Steed, “The Life of Thomas Steed, from his own diary, 1826–1910” (Utah State University Library, Logan).

10. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: The Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 78.

11. In Smith’s more mature cosmology, three postmortem apportionments are listed, not counting perdition (the everlasting hell of orthodox Christianity reserved exclusively for the devil and his angels): the telestial world (the habitation of incorrigible sinners), the terrestrial world (the habitation of those who die without law, honorable souls blinded by the craftiness of men), and finally the celestial world (the abode of baptized saints who come forth in the first resurrection). In the Book of Mormon, there are not three worlds as such but three mental states: the limbo of innocent children and heathen, the purgatory of the sometimes disobedient, and the psychological paradise of the righteous. The wicked get a taste of hell, banished to outer darkness to live under the spell of the eternally disembodied until the resurrection. They are temporary devils. Alma explains: “And then shall it come to pass that the spirits of the wicked, yea, which are evil; for behold, they have no part nor portion of the spirit of the Lord; for behold they choose evil works, rather than good; therefore the spirit of the Devil did enter into them, and take possession of their house; and these shall be cast out into outer darkness” (pp. 334–335; emphasis added).

The “spirits of the wicked” and those who are “evil” are not the same. The latter “have no portion of the spirit of the Lord,” and their mental anguish is simply “because of their own iniquity.” Section 76 of Doctrine and Covenants assigns the former a “telestial” world whose glory is comparable to the stars, the latter a terrestrial world whose glory is comparable to the moon, in stark contrast to the celestial world, the abode of the righteous and whose glory is comparable to the sun. Postmillennial apportionments are clearly final. Moreover, those who die without law, the spirits kept in prison whom Jesus visited, the sometimes disobedient, are, alas, cut off from the Father.

12. An addendum to Doctrine and Covenants, sect. 137, canonized in 1976 together with a similar revelation ascribed to Joseph F. Smith, dated 1918 and now section 138.

13. Vogel has distorted the Book of Mormon discussion by suggesting that hell is always referred to “as ‘unquenchable fire’ and ‘a lake of fire and brimstone’ (Jacob 6:10; 2 Ne. 28:23;9:16; Mosiah 2:38; 3:27; 26:27; Alma 5:52; Moro. 9:5)” (“Anti-Universalist Rhetoric,” p. 45).

15. John L. Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire: The Making of Mormon Cosmology, 1644–1844 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 95–99.

16. Arthur E. Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 1:92, 385; 2:146.

17. In this connection, see J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978), p. 474.

18. Cited in D. P. Walker, The Decline of Hell (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964), p. 21.

19. Westminster Confession of Faith (1690; reprint, Lochcarron Ross-shire, Scotland: Publications Committee of the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, 1976), pp. 123–126.

21. Dolphus Skinner, A Discussion of the Doctrines of Endless Misery and Universal Salvation in an Epistolary Correspondence Between Alexander Campbell and Dolphus Skinner (Utica, 1840).

22. Grant Underwood, “The Millenarian World of Mormonism” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1988), p. 293.

23. In this connection, see Blake T. Ostler, “The Idea of Pre-Existence in the Development of Mormon Thought,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 15 (spring 1982): 59 ff.

24. See John Locke, The Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures, in Works, 12th ed. (London, 1824), 6:4–10; and William Whiston, The Eternity of Hell Torments Considered; or, A Collection of texts and Scripture, and Testimonies of the first three Centuries, relating to them (London, 1740).

25. Jeremiah White, The Restoration of All Things; or, A Vindication of the Goodness and Grace of God, To be Manifested at last in the RECOVERY of his Whole creation out of their FALL (London, 1712).

27. Peter Sterry, unpublished manuscript in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, p. 115.

30. See, for example, Marvin S. Hill, “Quest for Refuge: An Hypothesis as to the Social Origins and Nature of the Mormon Political Kingdom,” Journal of Mormon History 2 (1975): 3–20.

31. Emanuel Swedenborg, The True Christian Religion (1771; reprint, London: Swedenborg Society, 1921), p. 540.

34. Mark Thomas, “Revivalist Language in the Book of Mormon,” Sunstone 8 (May–June 1983): 19–25.

35. Alan P. F. Sell, The Great Debate: Calvinism, Arminianism and Salvation (Worcester, England: Billing, 1982), p. 114.

38. Hosea Ballou, Nine Sermons (Philadelphia: Abel C. Thomas, 1835), pp. 107–108.

40. See Confession 1.9 and Apologia 4.51, cited in Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (London: Nelson, 1883), 3:604.

1. Sterling B. McMurrin, The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1965), pp. 2–3.

3. B. H. Roberts, Mormon Doctrine of Deity (Salt Lake City: Zion Book Store, 1903).

4. See Blake T. Ostler, “The Mormon Concept of God,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 17 (summer 1984): 65–93.

5. Paul Goodman, Towards a Christian Republic: Antimasonry and the Great Transition in New England, 1826–1836 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 92–93.

6. Mark Thomas, “Listening to a Voice from the Dust: An Introduction to the Book of Mormon” (unpublished paper given to author).

7. In this connection, see the Mormon response to the anti-Mormon film The Godmakers in Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 18 (summer 1985): 14–39, which presents essays by Randall L. Mackey and others under the heading “The Godmakers Examined.”

8. O. Kendall White, Mormon Neo-Orthodoxy: A Crisis Theology (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1987), p. xix.

9. Thomas G. Alexander, “The Reconstruction of Mormon Doctrine: From Joseph Smith to Progressive Theology,” Sunstone 5 (July–August 1980), 24–33; Edgar T. Lyon, “Doctrinal Development of the Church During the Nauvoo Sojourn,” Brigham Young University Studies 15 (summer 1975): 435–446.

10. Jan Shipps, Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985).

11. Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe, Understanding Cults and New Religions (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdman’s, 1986), p. 56.

