Page numbers in bold indicate photos, charts, and tables.
A350 (aircraft), 318
absolute temperature, 326, 399
absolute zero, 166, 201, 202, 294, 326, 361, 399, 417
acceleration, 42, 62, 76, 202, 338, 399
phase in expansion of the universe, 162, 167, 177, 196–97
accelerators, 157, 173–74, 197–98, 199–200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 214, 325, 404
Airbus (company), 318
algorithm, 138, 141, 358, 359, 399
alkaline earth metals, 258, 399
alloys, 276–77, 288, 300, 304, 307, 375, 399, 409, 411, 413
and superconductivity, 291, 294, 327
alpha rays (alpha particles), 41, 181, 191, 400, 401, 414
alternating current (AC). See electricity, basic currents
American Physical Society, 300
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. See ASCII
amorphous solids. See solids
amperes, 330, 400, 401, 411, 413
Anderson, Carl (Nobel Prize winner), 214
Andromeda galaxy, 161
Ångström, Anders, 47
angular momentum, 227–32, 400, 411, 412, 415
and creation of the periodic table, 246, 247, 248, 249, 255
and spatial state, 230–32, 234, 251, 303, 403, 415
angular momentum quantum numbers, 52, 56, 57, 80, 230–31, 232, 247, 249, 253, 403, 405, 408, 410, 414. See also quantum numbers
anions. See ions
annihilation, 400
antimatter (including antiparticles and antiprotons), 165, 174–75, 197, 200, 208, 213–14, 400, 411
antiquarks. See mesons
applications and inventions, 18, 287–89
colliders and their particle detectors, 197–206 (see also Large Hadron Collider)
encryption and code breaking, 129–30, 132–34, 137–38, 148–51
magnetism, magnets, and magnetic materials, 303–307 (see also MRI)
quantum computers, 129–32, 138–43, 146, 150, 357–62
in transportation, 292–93, 293, 317–18
Applied Superconductivity Conference, 332
Arecibo Observatory, 187
ASC. See Applied Superconductivity Conference
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 131, 132–33, 400
Aspect, Alain, 118
Atacama radio telescope and Pathfinder experiment, 296
ATLAS experiment, 217
of many-electron atoms, 262–66, 267, 369, 375, 399, 408, 418
and periodic tables, 224–25, 242–43, 246, 250, 254, 255–56, 347, 371–74
of specific elements, 54, 252–53, 370
atomic weight/atomic mass, 250, 297, 346–47, 350, 400, 408, 410, 412
Bohr model of the atom, 40–49, 50
and Bohr-Sommerfeld theory, 51–57, 68, 70, 76, 80, 229, 250
de Broglie's atom, 68
energy level for single atoms and ions, 263
formation of after the big bang, 176
generic table of states, 246, 249, 253, 262, 406
and ground state (see ground state)
Heisenberg model of transitions within, 68–70, 71
many-electron atoms, 17–18, 226, 255, 261, 364 (see also atomic number; elements; screening)
expected outermost occupied electron state, 242–43
hydrogen atom as a guide to, 247–48, 262–65
properties of generic many-electron atoms, 240–42
“planetary” model of the atom, 42–43, 43
“plum pudding” model of the atom, 41
probabilistic way to visualize an atom, 77–81
Schrödinger's atom and the drum-head analogy, 81–82
structure and chemistry of, 225–26, 254–60, 261–67
sizes and chemistries of, 266–67, 363–74, center insert Table D.1
See also electrons; elements; ions; periodic table; subatomic particles; valence
electrostatic attraction, 262, 265, 403–404
and gravity, 16, 176, 178, 179, 185, 196, 406–407
band gap and band of states, 280–81, 312, 319, 320, 321, 400
Bardeen, John (Nobel Prize winner), 291, 319
Barnett, R., 198, 200, 205–206
baryons, 213, 400, 413. See also neutrons; protons
BCS theory, 291
Bell, John Stewart, 115–18, 116, 119, 142, 146
inequality theorem, 111, 115–18, 129, 234
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 192
Bertel, Annemarie, 73
beta rays (beta particles) and beta decay, 210, 216, 401, 418
Bethe, Hans, 191
“B” group transition metals. See metals
Big Bang, Black Holes, No Math (Toback), 13, 162, 333
big bang theory, 17, 155, 164, 165–66, 190–220, 401
from the big bang until now, 173–77
See also universe
bit(s), 129–30, 135, 141, 401, 406
in quantum computing (see quantum computers; qubits)
string of bits (key), 408, 410
