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ʿAbbas I, Shah, 10, 12, 136, 180, 220–21, 226, 264, 266, 269–73; funeral of, 224; and repression, 14; tolerance of, 13–14
ʿAbd al-Rahman (Sufi), 178
ʿAbd al-Rahman Efendi, Muʾayyadzade, 319–20
Ahmed b. Bayezid, Prince, 494–95
Akbar, Emperor, 10, 57, 59, 68, 72n21, 107, 178, 242, 259n35, 270–71, 287–297, 384–85, 404–5, 454, 457, 530, 556, 558; birth and childhood of, 462–64; as insan-i kamil, 392; as khilafa, 298n3; as patron of translation, 451–53
ʿAli b. Abi Talib (imam and caliph), 19, 76, 86, 103, 131, 134, 138, 150, 158, 176, 181, 186, 191n32, 316n7, 350, 354, 357, 364n8, 530, 564; poetry in praise of, 406–7
ʿAmili, Shaykh ʿAli b. Muhammad, 82
al-ʿAmili, Shaykh Muhammad b. Hasan b. Zayn al-Din, 79
Arabic (language), 1, 23–24, 55, 100, 130, 151, 163, 200, 254, 339, 346, 349, 354, 365n11, 366–67, 379n1, 380n7, 385–86, 390, 403, 405, 448n13, 450, 454, 489, 494, 498, 526, 548, 562
Armenians: Gregorian-Catholic disputes between, 17; in Safavid Iran, 13–16, 18, 103; and Sufism, 144; in Venice, 19
ʿAttar, Farid al-Din, 244, 517
Babur, Emperor Muhammad Zahir al-Din, 211, 267–68, 287, 289, 385, 389, 450, 454, 459–60; memoirs of, 384
Badakhshi Talaqani, Muhammad Jadid, 162
Badaʾuni, ʿAbd al-Qadir, 57
Bahr al-ʿUlum, ʿAbd al-ʿAli, 304, 339
Bible: authenticity of, 10
bidʿa (religious innovation), 77, 89, 101–2, 125, 132, 138, 187, 244, 251, 254, 258n27
al-Bihari, Muhibballah, 303, 338
blacks (arab taifesi), 202
al-Buni, Shaykh Ahmad ʿAli, 350, 353
Burhanpuri, Muhammad Hashim Kishmi, 162
caliphate: of Abu Bakr, 88–89, 93, 103; of ʿAli, 103, 215; of Mughals, 213, 215, 248–51, 275, 395, 516; Ottoman Sufistic conception of, 194–97, 199–200; of Safavids, 225. See also khilafat
Çatalcalı ʿAli Efendi, 33–35
Cehangir b. Suleyman, 230
Cesi Persiano, Pietro, 13
Chakar Hisari, ʿAbdulhayy b. Khwaja, 162
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 280, 283
churches: construction of, 38; taxes on, 16; in territories conquered by Muslims, 42–45
conversion, 9–10, 17; degrees of, 91–93; and inheritance, 18, 29n20, 30n44; in Iran, 11–12, 15, 23, 28n10; Islamic forms of, 34–35; Jewish, 17; Protestant model of, 30n39; rural, 52n44; under pressure, 35
Deccan, the, 66, 212–14, 275, 555; arts of, 554–55, 585; Aurangzeb and, 216, 240, 247; links with Iran, 556–57; Mughals and, 557, 560, 562; rulers of, 524, 554–55; Timurid and Turkmen influence on, 557–58
De La Maze, Jean-Baptiste, 17
dhimmis, 9, 14, 17; relations with Muslims, 37
dialogue: between Mughals and West, 55; as munazara, 56–57, 212
dreams: in Islam, 19; of the emperor Jahangir, 57
East India Company, British, 339
Elements of Wisdom (Usuluʾl-Hikem), 178, 200
endowments (vaqf, waqf, pl. awqaf), 44, 180, 479, 482–83, 489, 491n29, 497, 548
fatwas, 2, 18, 83, 89, 98; character of, 32; in Hanafi school, 100; Ottoman style of, 100; as sources, 9–10, 33, 49n6. See also fetvahane
Fayz Kashani, Mulla Muhsin, 77, 79–81, 93n3, 94n17, 94n18, 95n22, 95n23, 191n28, 489, 491n47
Fazil Samarqandi, Muhammad, 347, 389
Ghawth Gwaliyari, Muhammad, 347, 385
hadith, 78, 80–81, 83–90, 127, 132, 177, 186, 306, 489; sacred (qudsi), 67, 159n3; Shiʿi compliations of, 93n5, 94n6, 95n25, 191n36
haqq (hakk, God, Truth), 224, 245, 253–55, 257n21, 308, 368, 370, 475n23
al-Hasan b. ʿAli al-ʿAskari, Imam, 147n32
