Academy of Military Science (AMS), 52
acoustic rapid commercial off-the-shelf insertion (ARCI), 275
Admiral Gorshkov (Russian carrier), 239, 246
Admiral Kuznetzov (Russian carrier), 238–39
Admiralty Shipyards, 151
accidents: Chinese submarine, 71, 85, 108n71, 284n21; Russian vessels, 105n36, 150, 189, 276, 296, 302n17; potential in Chinese nuclear reactors, 129; U.S. submarine, 199, 295–96
acoustics. See stealth
active defense (jijifangyu). See defense, Chinese doctrine of
Advanced Deployable System, 100
Aegis defense system, threat to, 9
A-50 aircraft, 242
Agencia Turisticae Diversoes Chong Lot Limitada, 238
Agosta-class submarines (SSK), 62, 75n30, 146, 153
AIP (air-independent propulsion), 49–50, 67, 187; development, 62; exportation, 75n26, 75n29; Mesma, 154; Russian development, 143, 158n42
air defenses: during Cold War, 277, 382; PLA, 49, 63, 68
airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft, 242
Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACs), 68, 262n51
aircraft carriers, Chinese: budgetary concerns, 234–35, 366–67; construction and conversion, 236–40; development, 139, 229–56; for helicopters, 237, 248–52; history, 232–37; possible type, 237; propulsion, 239, 240–41; purpose and role, 244–48, 252–56, 254; technology, 240–41; terminology, 267n96; Varyag, 14. See also carrier strike group
aircraft carriers, U.S.: defenses, 95
airplanes, Chinese, 242. See also aircraft carriers, Chinese and helicopters
Akula-class submarines (SSN), 92, 142, 150, 189
Akyha 900 communication system, 221
Albacore (SSN), 81
Albania; transit through territorial waters, 166
allies, U.S., 313–14
AL-31FN engines, 242
Amur. See Lada-series submarines
analysis, Chinese naval, 188–90
antiaccess strategy, 53–54, 280, 380. See also defense, Chinese doctrine of; sea control; and sea denial
antiair warfare (AAW). See air defenses
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, 334
antisatellite warfare, 139
antiship cruise missiles. See missiles, antiship cruise
antisubmarine warfare. See ASW
antisurface ship warfare. See ASUW
area denial. See antiaccess strategy
Argentina: submarines, 65, 74n21, 95
arms race, 346
artillery, 7–9
ASCMs. See missiles, antiship cruise
Astilleros Españoles S. A. (AESA), 236–37
ASUW (antisurface ship warfare), 273, 274, 378, 379, 380
ASW (antisubmarine warfare), 68; British, 95, 111n109; Chinese, 4, 61, 144, 150, 243, 379; Cold War, 90, 98–99, 175, 282n2, 317, 344; difficulty, 71–72; effect of on deployment of Chinese SSBNs, 344, 366; Japanese, 174–75, 344; role of mines, 154; Russian, 274; strategic, 90–91, 99; tactics, 65–66; Taiwanese, 4, 10; U.S., 90–100, 271, 273–75, 378; U.S. potential to improve, 319, 381; U.S. unprepared, 10–11, 20n28, 81, 91, 95, 280–81; weaponry, 283n9
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), 119, 124, 127
Australia: relations with United States, 314
AWACs. See Airborne Warning and Control System
Backfire bomber, 144, 150, 158n36
ballistic-missile defense. See BMD
Baotou Nuclear Fuel Component Plant, 119, 120, 124
Bashi Strait, 344
bastion, 97, 112n117, 288, 300–301; strategy, 52, 138, 248, 277, 342–47 passim. See also defense, Chinese doctrine of
Batfish (SSN), 282n3
Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 241
Belgrano (Argentine cruiser), 369, 380
blowers, 128
blue-green laser communications, 227n39 blue-water navy, 187
BMD (ballistic missile defense), U.S.: against SSBNs, 78, 102n6, 339–40; Chinese countermeasures and responses, 50–51, 331–48; cost, 337; development, 96, 193, 336–37; impediments, 336–37, 352n36; purpose, 330, 348–49n2, 350n21; tests, 351n32, 352n34; U.S. critics, 337
Bohai shipyard (Plant 431), 86
Bonin Islands, 233
Borei (Project 955; Russian SSBN), 141, 150
Bowditch (survey ship), 172, 177
Bowman, F. L., 70
Boyne, Walter, 294–95
Brazil: submarine program, 155
Brilliant Pebbles (BP), 353–54n50
Britain. See United Kingdom
Brown, Harold, 315
Brunei: territorial claims, 31, 284n18
Burma, relations with China, 33
Bush administration: BMD, 334, 336, 337; defense strategy and policy, 315–16, 318–19
C3 (command, control, and communications): centralized versus decentralized, 213–15; in Chinese submarine fleet, 212, 215–24; PLA, 220; World War II, 214
C3I (command, control, communications, and intelligence), 5,13, 53
C4 (command, control, communications, and computers): PLA, 16n4, 362, 364; PLAN, 13
Canada: nuclear technology exports to China, 119, 124
Cao Guangchuan, 151
Capitol Hill, 311
carrier strike group (CSG), U.S.: Chinese threat to, 55–56, 241, 250–51; defenses, 95, 99; deployment, 99; vulnerabilities, 230. See also aircraft carriers
carriers. See aircraft carriers
Carter administration, 315, 317
catamarans, Chinese development, 63, 240
cavitation, 107n56. See also supercavitating weapons
Central Military Commission (CMC), 45, 93, 138, 185, 365
Chakri Naruebet (Thai carrier), 236, 242, 259n29
Changzheng (Chinese SSBN), 296
Charlie-class submarines (SSN), 74n24
Chasnupp 1, 118
Chen Yi, 83
Cheney, Richard, 123–24
Cheng Mingshang, 29
Cheng Siwei, 298
Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation, 241
Chi Mak spy ring, 146
Chile: submarine program, 74n26