12. Melodie Moench Charles, “Book of Mormon Christology,” in New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology, ed. Brent T. Metcalfe (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1993), p. 103

13. See Jerald Tanner and Sandra Tanner, Mormonism: Shadow or Reality? (Salt Lake City: Utah Lighthouse Ministry, 1987), pp. 163–172b.

14. See Dan Vogel, Religious Seekers and the Advent of Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1988), p. 177 n. 48; idem, “The Earliest Mormon Concept of God,” in Line Upon Line, ed. Gary James Bergera (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1989), pp. 17–33.

15. Clyde R. Forsberg Jr., “The Roots of Early Mormonism: An Exegetical Inquiry” (M.A. thesis, University of Calgary, April 1990), pp. 204–205.

16. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 160.

17. See Harold O. J. Brown, Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1984), pp. 328–331.

18. Michael Servetus, The Two Treatises of Servetus on the Trinity: On the Errors of the Trinity, ed. Earl Morse (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1932), p. 200.

19. Brigham Young, “Self-Government…,” Journal of Discourses 1 (April 1852): 50.

22. George B. Arbaugh, Revelation in Mormonism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932).

23. Harold Bloom, The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), pp. 96–128.

24. George Oliver, The Book of the Lodge 3d ed. (1864; reprint, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire: Aquarian, 1986), p. 32.

25. Linda P. Wilcox, “The Mormon Concept of a Mother in Heaven,” in Sisters in Spirit: Mormon Women in Historical and Cultural Perspective, ed. Maureen Ursenbach Beecher and Lavina Fielding Anderson, foreword Jan Shipps (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 64.

26. Blake T. Ostler, “The Idea of Pre-Existence in the Development of Mormon Thought,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 15 (spring 1982): 59–60. See T. Edgar Lyon, “Doctrinal Development of the Church During the Nauvoo Sojourn,” Brigham Young University Studies 15 (summer 1975): 437–439; and Marvin S. Hill, “The Shaping of the Mormon Mind in New England and New York,” Brigham Young University Studies 9 (spring 1969): 351–372.

27. Doctrine and Covenants, sects. 42:61; 59:4. Cf. Joseph Smith Jr., The Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, ed. Joseph Fielding Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1977), p. 61.

28. Van Hale, “The Doctrinal Impact of the King Follett Discourse,” Brigham Young University Studies 18 (winter 1978): 209–232. See Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith the Mormon Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1986), p. 366. Brodie also argues that the King Follett Discourse was the first unified discourse of themes that had appeared in fragments until then.

29. Robert Paul, “Joseph Smith and the Plurality of Worlds Idea,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 19 (summer 1986): 29. See Van Hale, “Mormons and Moonmen,” Sunstone 7 (September–October 1982): 12–17; and James B. Allen, “But Dick Tracy Landed on the Moon,” Sunstone 7 (September–October 1982): 18–19.

30. Thomas Chalmers’s A Series of Discourses on the Christian Revelation Viewed in Connection with the Modern Astronomy (1817) was by far the most influential Christian work to espouse astronomical pluralism. In America, none other than Timothy Dwight, the president of Yale, disseminated astronomical pluralism in his famous 1818 treatise Theology; Explained and Defended. Thomas Dick’s 1828 work The Philosophy of a Future State was also extremely influential in this regard. However, the idea of a plurality of gods was never thought to follow from the idea of a plurality of worlds. For more on this, see Michael J. Crowe, The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750–1900: The Idea of the Plurality of Worlds from Kant to Lowell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

31. I discuss the impact of Thomas Paine’s Age of Reason in “The Roots of Early Mormonism,” pp. 256–294.

32. J. Frederick Voros Jr., “Was the Book of Mormon Buried with King Follett?” Sunstone 11 (March 1987): 17.

33. Plotinus, “The Fifth Ennead,” in Great Western Books of the Western World (1952; reprint, Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1984), pp. 17, 208–251.

34. J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978), pp. 126–132. 274 11. Father-Son and Holy Ghost–Mother? The Mormon-God Question

35. Douglas Elwood, The Philosophical Theology of Jonathan Edwards (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), p. 6.

36. Cited in Robert C. Whittemore, The Transformation of the New England Theology (New York: Peter Lang, 1987), p. 58.

37. An extract from the Book of Moses appears in The Pearl of Great Price, addendum to Doctrine and Covenants. See Joseph Smith Jr., Inspired Version: The Holy Scriptures Containing the Old and New Testaments; An Inspired Revision of the Authorized Version. Independence, Mo.: Herald, 1944), pp. 1–28.

38. This was a commonplace notion in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Christian thought. Its origins can be traced to Bernard Le Bouvier de Fontanelle’s seventeenth-century work On the Plurality of Worlds. The Book of Moses is reminiscent of William Whiston’s 1755 treatise Theory of the Earth, which says that Moses was aware of God’s other creations. For more on this, see Herbert Leventhal, In the Shadow of the Enlightenment (New York: New York University Press, 1976), pp. 243–245. See also Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being (New York: Harper and Row, 1960), chap. 4.

39. See John Hick, Evil and Suffering and the God of Love (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978), pp. 37–89, 169–200.

41. Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947), p. 525.

42. Westminster Confession of Faith (1690; reprint, Lochcarron Ross-shire, Scotland: Publications Committee of the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, 1976), p. 27.

44. This is taken from p. 211 of the edition of Doctrine and Covenants published by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1835. This is now section 93:32–34 of the 1977 edition.

45. Andrew F. Ehat and Lyndon Cook, eds., The Words of Joseph Smith, BYU Religious Studies Monograph (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1980), p. 60.

47. These works can be found in Orson Pratt, Writings of an Apostle: Orson Pratt (Salt Lake City: Mormon Heritage, 1976).

49. Boyd Kirkland, “Elohim and Jehovah in Mormonism and the Bible,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 19 (spring 1986): 77.