Hazar Jarib, monastery of, 16
Hindu-Muslim syncretism, 559
Hindus, 10, 57, 61, 72n18, 107, 178, 247, 480; as monotheists, 256n9; as non-Muslim Indians, 475n46, 505
Houghton Jr., Arthur A., 533–34
Humayun, Emperor Nasir al-Din Muhammad, 211, 267, 454, 475n32, 590n45; and the occult, 384–86, 392–93, 396, 399n38, 399n40; and the Safavids, 268–69, 271, 277n16, 278n30, 409; tomb of, 254; youth of, 459–60
Ibn ʿArabi, 81, 126, 142, 148n40, 164, 167, 191n31, 306, 308, 313, 315
Ibrahim I of Bijapur, 556
Ibrahim II of Bijapur, 586n7
imams, Shiʿi, 80, 83, 87, 126, 129, 133, 138, 147n32, 185–86, 190n23, 312–14, 404; and the occult, 345, 350; as sages, 317n17; on seals, 562, 589n32, 592n66; shrines of, 483–84, 490n20; as Sunni, 139
Indo-Persian: adab and akhlaq treatises, 506–7; culture and politics, 480, 555; literary circles, 506, 511; prose thought, 243; translations, 451
Isfahan, 10, 12, 16, 20, 79, 129–30, 223, 226, 266, 271, 479, 489, 556; ʿAbbasabad district of, 20, 23; New Julfa district of, 12, 15–16, 24, 26; sack of, 272; school of philosophy, 222, 332n14; water supply of, 226
Isfahani, Muhammad Maʿsum b. Khvajagi, 221, 225
Islam, 9, 57, 60; as magic, 345–46; political language of, 177; Shiʿi, 10, 20, 80, 90; Sunni, 51n36, 89, 93, 106n20, 132, 164–65; Sunni-Shiʿi relations, 77, 82–83, 87–88, 95n23, 95n26, 102, 104, 137, 140–41, 183, 187; superiority of, 290
Ismail I, Shah, 19, 97, 98, 101, 128, 181–82, 184–88, 192n43, 193, 222, 225, 267, 350, 366, 530
Istanbul, 16, 20, 33–34, 103, 151, 200, 283, 319, 366, 404, 429, 432, 498, 539, 544, 548; conquest of, 493; Galata district of, 28n8; poets of, 433–34, 494
Jahangir, Emperor, 1, 10, 55–64, 78, 124; 264, 270, 273, 405, 505; and Jahangir Nama, 71n10; and Siddhicandra, 107–19; and Ahmad Sirhindi, 163
Jami, ʿAbd al-Rahman, 167, 173n23, 193, 402, 493, 499, 509, 517, 523, 530, 561, 573, 580, 583
Jesus, António de (ʿAli Quli Bayg Jadid al-Islamʾ), 13
John of the Cross, St., 172n8
jurisprudence, 82. See also fiqh
Kashani, Mulla Fazlullah, 82
Khalifa Sultan (Sultan al-ʿUlamaʾ), 15
Khudabandah, Muhammad, 273
Khudabandah, Shah Sultan Muhammad, 180
kingship, 177, 190n24, 190n25, 195, 197, 201, 222–24, 244, 290, 299n12, 453–54, 479
lettrism (ʿilm-i huruf), 346–47, 349, 355–64, 364n4, 364n8, 365n13, 368–69, 374–76, 384, 386, 389, 392–93, 399nn41–43
madrasa (medrese); xi, 33–34, 49n12, 84, 95n23, 138, 151, 200, 332n15, 339, 431–33, 478, 479; Madrasa-yi Sultani, 479, 481–9
Mahd-i Awliya (Khayr al-Nisa Begum), 180, 270
al-Mahdi, Imam, 59, 184, 186–87, 190n26, 191n36, 192n43, 313, 350, 357
Martinuzzi, Frater George, 281–83
Menteşizade ʿAbdürrahim Efendi, 33–36
metempsychosis (tanasukh), 182
Mughal dynasty, 220; collecting by, 589n35; multilingualism of, 450–52; and succession crises, 240
Mughal Empire, 1–2, 10, 55, 109, 272; expansion of, 263–64, 287; religious ideology of, 57–58, 71n9, 71n11
Muhammad, Prophet, 1, 19, 25–26, 60, 69, 82–83, 102, 126, 135, 139, 163, 245, 255, 290, 298n11, 350, 357; companions of, 106n20, 133, 291; family of, 101, 133, 165, 181, 183–84, 291, 407, 444, 595n91; leadership of, 197–98; and philosophy, 307–8; Reality of, 153–55, 158; seal of, 299n13; as Ta-Ha, 368, 370–71
Muhammad Muʿazzam, Prince, 254
Muhammad Sultan, Prince, 254
Muʿin al-Din, Shaykh, 178