China, 298; armed forces, 371n3; compared to Japan, 377; compared to USSR, 376; dependence upon Russia/USSR, 23, 92; determination to acquire nuclear submarines, 83, 190; economy, 194, 371; embargo, 145, 237; energy needs, 115, 129–30; espionage, 140; expenditures, 70; freedom for debate, 186; geography, 278, 309, 356n69; goals, 360–61; growth and rise to power, 352n39, 360, 371n2; maritime strategy, 22–37, 360–62, 370; military doctrine, 46–48, 279; modern unlike past, 79–80; naval defeats, 229, 364; nuclear energy program, 114–30; perspective on transit through territorial waters, 167, 169, 172–73, 175, 176–77; possible demonstration of sea power, 173–76, 279; potential threat to United States, 307, 308–9, 315–16, 333; relations with Burma, 33; relations with India, 33, 112n120, 255; relations with Japan, 364; relations with Pakistan, 33, 154–55; relations with Russia, 7, 24, 48; relations with United States at present, 44–45, 48–49, 365, 376–77; relations with United States in future, 93, 309, 318, 348, 374, 381–82; response to U.S. BMD, 331–48; security concerns, 34, 44; strategic position weakened, 177; tensions with Taiwan, 1–2, 175–76; territorial claims, 30–32, 284n18, 364; territorial waters, 253–54, 256. See also throughout index, especially Chinese assault on Taiwan, hypothetical and PLA
China Aerospace Corporation, 157n18
China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE), 116, 117, 125
China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC), 116, 118, 120, 126, 127
China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation (CSIC), 206n58, 222–23
Chinese assault on Taiwan, hypothetical, 11–14, 32, 53–54, 99, 358n85; Chinese writings about, 193, 215; effect on Sino-U.S. relationship, 365–66; likelihood, 16n2, 93–94, 359; role of island chains, 175; role of submarines, 68, 94, 357n72; U.S. response, 11–12
Chooz, 125
Chun Xiao gas field, 174
Cimbala, Stephen, 348
Civaux, 125
Clinton administration, 351n32
Cold War: ASW during, 90, 98–99, 175, 282n2, 344; ASW weaponry, 283n9; casualties, 373–74; ISR during, 272; lessons for current U.S.-China relations, 376–77, 381–82; lessons for PLAN development, 270–71, 278–82; nuclear blackmail, 349n8; position of United States after, 271; role of nuclear submarines, 191, 271–77, 282n5, 288–96; U.S. naval strategy, 305, 316–24 passim; threat to U.S. Navy, 282n5. See also Maritime Strategy
Collins-class submarines (SSK): dimensions, 62, 63
combat systems, submarine: Chinese development, 87
commerce. See shipping lanes
Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense (COSTIND), 234–35
communications: Chinese infrastructure, 220–22; Chinese research, 222–23; secure underwater system (SESCO), 283n8; submarine, 197–98, 212, 216. See also C3, C3I, and C4
Communist Party: actions in Japanese waters, 176; expected loyalty to, 6, 17n5, 17n9, 41n50, 82–83; soundness of judgment, 2
competition: benefits for developing weapons systems, 104n28, 142–43; U.S.-China, 374, 376–77. See also under China and United States
computer aided drafting and design systems (CADDS), 124, 127, 140, 157n21
computers. See C4
Concept of Maritime Operations (CONMAROPS), 313
connections (guanxi), 17n9
Conqueror (British SSN), 380
control-rod drive mechanisms, 105n37
conventional-takeoff-and-landing (VSTOL) aircraft, 237
coordination. See joint operations Corbett, Julian, 34
Craven, John, 295
Cultural Revolution, 2; impact on SSBN and SLBM projects, 82, 103n19, 177
Dalian Institute, 145
Dalian Naval Academy, 223
Dalian Shipyard, 238
Daniel Boone (SSBN), 287
Dauphin (Z-9) helicopter, 252
dead reckoning, 290
defense, Chinese doctrine of, 22–37, 46–56 passim, 192, 268n104, 299; application, 55–56; development, 26–28, 262–63n58, 362–64. See also doctrine and strategy, maritime
defenses. See BMD
Delta-series submarines (SSBN), 98, 293–94
Deng Shichang, 264n81
deterrence. See minimum deterrence
Diaoyu Islands, 30
Discriminate Deterrence, 317
Dmitry Donskoy (Russian SSBN), 189
doctrine, 46–48, 144, 362–64, 376; Chinese nuclear, 338–39, 345–47. See also defense, Chinese doctrine of and strategy, maritime
Dongfeng (DF). See under missiles, ballistic
Donofang Boiler Company, 124
Echo-class submarine (SSGN)
EH101 helicopter, 252
863 High Technology Plan, 195, 208n87
Empresa Nacional Bazán, 236
EM-series mines, 154
England. See United Kingdom
Equipos Nucleares (Ensa), 123
escort carriers, 266–67n95
espionage, Chinese: 140, 146, 159n52
essentials (gangyao), 47
European Union: technology exports to China, 145. See also individual countries
Evolution One12, 240
exclusive economic zones (EEZs), 30, 39n29; East China Sea, 174; Japanese, 174. See also fishing, fuel, minerals, and shipping lanes
extremely low frequency (ELF), 222, 223, 227n39
Falklands War, 65, 95, 187, 369
fathometers, 170
Finkelstein, David, 361–62
First Academy, 117
“first island chain,” 97, 129, 175, 233, 278, 367; definition, 26
Fisher, Richard D., 52
fishing, 31, 39n25, 39n27. See also exclusive economic zones
Fleet Ballistic Missile. See under missiles, ballistic
fleet in being, 68, 75n31, 278
Foreign Ministry: actions in Japanese waters, 176
Framatome, 115, 119, 120, 124–25
France: carrier program, 231, 251; development of AIP, 62; nuclear energy program, 126; submarine program, 146, 188–89; technology exports to China, 124–25, 145, 146
Franklin-class submarines (SSBN), 69
Freedom of Navigation (FON), 30
frequency. See extremely low frequency, high frequency, and very low frequency