51. Leland H. Gentry, “What of the Lectures on Faith?” Brigham Young University

53. Gentry, “What of the Lectures on Faith,” pp. 18–19. For more on the Lectures on Faith, see Joseph Smith Jr., History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1964), 2:176, 180. The committee that decided to remove the Lectures on Faith from the Mormon canon included Joseph Fielding Smith, John A. Widstoe, and James E. Talmage. Joseph Fielding defended the committee’s decision to remove the lectures, emphasizing that it was not because “they contained false doctrine” but because they were “not now considered, and were not considered when they were placed in the Doctrine and Covenants, on a par with the revelations.” See Joseph Fielding Smith, Doctrines of Salvation (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1977), 2:303–304; see also 3:194.

54. This is usually said to refer to creation, but it may refer to God. The modern version interpolates a semicolon that was not part of the early version.

55. N. B. Lundwall, A Compilation Containing the Lectures on Faith … (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, n.d.), p. 13, 35, 36, 43.

It is scarcely necessary here to observe what we have previously noticed, that the glory which the Father and the Son have is because they are just and holy beings; and that if they were lacking in one attribute or perfection which they have, the glory which they have never could be enjoyed by them, for it requires them to be precisely what they are in order to enjoy it; and if the Savior gives this glory to any others, he must do it in the very way set forth in his prayer to his Father—by making them one with him as he and the Father are one.

(p. 66)

Cf. Robert I. Clegg, Mackey’s Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 2:1068, which states: “The famous secret of the mysteries was the unity of God.”

57. Cotton Mather’s discussion of the Trinity in his essay entitled “Of Man,” reprinted in The Christian Philosopher, ed., intro., and ann. Winton U. Solberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), pp. 236–318, is a case in point.

61. Louis C. Zucker, “Joseph Smith as a Student of Hebrew,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 3 (summer 1968): 41–55.

62. Donald Q. Cannon, “The King Follett Discourse: Joseph Smith’s Greatest Sermon in Historical Perspective,” Brigham Young University Studies 18 (winter 1978): 179–192.

64. Smith, The Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, p. 181; see also p. 312.

66. John L. Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire: The Making of Mormon Cosmology, 1644–1844 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 7, 10–12, 15, 23–24, 27–28, 70, 72, 92, 94, 101, 107, 112, 128, 205–207, 215, 274, 278.

67. Alan Sell, Theology in Turmoil (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1986), p. 18.

68. This is G. P. Fisher’s assessment in A History of Christian Doctrine (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1949), p. 510.

70. The materialist strain in Mormonism is discussed by Sterling B. McMurrin in his Philosophical Foundations of Mormon Theology (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1959), pp. 17–18, 20.

71. Note what Smith says in this connection: “God himself was once as we are now, and is an exalted Man and sits enthroned in yonder heavens…. I say, if you were to see him to-day, you would see him like a man in form—like yourselves, in all the person, image, and very form as man; for Adam was created in the very fashion, image, and likeness of God.” Smith goes on to say that “we have imagined and supposed that God was God from all eternity. I want to refute that idea…. God himself the Father of us all, dwelt on an earth the same as Jesus Christ himself did…. The Scriptures informs us that Jesus said, ‘As the Father hath power in himself, even so hath the Son power’—to do what? Why, what the Father did. The answer is obvious—in a manner, to lay down his body and take it up again” (“Character and Being of God…,” Journal of Discourses 6 [1859]: 3). See Stan Larson, “The King Follett Discourse: A Newly Amalgamated Text,” Brigham Young University Studies 18 (winter 1978): 193–208.

73. Smith, The Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, p. 371. Smith goes on to defend this by referring to his plural translation of the Hebrew word for God.

Some say I do not interpret the Scripture the same as they do. They say it means the heathen gods. Paul says there are Gods many and Lords many; and that makes a plurality of Gods…. You know and I testify that Paul had no allusion to the heathen gods in the text. I will show from the Hebrew Bible that I am correct, and the first word shows a plurality of Gods…. It read first, “In the beginning the head of the Gods brought forth the Gods.” … In the very beginning the Bible shows there is a plurality of Gods beyond the power of refutation…. The word Eloheim ought to be in the plural all the way through—Gods. The heads of the Gods appointed one God for us.

(pp. 371–372)

74. The fact that Smith believes the Bible teaches this doctrine is extremely important. Note what he says in this regard:

I will preach on the plurality of Gods. I have selected this text [Revelation 1:6] for that express purpose. I wish to declare that I have always and in all congregations when I preached on the subject of the Deity, it has been the plurality of Gods…. I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods…. Our text says, “And hath made us kings and priests unto God and His Father.” The Apostles have discovered that there were Gods above, for John says God was the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. My object was to preach the scriptures, and preach the doctrine they contain, there being a God above, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ…. John was one of the men, and apostles declare they were made kings and priests unto God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. It reads just so in the Revelation, [sic] Hence the doctrine of a plurality of Gods is as prominent in the Bible as any other doctrine.

(ibid., p. 370)

77. See Gary Bergera, “The Orson Pratt–Brigham Young Controversies,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 13 (summer 1980): 7–49. See also Brigham Young, “Salvation,” Journal of Discourses 1 (January 1853): 1–6; “Perfection and Salvation,” Journal of Discourses 2 (December 1853): 135; “To Know God…,” Journal of Discourses 4 (February 1857): 216; “Truth…,” Journal of Discourses 6 (November 1857): 31; “Intelligence, Etc.,” Journal of Discourses 7 (October 1859): 285; “Source of Intelligence…,” Journal of Discourses 8 (October 1860): 205; “Eternal Existence…,” Journal of Discourses 10 (September 1862): 5. Young, it appears, had no regard for the unity of God in his conceptions of God, whereas Pratt did. Pratt maintained that human souls were contingent, dependent on God for existence, whereas Young vacillated. Also see Boyd Kirkland, “Of Gods, Mortals, and Devils: Eternal Progression and the Second Death in the Theology of Brigham Young,” Sunstone 10 (December 1985): 6–12.

1. Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition, vol. 1 of The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 123–132.

2. In this connection, see R. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, vol. 2 (New York: Scribner’s, 1955); and idem, History and Eschatology (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1957).

3. Coming at the end of the New Testament, the Book of Revelation predates the Gospel of John.

4. Tertullian, Apology 39.2, cited in Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition, p. 131.

6. Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1910; reprint, New York: Macmillan, 1961).

7. See Grant Underwood, The Millenarian World of Early Mormonism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 11–23. On the Millerites, see LeRoy Edwin Froom, The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers, 4 vols. (Washington: Review and Herald, 1950).

8. In this connection, see J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978), pp. 464–489.

10. Ruth H. Bloch, Visionary Republic: Millennial Themes in American Thought, 1756–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 131–132.

11. See Michael P. Baxter, The Coming Battle (London, 1860); and idem, Louis Napoleon, the Destined Monarch of the World and Personal Anti-Christ (Philadelphia, 1866). Baxter combined elements of historicism with a secret rapture. The same eclectic temperament is evident in the first publication of the Prophetic Times. See Ernest Sandeen, The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 95–97.

12. In this connection, see Leonard I. Sweet, “Millennialism in America: Recent Studies,” Theological Studies 40 (1979), 510–531; Hillel Swartz, “The End of the Beginning: Millenarianism Studies, 1969–1975,” Religious Studies Review 2 (1976): 1–15. See also Anthony F. C. Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” American Anthropologists 58 (1956), 264–281; Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound (London: McGibbon and Kee, 1957); Vittorio Lanternari, Religions of the Oppressed (New York: Knopf, 1963); Eric Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (New York: Norton, 1965); Sylvia Thrupp, ed., Millennial Dreams in Action: Essays in Comparative History (New York: Schocken, 1970); Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); and Guenter Lewry, Religion and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). These are among the better-known deprivation theories.

14. Herman Husband, Continuation of the Impartial Relations of the First Rise and the Cause of the Recent Differences in Publick Affairs (New Bern, N.C., 1770); idem, The Continental Almanac, for the Year of Our Lord, 1780 (Philadelphia, 1779). See also Mark H. Jones, “Herman Husband: Millenarian, Carolina Regulator, and Whiskey Rebel” (Ph.D. diss., Northern Illinois University, 1982).

15. Christopher Love, Prophecies of the Reverend Christopher Love (Boston, 1793).

16. Whitby’s influence cannot be overstated. See Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1968), pp. 39–41, 138–139. Whitby maintained that the first resurrection was spiritual not physical. He also renounced the doctrine of Christ’s personal reign on earth during the millennium, arguing instead that God’s plan of salvation was accomplished by “social progress.”

17. George Stanley Faber, William Cuninghame, James Hartley Frere, Joseph Frey, and Joseph Wolff are some of the names associated with this trend (ibid, pp. 8–12). See Faber’s Dissertations on the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse (London, 1813) and Effusion of the Fifth Apocalyptic Vial (London, 1815); and Wolff’s Missionary Journal and Memoir (London, 1827) and Travels and Adventures of the Rev. Joseph Wolff (London, 1861). Some of the odd beliefs associated with British and American premillennialism include the whereabouts of the lost ten tribes and the alleged Hebraic origin of the American Indians. For a good discussion of the Mormon contribution in this regard, see Dan Vogel, Indian Origins and the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1986).

19. Like many budding premillennialists at the time, Irving prayed for the return of the apostolic gifts of healing and speaking in tongues. The charismatic eccentricities of his London congregation shocked the general public, however, and Irving was disgraced as a consequence. He died shortly thereafter while on a preaching tour in Scotland in 1834.

20. Darby was certainly not the only Protestant theologian at the time to challenge Historicism—or “the Protestant interpretation,” as it was called. Samuel R. Maitland’s 1826 work entitled Enquiry into the Grounds on Which the Prophetic Period of Daniel and St. John Has Been Supposed to Consist of 1260 Years (London) was equally critical of Historicism. Moreover, Lacunza’s treatise proffered a futurist interpretation of prophecy. As for Darby’s secret, pretribulation rapture, there is some disagreement as to its true origin. Samuel Tregelles, another member of the Plymouth Brethren, alleged that it was the fruit of Irving’s charismatic meetings, whereas another theory is that Darby stole it from a Scottish charismatic by the name of Margaret Macdonald. For more on the Macdonald-Darby connection, see David McPherson, The Incredible Cover-Up: The True Story of the Pre-Trib Rapture (Plainsfield: Logos International, 1975).

23. Leonard Arrington and Davis Bitton, The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints (New York: Vintage, 1979), p. 36; Stephen J. Stein, “Signs of the Times: The Theological Foundations of Early Mormon Apocalyptic,” Sunstone 8 (January–April 1983): 60; Grant Underwood, “Seminal Versus Sesquicentennial Saints: A Look At Mormon Millennialism,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 14 (spring 1981): 39; and idem, “Millenarianism and the Early Mormon Mind,” Journal of Mormon History 9 (1982), 41–51.

24. For a good overview of the Millerites, see Eric Anderson, “The Millerite Use of Prophecy,” in The Disappointed, ed. Ronald L. Numbers and Jonathan M. Butler (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 78–91. Of course, volume 4 of Froom’s massive work The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers is a more comprehensive treatment, albeit Adventist apologetic.

25. Doctrine and Covenants, sects. 27:6, 8; 33:18; 34:7, 12; 35:15, 27; 38:8; 39:24: 41:4; 86:10; 109:73.

26. Cited in Dan Vogel, Religious Seekers and the Advent of Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1988), p. 188.

27. Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1984), pp. 273–274.

28. Changes were made to the 1829 revelation in Smith’s Book of Commandments 4:6, later published as Doctrine and Covenants, sect. 5:19. In the former, the apocalyptic warnings are addressed to “this generation”; this does not appear in the latter.