Mulla Sadra, Sadr al-Din, 80–81, 94n17, 148n41, 303–305, 313–15, 316n2, 316n11, 317n16, 317n20, 331n13, 486
Mulla Shah-i Badakhshi, 253
Mustafa ʿAli (historian), 220, 230
Mustaʿidd Khan, Muhammad Saqi, 243, 247
Nakhjavan, 15; archbishop of, 17; campaign of (Nahcivan), 100, 103
Nicholas the Grocer, Saint, 36
Nicholas the New, Saint, 36
Nizam al-Din Awliyaʾ, 557
Oljeitu, Sultan Muhammad Khudanbandah, 187
Ottoman dynasty: demilitarization of, 429; dynastic law of, 219, 228; relations with Habsburgs, 280–83; and sovereignty, 228
Ottoman Empire, 1–2, 10, 11, 15, 20, 177–78, 193; conflict with Safavids, 97, 183, 195; decline of, 428 expansion of, 263–64; fathnamas of, 282–83; invasion of Iran, 269; Iranian influence on, 493–94; legitimacy of, 195, 200–201; patronage in, 430, 494; and Sufism, 150–51, 178, 194; takeover of Iraq, 129; war with Holy League, 34
Persian (language), 18–19, 55, 57–58, 107–108, 110–11, 130, 151, 162–63, 183, 193, 258n27, 272, 339, 350, 366, 378, 385–86, 403, 405, 448n13, 480, 494; in the Mughal Empire: 450–55, 506–11; in the Ottoman Empire, 498–500
philosophy, 303–4, 339, 509; and alchemy, 368, 377; criticism of, 313–14, 317n15; dispute with theologians, 325–28; exclusion of from curriculum, 488–89; as hikma, 305–308, 313–14, 316n5; Iranian-Indian links in, 330n1, 332n15; Iranian-Ottoman links in, 319–20, 332n15, 333n18, 334n23; Jain, 117; and legal theory, 336–37. See also theology
planets, 213, 347, 351–54, 369, 373–74, 378, 384, 386, 389–90, 392, 395, 397, 413, 463
pluralism, religious, 57, 150
prognostication (fal), 137. See also jafr
Qadiri, Sayyid Ahmad, 72n35
Qizilbash, 36, 51n36, 98, 100, 102–4, 128, 181–82, 191n35, 235–36, 239, 268–69, 349, 354, 528; suppression of, 182
Qummi, Mulla Muhammad Tahir, 82, 125–26, 129–45, 146n14, 304, 306, 313–15, 317n16, 317n18, 317n20
Qurʾan, 1, 24, 78, 82–83, 86, 102, 126, 152–55, 198, 225, 290; and ablution (wuduʾ), 95n26; abrogation of verses of, 65–67, 72n33, 74n38; manuscripts of, 531–32, 548, 561; and the occult, 346, 373, 376; and philosophy, 307–8, 317n16; reciters of, 483, 485, 487; superiority of, 10
Qutb Shah, Sultan ʿAbd Allah, 562
Qutb Shah, Sultan Muhammad, 560–62
Qutb Shah, Sultan Muhammad Quli, 562–63
Sabzavari, Muhammad Baqir, 16, 184
Sadiqi Bahrani, Shaykh Majid b. Hashim, 79
Safavid dynasty, 11, 97; as descendants of the Prophet, 183, 185, 189n15, 189n17, 190n19, 190n22, 279n38, 530; and historiography, 181; legitimacy of, 177, 181–85, 191n32, 192n44; patronage of occult scientists, 349; and Shiʿi ʿulamaʾ, 182; and Sufism, 128–29, 182, 188
Safavid Empire, 1–2, 10, 181; bureaucracy of, 179; fall of, 278n33; ideology of, 354, 404, 406–7; relations with Christian Europe, 14; relations with Mughals, 264, 266–67, 271–72; relations with Ottomans, 14–15, 100, 104n4, 219–21, 226, 270, 366, 531–32
Safi al-Din Ardabili, Shaykh Ishaq, 19, 129, 133, 182–83, 189n18; as alchemist, 346, 366, 372, 375–77, 379
sahib-qiran, 187, 207, 211–12, 225, 245, 247, 257n22, 277n17, 397, 398n36
Sanskrit, 108, 110, 403–5, 450–55, 475n27, 475n32, 475n34, 476n36, 476n46; translation into Persian, 73n29, 474n6, 474n7, 475n22
Sarkar, Sir Jadunath, 241
Shah Jahan, 72n37, 109, 178, 220, 240, 245–47, 257n22, 259n30, 270, 275, 405, 505–6
Shahnamah, 76, 193, 299n14, 535n2, 555, 561, 584; of Shah Tahmasb, 76, 522, 523, 526–34, 535n3, 536n9, 536n20, 537n24, 537n27, 537n30