Friedman, Norman, 270
frigates, Chinese development, 63
fuel (gas, oil, petroleum), 14, 31–32, 170, 172; exploration, 174. See also nuclear energy
fuel cell technology, 145
fuel loading, nuclear, 121, 128
Gansu Province, 125
gas. See fuel
General Belgrano (Argentine cruiser), 369, 380
General Electric, 290
General Staff Department (GSD), 217; Communications (GSD/Comms), 219–20; institutes, 222
George Bancroft (SSBN), 287
George Washington (SSBN), 287, 289, 293
Gepard (Russian SSN), 189
Germany: C3, 214; experimentation with AIP, 62, 146; navy, 229; submarine program, 146, 313; technology exports to China, 125, 145, 146
Global Protection Against Limited Strikes
(GPALS), 353n50
global war on terrorism (GWOT), 316, 373
Glosny, Michael A., 379
Godwin, Paul, 348
Goldstein, Lyle, 379
Goldwater-Nichols Act, 311
Golf-class submarine (SSB), 89, 109n78, 293, 294; numbers, 137
Gorshkov (Russian carrier), 239, 246
Gorshkov, Sergei, 24–25, 27, 138
Gotland-class submarines (SSK), 75n29, 187; dimensions, 62–63
Gray, Al, 317
Great Leap Forward, 2; impact on SSBN and SLBM projects, 82, 103nn18–19, 177
Greater Sunda Islands, 233
Greece: submarine program, 74n26, 75n30
Grossenbacher, John J., 96
Guam, 53, 233; importance for U.S. ASW, 97, 357n76
Gwadar, 33
Habiger, Eugene, 349n7
Hainan Island, 52, 98, 138, 220, 238, 278
Haiyan, 118
Han submarine incident, 162–63, 169–70, 172–77, 344, 379
Han-class submarines (SSN; Project 091), 54, 64; Chinese writings about, 184–85; difficulties with nuclear reactor, 85; nonthreat, 129; numbers, 137; pictures, 156n10; role in Taiwan Strait crisis, 185–86; significance, 129; speed, 196; stealth, 87; torpedoes, 87
Harbin Engineering University, 241
Harbin Zhi-9A helicopters, 248
He Long, 104n31
helicopters, 144, 237, 242, 248–52, 256
high frequency (HF), 220–22
high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR), 115, 116, 121–22; Chinese development, 128; Chinese writings about, 195–96; compared to PWR, 121; efficiency, 121, 128
Holland. See Netherlands
Honshu, 37
Hotel-class submarine (SSBN), 293, 294, 296 hovering, 109n75
HTR 10 (reactor), 121, 122, 126, 195–96
Huang Xuhua, 86, 187, 191, 196
hull development, Chinese, 85–86, 106n51, 107nn53–55, 117
Huludao submarine base, 70, 138, 297
ideology. See Communist Party, doctrine, and officers, PLAN
Iklé Study, 317
INCAT, 240
India: carrier program, 231, 239, 246; relations with China, 33, 255; relations with United States, 314; relations with Vietnam, 41n42; submarine program, 66, 74n26, 143, 150
Indian Ocean, 33; deployment of Chinese submarines in, 98
Indonesia: territorial claims, 284n18
information operations. See perception management
Inner Mongolia, 120
innocent passage, 165, 172, 173
inspection, Chinese naval, 71, 107n52
Institute of Atomic Energy (IAE), 117
Institute of Nuclear Energy Technology (INET). See Qinghua University Institute of Nuclear Energy Technology
Institute 194. See Reactor Engineering and Technology Institute
Instrumentation and Control (I&C), 127, 128
integrated full-electric propulsion (IFEP), 241
intelligence, 307–8. See also C3I and ISR
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). See under missiles, ballistic
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 120
International Court of Justice, 166
international law. See United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea
international straits, 165–67
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), 126
Ishigaki Island and Strait, 162, 163, 165–67, 169–70, 175
island chains, 175, 232–33, 258n12
ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance): Cold War, 272, 374; PLA, 362, 364; PLAN, 12–13, 21n33, 54, 368; U.S., 272, 374–75
Israel: technology exports to China, 145
Italy: submarine program, 74n26
Jacoby, Lowell, 332
Japan: ASW capabilities, 344; BMD development, 333; carrier program, 231, 246, 252; economy, 371; modernization, 377; navy, 229, 246; perspective on transit through territorial waters, 165–67, 176–77; relations with China, 30, 252, 255, 364; relations with United States, 314, 333; strategic position strengthened, 177; submarine program, 75n30; territorial waters incursion, 162–63, 170, 172–77, 344, 379; World War II merchant fleet losses, 214
Japan, Sea of, 344
Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), 10, 35, 162–63, 170, 174–75, 344; Cold War operations, 313
Jiajiang, 177
Jianggezhuang submarine base, 356n70
Jiangnan shipyard, 61, 63–64, 73n13, 240
Jiangsu Automation Research Institute (CSIC No. 716), 223
Jiangsu Province, 119
Jin-class submarines (SSBN; Project 094), 64, 149–50, 288, 297; capability, 110–11n98; Chinese writings about, 193–96; countermeasure to U.S. BMD, 339; expected to be operational, 79, 102, 149, 288, 342; expense, 51; inspiration for development, 184; intended use, 43–56, 193, 339; mystery, 182; need to analyze, 77; numbers, 137, 149, 194, 297, 342; pictures, 70, 141, 149; port, 356n70; Russian assistance in developing, 141, 149–50; setbacks, 51, 102n12; stealth, 149, 194–95; threat to United States, 4, 91; weaponry, 196, 288, 297
joint operations: Chinese, 217, 225–26n17, 362, 363, 367; U.S., 310–13
J-10 aircraft, 242
Julang-1 (Great Wave; Project 05) SLBM: development, 82–83, 88–89, 103n19; guidance, 89; name, 108n63; range, 297; testing, 89, 109n78, 197, 296–97. See also missiles, ballistic