29. See Stephen C. LeSueur’s excellent The 1838 Mormon War in Missouri (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1987).

30. Joseph Smith Jr., History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1964), 2:182.

32. Smith, History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 6:254; see 5:336. Many first-generation Mormons believed that Jesus would appear no later than 1890 or 1891. See Oliver B. Huntington’s calculation for the end time in his journal (Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University), 2:129.

33. Klaus J. Hansen, Quest for Empire: The Political Kingdom of God and the Council of the Fifty (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1967), passim.

35. Richard T. Hughes, “Two Restoration Traditions: Mormons and Churches of Christ in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Mormon History 19 (spring 1993): 50.

36. David Smith, “Millenarian Scholarship in America,” American Quarterly 17 (fall 1965): 542.

37. Timothy Smith, “The Book of Mormon in a Biblical Culture,” Journal of Mormon History 7 (1980): 17–18.

38. Keith E. Norman, “How Long O Lord? The Delay of the Parousia in Mormonism,” Sunstone 8 (January 1983): 59–65. Also see Louis G. Reinwand, “An Interpretative Study of Mormon Millennialism During the Nineteenth Century in Utah” (M.A. thesis, Brigham Young University, 1971).

39. Grant Underwood, “The Millenarian World of Mormonism” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1988), pp. 392–393.

40. Grant Underwood, “Early Mormon Perceptions of Contemporary America, 1830–1846,” Brigham Young University Studies 26 (summer 1986): 58.

43. Clyde R. Forsberg Jr., “In Search of the Historical Nephi: The Book of Mormon, ‘Evangelicalisms’ and Antebellum American Popular Culture, c. 1830” (Ph.D. diss., Queen’s University, 1994), pp. 309–353.

46. Ethan Smith, A Key to the Figurative Language Found in the Sacred Scriptures (Exeter, N.H.: C. Norris, 1814).

48. Arthur E. Waite, A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (New York: University, 1970), 1:441–458.

49. Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871; reprint, Richmond, Va.: L. H. Jenkins, 1947), p. 321.

1. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 34.

2. Heber C. Kimball, “Spiritual Dissolution—Ignorance of the World,” Journal of Discourses 5 (September 1857): 275–276; Orson Pratt, “Discourse by Elder Orson Pratt,” Journal of Discourses 14 (March 1872): 343–356; Brigham Young, “Remarks by President Brigham Young,” Journal of Discourses 16 (May 1873): 71–77; Wilford Woodruff, “The Faculties Afforded by the Handcarts for the Gathering of Israel,” Journal of Discourses 4 (October 1856): 94–100; idem, “Discourse by Elder Wilford Woodruff,” Journal of Discourses 16 (October 1873): 263–272; and Erastus Snow, “Discourse of Elder Erastus Snow: Ancient Prophecy, Relating to the Time of the Restitution of All Things, to be Fulfilled,” Journal of Discourses 16 (September 1873): 200–208.

3. Joseph Smith Jr., The Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, ed. Joseph Fielding Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1977), pp. 14–15; emphasis added. Smith’s futurist interpretation of Isaiah 11:11 recalls that in 2 Nephi 6:14; 25:11–19; 29:1–2; and Jacob 6:2. See also Doctrine and Covenants, sects. 35:25; 38:33; 45:17; 84:23–24,99–102; 101:12; 110; 113:8; 133; and Moses 7:60–69 in The Pearl of Great Price (addendum to Doctrine and Covenants).

5. See Timothy Weber, In the Shadow of the Second Coming (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 177–203.

6. Herman A. Hoyt, “Dispensational Premillennialism,” in The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views, ed. Robert C. Clouse (Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity, 1977), p. 72.

7. 3 Nephi 20:10, 12, 22; 21:14, 22–25; and Doctrine and Covenants, sect. 45:66. Note that a Jewish state is part and parcel of the millennial kingdom according to Joseph Fielding Smith: “Palestine is to be the gathering place of the tribe of Judah and ‘the children of Israel his companions,’ after their long dispersion as predicted by the prophets. America is the land of Zion…. In each land a holy city shall be built which shall be the capital from whence the law and word of the Lord shall go forth to all peoples” (Doctrines of Salvation [Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1977], 3:67–68).

8. Orson Pratt, The New Jerusalem; or, The Fulfilment of Ancient Prophecy (Liverpool, 1849), p. 4.

10. Stephen Epperson, Mormons and Jews: Early Mormon Theologies of Israel (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1992), p. viii.

11. Brigham Young, “Spiritual Gifts…,” Journal of Discourses 2 (December 1854): 142–143.

12. Orson Pratt, “Discourse by Elder Orson Pratt,” Journal of Discourses 15 (September 1872): 190.

13. See Grant Underwood, The Millenarian World of Early Mormonism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 133; and Melodie Moench Charles, “Nineteenth-Century Mormons: The New Israel,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 12 (spring 1979): 42–54.

14. O. Michael Friedman, Origins of the British Israelites: The Lost Tribes (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1993).

15. See John George and Laird Wilcox, Nazis, Communists, Klansmen, and Others on the Fringe: Political Extremism in America (New York: Prometheus, 1992), pp. 368–370.

17. Jan Shipps, Mormonism: The Story of A New Religious Tradition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. x.

18. In this connection, see Jacob Neusner, First-Century Judaism in Crisis (New York: Ktav, 1982); and Jacob Neusner, William S. Green, and Ernest Frerichs, eds., Judaisms and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

1. Mormons are not the only Americans to identify Cain as the father of the African race. See Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Towards the Negro (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), pp. 242, 416; and Caroline L. Shanks, “The Biblical Anti-Slavery Argument of the Decade, 1830–1840,” Journal of Negro History 16 (April 1931): 132–157.