shariʿa, 32, 34, 59, 71n17, 98, 101–2, 131, 134, 156, 195, 198, 376–77, 379
Shattariyya Sufi order, 385
Shiʿism, Twelver, 11, 88, 128, 147n32, 186–87; eschatology in, 183; and Humayun, 268; political authority in, 184. See also imams; Islam, Shiʿi
Shiites, 236; and the occult, 345
Shirazi, ʿAbdi Beg, 177, 179, 181–84, 188n1, 189n14, 191n28, 191n32, 192n43, 192n44
Shirazi, Maulana Shukrallah, 66, 72n37
Shirazi, Mir Fath Allah, 350
Simnani, Shaykh ʿAlaʾ ud-Dawla, 164, 167
Sirhindi, Ahmad, 126, 160, 162–63, 170, 172n6, 172n14, 172n16, 173n18, 173n19; Collected Letters of (Maktubat), 162–63, 172n11; family of, 162–3;
slaves, 12; Abyssinian, 69; captured in war, 41–42, 43, 52n51, 53n52, 103; Caucasian ghulams, 14, 16; and sexual intercourse, 103
Solomon, Prophet, 184, 187, 285, 310, 413–14, 426n9, 439, 441–42, 562–63, 580, 592n63
sovereignty, 56, 150, 177–78, 181–83, 185–88, 190n22, 191n32, 194, 206, 207, 211–12, 215–16; cooperative, 219–20, 228, 240; and the occult, 349. See also kingship
Stadler, Johann Rudolf, 12
Sufis, 274; and Bahmani kingship, 557, 559; criticism of, 306, 314, 317n22, 489; and the occult, 345, 384, 386; and poetry, 403; practices of, 385; and relations with Ottomans, 380n5; and Safavid coronation ceremonies, 222; Sufi-Vedantic mysticism, 508
Sufism, 3, 55–57, 80–81, 133, 171; brotherhoods, 150; and music, 69, 125, 138; persecution of, 125–26, 129, 146n5; polemics against, 82; and the shariʿa, 156–57, 160, 170–71; Shiʿi influence on, 150, 179–80; and Shiʿi ʿulamaʾ, 128–31; as Sunni, 136–138, 145, 183; reform of, 126. See also Bayrami, Chisti, Naqshbandi, Niʿmat Allahi, Nuqtavi, Qadiri, Safavid, Shattariya, Suhrawardi Sufi orders
Suleyman the Magnificent, Sultan, 100, 194, 195, 219, 229, 230, 232–35, 264, 269, 280, 428, 550; as patron of poetry, 493–97, 500–502
Sunni-Shiʿi rivalry: in the Deccan, 562. See also Islam
Tahmasb, Shah, 12, 19, 76, 97, 180, 184, 219–20, 231, 235–39, 266, 268–69, 271, 350, 354, 356, 404, 406–7, 409, 526–28, 535n5; embassy to the Ottomans, 531; and painting, 520; Shahnamah of, 526–34; and Twelver Shiʿism, 527
Takmilat al-Akhbar (Addendum to History), 179
theology, 80–81, 85, 87, 148n48 195, 200, 306, 308, 311, 319–20, 339, 408. See also Ashʿarites; kalam; Muʿtazilites; philosophy
translation, xi, 5, 55, 57–58, 71n14, 256n10, 257n12, 258, 369, 380n9, 382n31, 385, 404–5, 450–52, 474n6, 497, 555, 572
Turkish (language), 53n59, 100, 151, 183, 200, 346–47, 366–69, 380n10, 382n31, 382n36, 403, 405, 431, 448n12, 450, 494, 496, 498, 500, 542
al-Tusi, Shaykh Abu al-Jaʿfar, 87, 95n25
ʿulamaʾ, 10, 56, 58, 222, 228, 297; in Iran, 14–15, 128–31; in Mughal India, 59, 72n21; opposition of to Sufism, 125, 145; Ottoman, 33, 49n12, 549; Shiʿi, 184; Sufi, 134, 146. See also faqih; mufti; mujtahid; qadi; shaykh al-Islam
unbelievers, 13, 21, 26, 38, 60, 66, 73n33, 100–103, 183, 192n46, 255, 283–85, 292, 295, 297
Uruch Beg (“Don Juan de Persia”), 13
violence, 6, 11, 77, 111, 180, 209, 220, 240, 266, 272, 278n21, 455, 472. See also nonviolence
wahdat al-shuhud (witnessing unity of being), 170
wine, 38, 40–41, 46, 82, 155, 213, 255, 420, 426, 436, 572; prohibition of, 37–38, 213
women, 3, 12, 36, 224, 234–35, 240, 256n2, 297, 354, 387, 418, 488
Yazdi, Sharaf al-Din ʿAli, 55
Zapolyai, John Sigismund (Estefan), 282–83