Julang-2 (Great Wave) SLBM, 52, 64, 96; Chinese writings about, 197; countermeasure to BMD, 339; development, 79; effect on Chinese maritime strategy, 299, 300; expected to be operational, 355n62; name, 108n63; numbers, 110n98, 342; range, 110–11n98, 138, 288, 297, 345; space warfare, 139; test failure, 102n12; variants, 110n98; warheads, 197. See also missiles, ballistic
Jupiter Missile Program, 104n33, 289, 290
Ka-28 helicopter (Helix), 252
Ka-29 helicopter (Kamov), 144
Ka-31 helicopter, 242
Kamchatka Peninsula, 344
Kaplan, Brad, 298–99
Kelly, James, 348–49n2
Kennedy, John F., 96
Kiev (Russian carrier), 238, 239
Kilo-class submarines (SSK; Models 636, 877), 9, 92, 142, 150–51; advantages, 10, 19n20; Chinese appropriation, 135; dimensions, 62–63; improvements, 151; noise, 72n6; numbers, 137; overview, 61, 74n18; price of Chinese order, 212; speed, 73–74n17
Kitty Hawk (CV 63), 233
KJ-2000, 242
Klub-S ASCMs. See under missiles, antiship cruise
K-19, The Widowmaker, 283n10, 296
Koizumi, Junichiro, 169
Komer, Robert W., 327n18
Komsomolets (Russian SSN), 276
KONDOR satellites, 157n18
Korean Peninsula, 374. See also South Korea
Korean War, 24
Korolev, Sergei, 292
Krasnoye Sormovo shipyard, 151
Kuomintang (KMT) regime, 23
Kursk (Russian SSGN), 150, 189, 276, 302n17
Kuznetzov (Russian carrier), 238–39
La Perouse Strait, 167
Lada-series submarines (Amur; Russian SSK), 75n26, 142, 143, 152
Lautenschlaeger, Karl, 214
law. See United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea Lehman, John, 314
Lenin (Soviet icebreaker), 84, 105n36, 117
Lewis, John Wilson, 80, 183–84
Li Bin, 335
Lin Biao, 82
Lin Changsheng, 200–201
Littoral Combat Ship, 100, 113n132
littoral waters: effect on ASW balance, 10
Liu Huaqing, 26–27, 36, 38–39n24, 138; effect of retirement on PLAN, 255; remarks on aircraft carriers, 232, 233–36, 244–45, 251, 253; remarks on ballistic missiles, 80; remarks on communication, 198; remarks on defenses, 232–33, 262n58; remarks on endurance, 198; remarks on escort carriers, 266n95; remarks on missiles, 197; remarks on nuclear submarines, 184–85, 190, 191; remarks on strategy, 26–27; remarks on torpedoes, 87
Los Angeles, possible nuclear threat, 101, 113n132
Los Angeles-class submarines, 61, 72n6, 148, 188, 357n76
low intensity conflicts, 317
Luzon Strait, 344
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 34–35, 255, 279–80, 304
Malacca, 33; Straits of, 31, 32, 36, 278, 284n19
Malaysia: submarine program, 74n26; territorial claims, 31, 284n18
maneuvering reentry vehicles (MaRVs), 8, 51, 368. See also missiles, ballistic
Mao Zedong, 23, 24, 50, 82; commitment to nuclear program, 69, 115; dependence on Soviet military assistance, 87
maritime patrol aircraft (MPA), 68; reduction in number, 91
Maritime Strategy, The, 305–25 passim; criticism, 327n18 See also Cold War and strategy, maritime
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 126, 195–96, 290
maturation: PLAN, 3–4, 5–7, 15, 36. See also PLAN: modernization
Meigezhuang Naval Base, 162
Melbourne (Australian carrier), 238 Mesma AIP, 154
Michman, 276
Middle East: importance in naval strategy, 318 minerals, 29, 30. See also exclusive economic zones
mines: Chinese, 154; Corfu Channel, 179n20; role in conflict over Taiwan, 99; Russian, 154
Ming Dynasty, 245
Ming-class submarines (SSK), 10, 60; accidents, 71; numbers, 137
minimum deterrence, 50, 338–39, 345, 349n6, 353n48; likelihood of Chinese departure from, 70. See also missile, ballistic
Ministry of Nuclear Industry (MNI). See China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC)
Minsk (Soviet carrier), 238, 239
mirror imaging, 70
Mischief Reef, 40n35
Missile Defense Agency (MDA), 331
missiles, antiship cruise (ASCMs): C-801 (YJ-1), 61, 74n19; Novator Klub-S, 144, 148, 151; Novator Klub-S SS-N-27B, 9, 19n20, 50, 61, 379; role in potential assault on Taiwan, 11–12; threat, 54; 3M-54E, 74n19; YJ-12 (Eagle Strike), 196; YJ-81, 153. See also Kilo-class submarines and missiles, cruise
missiles, ballistic: Chinese deployment, 52; Chinese development, 4, 8, 81, 82–90; constraints, 88; countermeasures to BMD, 339; Dongfeng (DF)-5A, 52; Dongfeng (DF)-21, 138; Dongfeng (DF)-31, 139, 332, 339, 349nn9–10, 350n11, 350n13, 352–53n41; Dongfeng (DF)-31A, 52, 349n10; enhancement of PLAN, 8; Fleet (FBM), 104n33, 289–90; guidance, 88, 89, 290; intercontinental (ICBMs), 80, 332, 349nn6–7, 355n57; launching, 108–9n75, 290; M-4, 210n109; numbers of Chinese, 341, 355n57; Poseidon, 209–10n109; propellant, 88, 104n33, 283–84n13, 290; ranges, 300; R-11FM, 292; Scud, 51, 292; SS-N-4, 293; SS-N-8, 294; strategic role, 339; threat to U.S. Navy, 8; Trident D-5, 291; U.S. development, 104n33, 289–91. See also BMD, Jin-class submarines, Julong-1 and -2 SLBM, Polaris Missile Program, and SSBNs
missiles, cruise, 358n79; Babur, 154; land attack (LACMs), 139, 151; SS-N-22 (Sunburn), 12, 20n30
missiles, surface-to-air, 12. See also missiles, antiship cruise
Mitsubishi, 118
Miyako Island, 162, 163, 165–67, 175
Mk-series torpedoes, 273–74, 282–83n6, 283n9
modernization, Chinese: PLA, 1–3, 45, 60, 79–80, 215; PLAN, 11–13, 15–16nn1–3, 25–29, 37, 45–46, 60, 136–37; speed, 81; strategy, 230; U.S. monitoring, 374; U.S. responses to PLAN, 77. See also maturation
Momsen, Charles B., 81
Mongolia, Inner, 120
Moore’s Law, 275