2. Klaus J. Hansen, “The Metamorphosis of the Kingdom of God,” in The New Mormon History, ed. D. Michael Quinn (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1992), pp. 221–246.

3. Newell G. Bringhurst, Saints, Slaves, and Blacks (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1981), p. 17.

4. Jessie L. Embry, Black Saints in a White Church: Contemporary African American Mormons (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1994), p. 74.

5. Stupidly, I once ridiculed a brother-in-law, who is a Métis Indian and convert to Mormonism, for insisting that he be called a Nephite since the Book of Mormon (in which he firmly believes) says the Nephites were exterminated. At the time, his point was lost on me.

6. Forrest G. Wood, The Arrogance of Faith: Christianity and Race in America from the Colonial Era to the Twentieth Century (New York: Knopf, 1990), p. 84.

7. D. Michael Quinn, ed. and trans., “The First Months of Mormonism: A Contemporary View by Rev. Diedrich Willer,” New York History 54 (July 1973): 317–332.

8. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), p. 9.

9. Jack D. Forbes, Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 249–264.

10. Generally, biblical literalists have been among the greatest advocates of the Curse of Canaan myth and thus of slavery. See David E. Harrell Jr., Quest for a Christian America: The Disciples of Christ and American Society to 1866 (Nashville: Disciples of Christ Historical Society, 1966), p. 52; and Ralph L. Moellering, Christian Conscience and Negro Emancipation (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1965), p. 50.

11. Several scholars of Southern religious history emphasize the role Evangelicalism played in raising the consciousness of Africans and causing them to equate liberation with temporal as well as spiritual freedom. See Donald G. Mathews, Religion in the Old South (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); and Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: “The Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980). Masonry, according to Steven Bullock, had the same effect. See his Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 137–162.

12. Latter Day Saints Messenger and Advocate, August 1835; Doctrine and Covenants, sect. 134:12.

13. Joseph Smith Jr., “Elder’s Journal,” entry for “Far West, Missouri, July 1838” (Special Collections, Brigham Young University), p. 42.

14. Joseph Smith Jr., “General Smith’s Views of the Powers and Policy of the Government of the United States” (Nauvoo, Ill.: John Taylor, 1844), p. 7.

15. See Richard D. Poll, “Joseph Smith and the Presidency, 1844,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 3 (autumn 1968): 17–27.

16. Although the Kinderhook plates were a hoax, some Mormons still refuse to believe this. See William C. Wangeman, The Black Man: A Son of God (Bountiful, Utah: Horizon, 1979), p. 60.

17. Parley P. Pratt to John Van Cott, May 7, 1843, in Parley P. Pratt Papers, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City.

18. See W. Cleon Skousen, The First 2000 Years (1953; reprint, Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1971), p. 228. See also the Book of Abraham, in The Pearl of Great Price (addendum to Doctrine and Covenants), sect. 1:21–27; and Gen. 8:1, 9:30, 10:9–10, in Joseph Smith Jr., Inspired Version: The Holy Scriptures Containing the Old and New Testaments; An Inspired Revision of the Authorized Version (Independence, Mo.: Herald, 1944).

20. Sanford Porter, “Reminiscences, ca. 1872” (LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City), p. 173.

22. The Mormon interest in cultivating the desert and remarkable advances in dry-farm irrigation techniques take on new meaning in light of this. It is little wonder that early Mormons sometimes preferred to work their fields rather than warm church pews, the evangelistic mission to the world a factor of how much sod they turned that day rather than how many sods they dragged to church. The idea that “building the kingdom” kept Mormonism from fashioning a theology does not seem to take into account the important ways in which agriculture is synonymous with theology in Mormonism, the land playing a vital role in the spread of the gospel to the inhabitants of the whole world in preparation for the second advent of Jesus Christ and the millennium. In this connection, see Hans A. Baer, Recreating Utopia in the Desert: A Sectarian Challenge to Modern Mormonism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), pp. 143–147, 196–198.

23. Dan Vogel, Indian Origins and the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1986), pp. 75–77; B. H. Roberts, Studies of the Book of Mormon, ed. and intro. Truman G. Madsen (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985). See also Roberts, “Book of Mormon Difficulties” (presented to President Heber J. Grant and Counselors, the Quorum of Twelve Apostles, and the First Council of the Seventy, December 29, 1921, University of Utah Archives, Salt Lake City).

26. Alan F. Segal, Rebecca’s Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), pp. 1–12.

27. In this connection, see N. H. Parker, The Ten Tribes and All That (Toronto: Ryerson, 1938).

28. Preface to William Carpenter, The Israelites Found in the Anglo-Saxons … (London: George Kenning, 1874), p. i.

30. Klaus J. Hansen, Mormonism and the American Experience (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 180.

31. See Roy Harvey Pearce, The Savages of America: The Study of the Indian and the Idea of Civilization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), p. 47; Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), pp. 45–65; and Hansen, Mormonism and the American Experience, p. 181.

32. In this connection, see David S. Katz, Philo-Semitism and the Readmission of the Jews to England, 1603–1655 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon, 1982), pp. 127–157.

33. See Forrest G. Wood, The Arrogance of Faith: Christianity and Race in America from the Colonial Era to the Twentieth Century (New York: Knopf, 1990), pp. 84–97.

34. Horace Bushnell, Nature and the Supernatural, as Together Constituting One System of God (New York, 1863), p. 224.

35. Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Knopf, 1979), pp. 36–37.

38. B. Carmon Hardy, Solemn Covenant: The Mormon Polygamous Passage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 39–126.

40. In this connection, see Hardy, Solemn Covenant, pp. 90–94, 112–113 nn. 60 and 61.

42. Samuel Stanhope Smith, An Essay on the Causes of the Varieties of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species, ed. Winthrop D. Jordan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 213–249.

45. Scott H. Faulring, ed., An American Prophet’s Record: The Diaries and Journals of Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1989), p. 269.