Moskva-class carrier, 250
MTU 16V 396SE (German diesel technology), 145
Mullen, Michael, 314
Multimission Maritime Aircraft (MMA), 91, 100, 113n132
multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles (MIRVs), 51, 96, 197, 210n109
multiple reentry vehicles (MRVs), 51, 349n10
Murray, William, 379
Nancang (Chinese hospital ship), 254
National Defense Industry Office (NDIO), 83
National Defense University (NDU), 52
National Missile Defense, 351n30
National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA), 120
NATO, 313
Natuna Islands, 31–32
Nautilus (SSN), 198, 286, 384n13
naval control and protection of shipping
Naval Operational Command Theory, 217–18
Naval War College, U.S., 298, 311; Cold War
at Sea conference, 284n15; GLOBAL war games, 272, 282n5
Navantia, 236–37
navies, importance of offensive posture, 277
necessary routes. See useful routes
Netherlands: experimentation with AIP, 62; submarine program, 313
network-centric warfare, 219
Newport. See Naval War College
NH-90 helicopter, 252
Nie Rongzhen, 83, 84, 103n18, 117, 130–31n15
Ningbo, 217
No First Use (NFU), 50–51, 193, 338, 346–47. See also defense, Chinese doctrine of
normal mode, 179n17
North Korea, 356n68
Norway: submarine program, 146
Novator Klub-S missiles. See under missiles, antiship cruise
November-class submarine (SSN), 288, 293, 296
NPO Mashinostroyenia, 157n18
nuclear blackmail (he ezha), 349n8
nuclear doctrine, Chinese, 46, 338–39, 345–47
nuclear energy: advantage of, 64–66; Chinese, 114–30 passim; industry worldwide, 122. See also submarines, Chinese nuclear-powered
Nuclear Power Institute of China, 123
nuclear reactors, Chinese, 114–30 passim; Chinese writings about, 195; design, 105–6n43; early development, 84–85, 105–6n43, 106n44; flaws, 105n36, 105–6n43; Russian, 143; safety, 120. See also high-temperature gas-cooled reactors and pressurized water reactors
nuclear reactors, Russian, 143, 276
nuclear weapons, Chinese: development, 336; effect on U.S. naval strategy, 321; range, 79; stated purpose, 267–68n104. See also missiles, ballistic and SSBNs, Chinese
Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), 311
officers, PLAN: party influence, 6, 17n5; professionalism, 6, 28, 104n31; prospects, 15; recruitment and training, 5–6, 17nn7–8, 23, 93, 223, 249
offshore defense, 26, 35, 49, 52–56. See also defense, Chinese doctrine of
O’Hanlon, Michael, 379
Ohio-class submarines (SSBNs), 104n33, 291, 340, 379
oil. See fuel
Okinotori Island, 175
OK-650 series nuclear reactors, 143
Ono, Yoshinori, 163
organization of PLAN, 6
Oscar-class submarines (Project 949; Russian SSGN), 142, 150
Osumi Strait, 167
Otto Hahn (German nuclear-powered ship), 84
Pakistan: nuclear program, 118; relations with China, 33, 154–55; submarine fleet, 62, 75n30, 154
Palau group, 233
Palmer, Michael, 213
Paracel Islands, 31, 278, 284n18, 368
passage: innocent, 165, 172, 173; transit, 165–67, 169, 172, 179n17
Patriot PAC-2 batteries, 350n19
Pentagon, 311
perception management, 321–22
periscope sextant, 291
petroleum. See fuel
Philippines: importance for U.S. ASW, 97; territorial claims, 31, 40n35, 284n18
Phoenix Television, 230
PLA (People’s Liberation Army): aspirations, 3; C4, 16n4, 362; chain of command, 215–16, 217; doctrine, 46–48; expenditures, 70; helicopters, 251–52; ISR, 16n4, 362; joint operations, 217, 225–26n17, 362, 363; limits of U.S. knowledge, 375; manuals, 47; modernization, 1–3, 45, 60, 79–80, 215; opaqueness, 183, 308, 347, 361; organization, 217, 219–20, 225n12; professionalism, 362; purpose, 2; size, 362, 371nn3–4; strategy, 47, 359, 360–62, 370. See also PLAN
PLAAF (People’s Liberation Army Air Force), 243, 365
PLAN (People’s Liberation Army Navy): air defenses, 12, 49, 63, 68; C4, 13, 29; C3I, 5; challenge of U.S. ASW, 366; compared to U.S. Navy, 377–80; confidence in vessel development, 63–64; C3, 212, 215–24; emphasis on nuclear-powered submarines, 69, 78, 83; enhanced status, 45, 365; experience, 69; experimentation, 250; history, 22–27; incursion into foreign waters, 75n32, 162–77 passim; intended use of SSNs, 10–11; ISR, 12–13, 21n33, 29, 54; joint operations, 7–9; limits of U.S. knowledge, 376; maturation, 3–4, 5–7, 15, 36; mission and purpose, 29, 35, 45, 365, 380; modernization, 11–13, 15–16nn1–3, 25–29, 37, 45–46, 60, 136–37; nuclear propulsion development, 116–18; officer recruitment and training, 5–6, 93; organization, 6; possible demonstration of sea power, 173–76; professionalism, 70–71, 104n31; strategy, 35–37, 48–50, 229–33, 279–81, 359–62, 370; strengths, 14; submarine force, 59–72, 136–37, 359; surface fleet, 12, 369; training exercises, 6–7. See also PLA, PLANAF, and specific ships and submarines
PLANAF (People’s Liberation Army Navy Air Force): experience, 241, 243; modernization, 11, 20n29; use of carriers, 242. See also PLA and PLAN
PMK mines, 154
Polaris Missile Program, 104n33, 283n13, 289–90; expense, 69; influence on Chinese, 88
Portugal: submarine program, 75n30
Posen, Barry, 281
power projection, 378. See also defense, Chinese doctrine
pressurized water reactors (PWR), 117, 118–19, 120; compared to HTGR, 121–22; efficiency, 121
professionalism. See under officers, PLAN
Project 093. See Shang-class submarines
Project 094. See Jin-class submarines
propeller. See screw
propulsion, future, 208n87
propulsors, 148
P-3C Orion: reduction in number, 91
Putin, Vladimir, 189
Qing Dynasty, 229, 245, 260n38
Qingdao, 217
Qingdao (Chinese destroyer), 254
Qingdao Naval Submarine Academy, 71, 223
Qinghua University Institute of Nuclear Energy Technology (INET), 84, 116, 121, 126, 195–96
Quadrennial Defense Review, 315–16
radiation exposure, 85
Reactor Engineering and Technology Institute (Institute 194), 84, 116
Reactor Research Section (RRS), 117
reactors. See nuclear reactors
Reagan administration, 314–15, 321
reconnaissance. See ISR
Republic of China (ROC). See Taiwan
Republic of Korea Navy (ROKN), 35
Romeo-class submarines (SSK), 10, 60; accident, 284n21; numbers, 137
Roughhead, Gary, 298
Rubin Design Bureau, 125–26, 141, 147, 152, 158n42
Rubis (French SSN), 146
Rumsfeld, Donald, 15–16n1
Russia (USSR): air defense, 382; aircraft carriers, 234; Cold War relations with United States, 90, 373–74; competitive design practices, 142–43; development of AIP, 143; geography, 278, 309; maritime strategy, 23; naval exercises with PLAN, 6–7; naval reform, 24–25; navy, 24–25, 144, 247–48, 309; relations with China, 7, 24; sales of aircraft to China, 11, 20n29; sales of arms to China, 48, 79, 108n66, 110n95, 143; sales of components to China, 143; sales of ships to China, 12; submarine fleet, 59, 98–99, 141–42, 189–90, 275–77; technology exports to China, 125–26, 135, 140–45, 150, 155; threat to United States, 306, 307–8, 315–16; use of bastion strategy, 343
Russian Atomic Energy Ministry, 125
Russian Institute of Atomic Reactors, 125
Ryukyu Islands, 26, 98, 175, 344
St. Petersburg, 151
Sakishima island chain, 162
Salona, Javier, 145
San Francisco (SSN), 199
San Luis (Argentine submarine), 95, 111n109
Sanya City, 238
satellites: Chinese, 139, 157n18
Saunders, Mike, 123
Scorpene-class submarines, 74n26
Scorpion (SSN), 271, 273, 295–96
screw (propeller): cavitation, 107n56; Chinese development, 195
Scud missiles, 51
sea control, 28, 98–99, 280, 281, 367–68; Soviet, 26
sea denial: definition, 28; PLAN strategy, 36, 53–54, 129, 343, 367, 378; regional versus remote, 280; Soviet, 26. See also anti-access; defense, Chinese doctrine of; and sea control
sea lines of communication (SLOCs), 32–33, 36, 247; Chinese protection, 278–80; Cold War defenses, 272, 277; sensitivity of Asian, 279; U.S. protection, 312–13, 317. See also shipping lanes
“second island chain,” 175, 192, 233
Second Ministry of Machine Building, 116
Senkaku Islands, 30
Set-65KE torpedo, 153
Severodvinsk shipyard, 141, 151
sextant, 291
Shambaugh, David, 95
Shang-class submarines (SSN; Project 093), 64, 147–49; Chinese writings about, 185, 192–96; construction, 54, 147; depth, 148; expected to be operational, 128, 147; inspiration for development, 184; intended use, 9, 10–11, 43–56, 137; limits of U.S. intelligence, 182; nuclear power, 114, 127–28; numbers, 137, 139, 194; pictures, 70, 147–48; port visits, 280; Russian influence, 147–48; sign of PLAN development, 15; speed and endurance, 10; stealth, 91–92, 194–95; threat to United States, 4–5; weaponry, 64, 148, 196
Shanghai Boiler Works, 123
Shanghai Gaotai Rare and Precious Metals Company, 123
Shanghai Institute of International Studies (SIIS), 201n20
Shanghai No. 1 Machine and Tool Works, 125
Shanghai Nuclear Engineering, Research, & Design Institute (SNERDI), 118, 120, 123, 124
Shanghai shipyard, 113
Shanghai Steam Turbine Co., 123
Shenzhen, 238
Shi Lang, 260n38
Shi Yunsheng, 33–34
Shichang (Chinese training ship), 248–49, 264n81, 265n84
shipping lanes, 32; in South China Sea, 31; Latin American protection, 313; PLAN protection, 14, 184, 192, 246–47, 364; U.S. protection, 312, 316–17; World War II attacks, 214. See also exclusive economic zones and sea lines of communication
ship’s inertial navigation system (SINS), 290, 291
shipyards, Chinese commercial: impact on construction of military vessels, 140
shipyards, Chinese military. See Bohai, Dalian, Huludao, Jiangnan, Shanghai, and Wuhan
shipyards, Russian. See Admiralty Shipyards, Komsomolsk, Krasnoye Sormovo, and Severdovinsk
shipyards, U.S., 76n37
Shkval torpedo, 148
Sichuan Province, 119
Singapore: relations with United States, 314
SINS. See ship’s inertial navigation system
ski-jump ramp, 261n44
Skipjack-class submarines (SSN), 148, 289
SLOCs. See sea lines of communication
SMDM mines, 154
Smithsonian Institute: SSN exhibit, 282n3
snorkeling (snorting), 64–65, 68
sonar: active, 162–63, 273; DUUX-series, 145; Kilo, 151; passive, 274–75; Shang, 148; SKAT, 150; Song, 60
Song Xiaojun, 230
Song-class submarines (SSK; Project 039), 9, 60–61, 152–53; construction, 61, 139; development, 62–63; exports, 154; numbers, 137, 152–53; pictures, 61, 153; stealth, 92; technological improvements, 140, 145, 153
Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS), 112n117, 113n132, 302n7, 344
South China Sea, 31–32, 344–45
South Korea, 374; importance for U.S. ASW, 97; submarine program, 74n26, 75n30. See also Republic of Korea Navy
Southwest Reactor Engineering Research and Design Academy, 117, 120
Soviet Union. See Russia
Sovremenny guided-missile destroyer (DDG), 12, 20n30, 144
Soya Strait. See La Perouse Strait
space: Chinese military control, 138–39
space-launch vehicles (SLVs), 138–39, 157n15
Spain: carrier program, 231
Special Projects Office: efficiency, 104n33
Spratly Islands, 31, 238, 255, 278, 284n18, 364