48. Bringhurst makes this very interesting connection in chapter 5 of his Saints, Slaves, and Blacks, pp. 84 ff.

49. Robert Marcum, Dominions of the Gadiantons (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1991); and Daniel C. Paterson, “The Gadianton Robbers as Guerrilla Warriors” (Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1989).

51. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work, p. 529. See Robert I. Clegg, Revised Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply, 1966), 1:175.

52. Lester E. Bush Jr., “Mormonism’s Negro Doctrine: An Historical Overview,” in Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church, ed. Lester E. Bush Jr. and Armand L. Mauss (Midvale, Utah: Signature, 1984), pp. 53–129. Stephen G. Taggart was the first to argue that Mormonism’s racial policies were not the fruit of revelation but Southern social and cultural biases which early Mormons adopted in order to allay fears that they were conspiring with natives and blacks to undermine the civil order of the state of Missouri. See Stephen G. Taggart, Mormonism’s Negro Policy: Social and Historical Origins (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1970). See also Lester E. Bush Jr., “A Commentary on Stephen G. Taggart’s Mormonism’s Negro Policy: Social and Historical Origins,” in Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church, ed. Lester E. Bush Jr. and Armand L. Mauss (Midvale, Utah: Signature, 1984), pp. 31–52. Bush argues that Hansen’s arguments constitute a “more broadly stated Missouri thesis” (p. 201).

53. For a good discussion of Young’s theological rationale for censuring blacks, see Ronald K. Esplin, “Brigham Young and Priesthood Denial to the Blacks,” Brigham Young University Studies 19 (spring 1979): 394–402. Also see Leonard J. Arrington, Brigham Young: American Moses (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 210–222. Young 286 14. The Curse and Redemption of the Lamanites believed that “blacks should not be treated as property but were destined to be servants and thus not equals or to hold civil or ecclesiastical office” (p. 240).

54. See Dean May, “A Demographic Portrait of the Mormons,” in The New Mormon History, ed. D. Michael Quinn (Salt Lake City: Signature, 1992), pp. 121–135; and Richard L. Jensen, “Mother Tongue: Use of Non-English Languages in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the United States, 1850–1983,” in New Views of Mormon History, ed. Davis Bitton and Maureen Ursenbach Beecher (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1987), pp. 273–303.

55. Gordon I. Irving, “The Law of Adoption: One Phase of the Development of the Mormon Concept of Salvation, 1830–1890,” Brigham Young University Studies 14 (spring 1974): 291–314.

56. Bringhurst, Saints, Slaves, and Blacks, p. xix. See also Newell G. Bringhurst, “A Servant of Servants … Cursed as Pertaining to the Priesthood: Mormon Attitudes toward Slavery and the Black Man, 1830–80” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1975).

57. Lester E. Bush, “Whence the Negro Doctrine,” in Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church, ed. Lester E. Bush Jr. and Armand L. Mauss (Midvale, Utah: Signature, 1984), p. 208.

59. Roger D. Launius, Invisible Saints: A History of Black Americans in the Reorganized Church (Independence, Mo.: Herald House, 1988), pp. 76–105.

61. William E. Berrett, “The Church and the Negroid People,” supplement to John J. Stewart, Mormonism and the Negro (Orem, Utah: Community, Bookmark, 1960), p. 7. Also see John L. Lund, The Church and the Negro (n.p.: self-published, 1967), pp. 76–78. Lund argues that although Abel did work as a missionary, he was never ordained. The primary source for this is the entry for May 31, 1879, in the controversial L. John Nuttal Diary (typeset copy, Special Collections, Brigham Young University Library). Hansen points out that Abel’s patriarchal blessing does not contain an Israelite tribal designation (Mormonism and the American Experience, p. 240 n. 20).

63. Mary Francis Sturlaugson, A Soul So Rebellious (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1981), pp. 62–64.

1. See John William Ward, “Jacksonian Democratic Thought: ‘A Natural Charter of Privilege,’” in The Development of an American Culture, ed. Stanley Coben and Lorman Ratner (Englewood Cliffs, 1970), pp. 44–63.

2. See William G. McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reforms: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607–1977 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), pp. 162–171.

3. Thomas O’Dea, The Mormons (1957; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 187. Dan Vogel, on the other hand, contends that “Mormonism was more syncretic than synthetic, never fully reconciling contradictory tenets and opposing organizational structures, but rather allowing extremes to balance each other,” thus Smith departed “from other American models by combining elements of capitalism with common stock as well as his uneasy combination of theocracy and democracy (‘common consent’) in church government” (Religious Seekers and the Advent of Mormonism [Salt Lake City: Signature, 1988], pp. 216–217).

4. Leonard J. Arrington, The Great Basin Kingdom: Economic History of the Latter-day Saints, 1830–1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1958), p. 35.

5. See Roger D. Launius and Linda Thatcher, eds., Differing Visions: Dissenters in Mormon History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).

6. Wilford C. Wood, Joseph Smith Begins His Work: Book of Mormon, 1830 First Edition (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1963), pp. 507, 514.

7. Klaus J. Hansen, Mormonism and the American Experience (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 124. Also see Vogel, Religious Seekers and the Advent of Mormonism, p. 174.

8. James M. Stayer, The German Peasants’ War and Anabaptist Community of Goods (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1991), pp. 95–159.

9. Hans A. Baer, Recreating Utopia in the Desert: A Sectarian Challenge to Modern Mormonism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), p. 14.

10. D. Michael Quinn, “The Mormon Hierarchy, 1832–1932: The American Elite” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1976), p. 155.

11. See John Heinerman and Anson Shupe, The Mormon Corporate Empire (Boston: Beacon, 1985).

12. Joseph Smith Jr., History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1964), 1:146–147.

14. Leonard J. Arrington, Feramorz Y. Fox and Dean May, Building the City of God: Community and Cooperation Among the Mormons (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 34.