SSBNs (submarines, nuclear-powered ballistic-missile): accidents, 296; advantages, 78–79; Chinese writings about, 182–99 passim; countermeasures, 78, 96, 102n6; effect on naval strategy, 320–21; effectiveness against BMD, 340, 353n50; history, 286, 289–96; importance to China, 377; need for centralized C3, 214; patrol duties, 287, 291–92; threat, 78, 90
SSBNs, Chinese, 288–89, 296–301; advantages, 382; Chinese writings about, 184–87, 190–99; costs, 83, 340; countermeasure to BMD, 51–52, 339; C3 in, 216; deployment, 52, 97, 342–45; development, 82–90; development challenges, 80, 83–90; development pace, 81, 83; disadvantages, 369, 382; effect on U.S. objectives, 381, 382; estimated fleet capability, 92; importance for naval strategy, 4, 380; mission and purpose, 55, 59, 80, 297–99, 347–48, 380; need for centralized C3, 224; nuclear propulsion, 117–18; numbers, 55, 138, 299, 341–42, 345, 378; patrol areas, 138, 300–301, 342–45, 356n69, 357–58n78; role in Taiwan conflict, 357n72; training, 299–300; unknown factors, 97; vulnerability to ASW, 344, 366. See also missiles, ballistic and Jin- and Xia-class submarines
SSBNs, Russian, 59, 287–88; Cold War, 292–95; fourth-generation, 141–42, 150; vulnerabilities, 277. See also Delta-, Hotel-, Typhoon-, and Yankee-class submarines
SSBNs, U.S., 286–87; accidents, 295–96; advantages over Russian, 277; Cold War, 289–92; costs, 340; numbers, 290, 378; testing, 290–91
SSBs (diesel-electric ballistic-missile submarines), 292. See also Golf-class and Zulu submarines
SSKs (submarines, diesel-electric): advantages, 65, 66; construction, 74n26; expense, 66; exportation, 74n26; mission and purpose, 280; vulnerabilities, 49–50, 64–66, 67
SSKs, Chinese: AIP in, 49–50; construction, 54, 139; dimensions, 62–63; limits of U.S. knowledge, 376; mission and purpose, 53, 67–68, 280; numbers, 378; overview of fleet, 60–64; pictures, 70; priority, 367; stealth, 92. See also AIP and Kilo-, Ming-, Romeo-, Song-, and Yuan-class submarines
SSKs, Russian. See Kilo- and Lada-class submarines
SSKs, U.S.: Cold War mission, 272–75
SSNs (submarines, nuclear-powered), 66; advantages over diesel-electric, 50, 64, 66, 186–87, 191, 278–79; Chinese writings about, 182–99 passim; countermeasure to SSBN, 78, 90, 102n6, 354n50; endurance, 191; expense, 66, 69; exportation, 74n24; importance to China, 377; in Cold War, 191, 273; keys to successful program, 70–71; mission and purpose, 280; weaponry, 273
SSNs, Chinese: advantages, 369, 382; bellwether of strategy, 14–15; Chinese writings about, 184–87, 190–99; construction, 192; deployment, 281; development, 64, 82–87; disadvantages, 382; effect on U.S. objectives, 381; endurance, 198–99; mission and purpose, 53–54, 55, 136, 192–93, 279–81; nuclear propulsion, 117–18; numbers, 138, 284n20, 378; overview, 66; role in ASW, 380; Russian assistance in developing, 141; speed, 196; U.S. influence, 146–47. See also Han- and Shang-class submarines
SSNs, Russian, 59, 141, 142, 149, 275–77; bastion strategy, 343–44. See also November-class submarine
SSNs, U.S., 149; ability to conduct ASW, 94–95; Cold War mission, 272–75; numbers, 156n4, 378; numbers required to counter Chinese SSBNs, 97, 99–100, 112nn115–16; unknown factors, 97. See also under ASW
SSRNs (submarines, radar picket), 283n11
stealth, submarine: Chinese developments in, 87, 194–95, 367–68; importance, 65; Russian, 143, 276–77, 294, 382; submarine design, 107n55; U.S., 382
Stefarick, Tom, 277
S-3 Vikings, 113n132
Storey, Ian, 255
“straight baselines,” 31, 40n37
straits, international, 165–67
Strategic Defense Initiative, 381
Strategic Rocket Forces, 294
strategy, maritime, 281–82; Chinese, 22–37, 43–44, 48–50, 279–81, 297–99, 347–48, 360–62, 370; Chinese writings about, 361; effect of Chinese carriers on, 229–30, 244–48; origins, 298, 314; Soviet, 23, 26; uncertainty in, 322–24; U.S. Navy, 304–6, 316–25, 381–82; Western, 26, 28. See also defense, Chinese doctrine of; doctrine; and Maritime Strategy
Sturgeon-class submarines (SSN), 276
SU-30 MKK fighters, 68, 242, 262n50
SU-33, 242
Su Ao, 138
submarine bases, Chinese, 98, 162, 356n70; expansion, 139
Submarine Development Squadron Twelve (DEVRON 12; Submarine Development Group Two), 271, 273, 274
submarines: Chinese fleet, 378–80; communications, 212; competition in developing, 104n28, 142–43; constraints, 49; deployment of Chinese fleet, 68; dominance in PLAN strategy, 231; effectiveness of Chinese, 379; first generation Chinese, 73n14; overview of Chinese fleet, 59–72; propulsion, 64–67, 187; second generation Chinese, 92; size of Chinese fleet, 95, 136–37, 139, 182, 378; size of U.S. fleet, 136–37, 378; threat posed by, 71–72; U.S. fleet, 378–80. See also SSBNs, SSBs, SSKs, SSNs, and SSRNs
SUBROC, 283n7
Sumatra, 37
Sun Jianguo, 198
Sunburn (SS-N-22). See under missiles, cruise
supercavitating weapons, 144
surveillance. See ISR
Sweden: experimentation with AIP, 62; submarine program, 146. See also Gotland-class submarines
symbols of power, nuclear submarines as, 190–91, 377
Take Charge and Move Out (TACAMO), 197–98, 221
Taiwan: ASW capabilities, 10; during Qing Dynasty, 260n38; importance to Chinese defenses, 253, 278; tensions with China, 1–2, 23–24; territorial claims, 31, 39–40n33; U.S. BDM on, 332–33, 350n19. See also Chinese assault on Taiwan, hypothetical
Taiwan Straits, 32, 238; crisis, 185–86
teardrop hull. See hull development, Chinese
technology: aircraft carrier, 235, 236; BMD, 346; Chinese appropriation of, 28, 92, 115, 122, 126–29, 135–55 passim; Chinese sales, 154–55; impact on undersea warfare, 380; U.S., 381–82. See also specific types of technology
Territorial Sea Law, 165
terrorism. See global war on terrorism
Test-71ME torpedo, 153
TE-2 torpedo, 153
Thailand: carrier program, 231, 236, 242, 259n29
“Third Front,” 83, 103–4n27, 177
Third World: import for naval strategy, 317–19
3M-14E missile (LACM), 151
Thresher-class submarines (SSN), 283n8, 295
Tianjin, 238
torpedoes, 74n19, 107n58; accidents, 295–96; Chinese development, 87; Chinese imports, 144; Cold War, 273–74; Mk series, 273–74, 282–83n6, 283n9; Russian, 153; Shang, 148, 196; Song, 153; technological development, 273–75; wire guidance, 153
towed array, 275
trade. See shipping lanes
training: development of Chinese, 93, 139; importance, 70, 76n39, 214; PLAN fleet, 6–7, 17n11, 18n13, 254, 260n38, 297; Soviet submarine, 276; SSBN, 299–300. See also under officers, PLAN
transit passage, 165–67, 169, 172, 179n17
Treaty of Shimonoseki, 30
Triton (SSRN/SSN), 283n11
Tsugaru Strait, 167
tsunami, 2004 Southeast Asian, 232, 246, 254
Tullibee (SSN), 274–75
Tupolev Tu-22M3. See Backfire bomber
Turkey: Cold War naval operations, 313
Type 209 (German SSK), 63
Type 212 (German SSK), 62–63, 159n52
Typhoon-class submarine (SSBN), 149, 189, 190, 294
Ukraine: carrier sales, 260n35
uncertainties in U.S. naval strategy, 322–24
United Kingdom: carrier program, 231; submarine program, 146, 187, 313; transit through territorial waters, 166. See also Falklands War
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 30, 39n29, 40n35, 163–67 passim, 172–73, 179n17
United States: allies, 313–14; defense objectives and planning, 77–78, 381; economy, 371; effect of politics on policy, 314–16; national security, 373; nuclear energy program, 126; perspective on transit through territorial waters, 167; policy on China, 330; relations with China at present, 44–45, 48–49, 365, 376–77; relations with China in future, 93, 309, 318, 348, 374, 381–82; relations with Japan, 333; relations with USSR, 90, 373–74; response to potential Chinese military threat, 94, 307, 308–9; technology exports to China, 123–24, 129, 146; unilateralism, 333
unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs), 138, 149, 380
U.S. Air Force: joint operations, 310–11
U.S. Army, 104n33; joint operations, 310–12; role in Asia, 312; strategy, 327n19
U.S. Navy: antiterrorism role, 316; atrophy of ASW, 90–91, 96–97; aviation tests, 243; bases, 320; Chinese assessment, 199; compared to PLAN, 377–80; control of maritime commons, 281–82; C3, 214; deployment, 310; funding, 315–16; ISR during Cold War, 272, 307–8; joint operations, 310–12; need to recover ASW preparedness, 81, 93–94, 99–101; preparedness for Chinese submarines, 81; relations with foreign navies, 314; response to Soviet navy, 306; SEALs, 379; strategy, 304–6, 316–25, 381–82; strengths, 14; structure, 319; submarine program, 79–80, 136–37, 147, 183. See also Chinese assault on Taiwan, hypothetical
USSR. See Russia
van Creveld, Martin, 213
Va-111 Skhvale-E torpedo, 144
Varyag (Russian carrier), 14, 238–39, 250, 260n35, 260n38 vertical-and-short-takeoff-and-landing (VSTOL) aircraft, 236–37, 241
very low frequency (VLF), 220–22
Victor III submarine (Russian SSN), 92, 125, 141, 148
Vietnam: relations with India, 41n42; territorial claims, 31, 284n18
Virginia-class submarines (SSN), 74n18, 96–97, 149, 188, 277; cost, 354n52
Walker-Whitworth spy ring, 146, 275, 276
Wang Gexin, 254
Wang Zhiyuan, 245
war zones, 225n16
weapons systems, submarine: Chinese acquisition and development, 87, 144; role of competition in developing, 104n28
Weinberger, Caspar, 382
Weir, Gary, 294–95
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, 115, 123–24
wire guidance, 273
World War II: position of United States afterward, 271; U.S. naval strategy, 305
Wuhan Maritime Communications Research Institute (CSIC No. 722), 222–23
Wuhan shipyard, 61, 63–64, 71, 114, 152
WZ-10 helicopter, 252
Xia-class submarines (SSBN; Type 092), 37n6, 46, 64, 79, 296–97; base, 356n70; first successful missile launch, 89, 109n79, 288; nonthreat, 89; numbers, 137; speed, 196
Xiamen, 254
Xiong, Guangkai: possible nuclear threat, 113n133
Xu Qi, 187, 229–30, 232–33, 245–46, 247, 253–54
Yak-141, 242
Yalong Bay, 238
Yang Jiechi, 16
Yang Yi, 5–6
Yankee-class submarines (SSBN), 276, 287, 293, 294, 296
Yao Tongbin, 82
Yasen/Severodvinsk (Project 885; Russian SSN), 141, 148
Yellow Sea, 68, 69; SSBN protection, 97, 112n117, 342–43
Yibin Fuel Plant, 119–20, 125, 128
Yin He incident, 184
Yokosuka naval base, 53
You Ji, 255
“Young School,” 23, 24
Yuan Jing-dong, 340
Yuan-class submarines (SSK), 9; construction, 62, 63; dimensions, 63; impression on analysts, 182; intended use, 152; limits of U.S. knowledge, 376; numbers, 137; overview, 61–62; possible use of AIP, 62, 152; Russian influence in design, 142–43, 152
Yulin base, 52, 138, 156n10, 220
Zhang Dingfa, 5, 200n6, 225n14
Zhang Wenmu, 247
Zhang Xusan, 235
Zhejiang Province, 118, 119, 123
Zheng He (Chinese training ship), 245, 254
Zhou Enlai, 104n31, 118, 131n15
Zhu Chenghu, 346
Zulu submarine (SSB), 292–93
Zumwalt, Elmo, 98