15. Quoted in Henry D. Moyle, “Some Practical Phases of Church Security,” Improvement Era 40 (June 1939): 354.

16. John R. Sillito and John S. McCormick, “Socialist Saints: Mormons and the Socialist Party in Utah, 1900–1920,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 18 (spring 1985): 121–131.

17. J. Reuben Clark, Conference Report (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, October 1942), pp. 54–58.

19. Albert G. Mackey, A Lexicon of Freemasonry (London: Griffin, 1873), p. 53.

20. Rob Morris, “A Practical Synopsis of Masonic Law and Usage, Alphabetically Arranged for General Use,” addendum to Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), p. 234.

21. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemason’s Monitor (1816), ed. Rob Morris (Cincinnati: John Sherer, 1860), p. 32.

22. Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood: Freemasonry and the Transformation of the American Social Order, 1730–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 185.

24. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1987), p. xii.

25. Susan Faludi, Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man (New York: Morrow, 1999).

1. James B. Allen, “Since 1950: Creators and Creations of Mormon History,” in New Views of Mormon History, ed. Davis Bitton and Maureen Ursenbach Beecher (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1987), p. 429. Also see Marvin S. Hill, “Survey: The Historiography of Mormonism,” Church History 28 (1959): 418–426; and Thomas G. Alexander, “The Place of Joseph Smith in the Development of American Religion: A Historiographical Inquiry,” Journal of Mormon History 5 (1978): 3–17.

2. Alexander Campbell, Delusions: An Analysis of the Book of Mormon; with an Examination of the Internal and External Evidences (Boston: Joshua V. Himes, 1832); E. D. Howe, Mormonism Unvailed [sic] (Painesville: self-published, 1834); John C. Bennett, The History of the Saints (Boston: Leland and Whiting, 1842); Pomeroy Tucker, Origin, Rise, and Progress of Mormonism (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1867); Orasmus Turner, “Origin of the Mormon Imposture,” Littel’s Living Age 30 (July–September 1851): 429–431.

3. Parley P. Pratt, Mormonism Unveiled: Zion’s Watchman Unmasked, and Its Editors, Mr. L. R. Sunderland, Exposed (New York: Orson Pratt and Elijah Fordham, 1838); John Corill, Brief History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (St. Louis: self-published, 1839); David Whitmer, An Address to All Believers in Christ (Richmond, Mo.: self-published, 1887); Lucy Mack Smith, Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet and His Progenitors for Many Generations (1912; reprint, Independence, Mo.: Herald House, 1969).

4. Joseph Smith Jr., History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1964).

5. Jules Remy and Julius Brenchley, A Journey to the Great Salt Lake, with a Sketch of the History, Religion, and Customs of the Mormons (London: W. Jeffs, 1861); I. Woodbridge Riley, The Founder of Mormonism: A Psychological Study of Joseph Smith Jr. (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1902); Eduard Meyer, Ursprung und Geschichte der Mormonen (Halle: Max Miemeyer, 1912); Bernard De Voto, “The Centennial of Mormonism: A Study in Utopia and Dictatorship,” in Forays and Rebuttals (Boston, 1936); Whitney Cross, The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1950); and Thomas O’Dea, The Mormons (1957; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).

6. Leonard J. Arrington, The Great Basin Kingdom: Economic History of the Latter-day Saints, 1830–1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1958); and Juanita Brooks, The Mountain Meadows Massacre (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950). See also Robert B. Flanders, “Some Reflections on the New Mormon History,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 9 (spring 1974): 34–41; and Lawrence Foster, “New Perspectives on the Mormon Past,” Sunstone 7 (January–February 1982): 41–45.

7. For Brodie’s position, see Marvin S. Hill, “Secular or Sectarian History? A Critique of ‘No Man Knows My History,’” Church History 43 (March 1974): 78–96.

8. Klaus J. Hansen, Quest for Empire: The Political Kingdom of God and the Council of the Fifty (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1967).

9. Marvin S. Hill, “Quest for Refuge: An Hypothesis as to the Social Origins and Nature of the Mormon Political Kingdom,” Journal of Mormon History 2 (1975): 3–20.

10. Mario S. De Pillis, “The Quest for Religious Authority and the Rise of Mormonism,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 1 (spring 1966): 68–88; idem, “Mormonism and the American Way: A Response,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 1 (summer 1966): 89–97; Jan Shipps, “The Prophet Puzzle: Suggestions Leading Toward a Mormon Comprehensive Interpretation of Joseph Smith,” Journal of Mormon History 1 (1974): 2–20; and Paul M. Edwards, “The Secular Smiths,” Journal of Mormon History 4 (1977): 3–17.

11. Lawrence Foster, Religion and Sexuality: The Shakers, the Mormons, and the Oneida Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); B. Carmon Hardy, Solemn Covenant: The Mormon Polygamous Passage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); John L. Brooke, The Refiner’s Fire: The Making of Mormon Cosmology, 1644–1844 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

12. R. Lawrence Moore, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Nathan O. Hatch, “In Pursuit of Religious Freedom: Church, State, and People in the New Republic,” in The American Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1987), pp. 388–406; idem, The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 68–81; idem, “The Democratization of Christianity and the Character of American Politics,” in Religion and American Politics, ed. Mark Noll (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 92–120; Gordon S. Wood, “Evangelical America and Early Mormonism,” New York History 61 (1980): 359–389; and Kenneth Winn, Exiles in a Land of Liberty (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).

13. Hatch, “The Democratization of Christianity,” p. 97; also see pp. 99, 103.

16. In this connection, see Michael Kammen, A Machine That Would Go of Itself: The Constitution in American Culture (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), pp. 95–124, in particular, the notion that the Civil War was a constitutional crisis, among other things.

17. Margaret Jacob, “Freemasonry, Women, and the Paradox of the Enlightenment,” in Women and the Enlightenment, ed. Margaret Hunt (Binghamton, N.Y.: Institute for Research in History and Haworth, 1984), pp. 69–91.