Bitter, Francis, and the Bitter magnet, 300, 304–305
blackbody radiation, 191, 344, 401, 412
black holes, 126, 184–89, 401, center insert Fig. 9.5
evaporation of, 151, 178, 188–90, 195, 213
and mass, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 218
supermassive black holes, 186
Black Hole War, The (Susskind), 189
Bohm, David, 100, 116, 117, 118–19
Bohr, Niels (Nobel Prize winner), 12, 22, 40–49, 51–53, 52, 59, 60, 75, 80, 104, 111, 115, 225
and Einstein, 12, 43, 49, 50, 53, 69, 95–96, 100, 104, 114, 115, 117, 118
on photon-from-a-box experiment, 106, 107–108, 115
and Schrödinger, 72, 74, 76, 77, 97, 100, 111, 214
working in US as “Nicholas Baker,” 114
See also Copenhagen interpretation
Bohr model of the atom, 62, 229, 233, 250, 401, 413
de Broglie's demonstration of for electrons, 63
flaws in, 202
Schrödinger's work on, 72, 76, 77, 97, 111
Bohr-Sommerfeld theory, 51–57, 67, 68, 76, 80
Bombes machine, 134
bonds and bonding, 223, 367–69, 407
chemical bonds, 224, 269–73, 309, 310, 321, 418
covalent bonds, 270, 314, 368, 403
ionic bonds, 269, 270, 367, 368, 407
Born, Max (Nobel Prize winner), 55, 68, 70, 75, 77, 99, 114
and probability interpretation, 77, 91, 96, 98, 100–101
See also Copenhagen interpretation
Bortz, Alfred B. “Fred,” 22, 213
Bose, Satyendra, 207
bosons, 200, 210, 401, center insert Fig. 9.11
force-exchange-particle bosons, 210
fundamental boson particles, 207, 208, 210 (see also gauge bosons; gluons; Higgs boson; photons; W boson; Z boson)
having integral or zero spin, 250
See also graviton
Bothe, Walther, 60
bottom quarks, center insert Fig. 9.11
bound state. See energy, energy level
Boyle, Willard S. (Nobel Prize winner), 323
Brief History of Time, A (Hawking), 188
British thermal unit. See BTU (British thermal unit)
Brout, Robert, 217
BSCCO (bismuth-strontium-calcium-copper oxide), 327, 330
BTU (British thermal unit), 401
buckminsterfullerene. See fullerenes
buckyball. See fullerenes
Bunsen, Robert, 47
byte (8 bits). See bit(s)
“Can Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?” (Bohr), 111
“Can Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?” (Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen), 108–111
allotropes of carbon, 271, 305–313 (see also fullerenes; graphenes; nanotubes)
carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRPs) composites, 287, 317–18
chemical vapor deposition used to create diamonds, 361
Cardiomag Imaging (company), 296
“carrier” boson. See Higgs boson and Higgs field
cartoons, 38, 87, 120, 211, 222
cations. See ions
Celsius scale, 166, 294, 301, 326, 417, 418
CERN, 115, 117, 200, 204, 217. See also Large Hadron Collider
CFRPs. See carbon
chain reaction, 114, 297–98, 401
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (Nobel Prize winner), 184–85
charge, 176, 177, 179, 200–201, 270, 311, 320, 321, 401, 407
charged particles, 42, 202, 208, 215, 402
color charge (or force), 213, 216–17
electron charge, 34–36, 41, 42, 43, 62, 74, 126, 214, 228, 233, 249, 253, 256, 258, 261, 262, 280, 281–82, 338, 368–69, 401, 404, 405
proton charge, 42, 126, 199, 209, 214–15, 228, 249, 256, 262, 270, 282, 358, 369–70, 371, 375, 405, 407, 412, 416
See also amperes; color; screening; volts
Charm of Strange Quarks, The (Barnett, et al.), 198, 200, 205–206
charm quarks, 211, center insert Fig. 9.11
chemical properties, 401
chemical bonds, 269–73, 367–69 (see also bonds and bonding)
of electrons and atoms classified in groups on the periodic table, 257–60
of elements, 224
physics underlying the chemistry of, 261–67
sizes and chemistries of, 266–67, 363–74
Chemistry for Engineers and Scientists (Fine and Beall), 269, 373
Chernobyl reactor, 298
China's collider, 203
Choi, Charles Q., 324
City Center (Essen, Germany), 331
classical physics, 16, 21, 37, 101, 127, 130–32, 402, 413
and Bohr's model of the atom, 40–49
and the general theory of relativity, 157
having no analogue to concept of spin, 56
observer is passive in, 94
Clauser, John, 118
clock
and objects moving relative to an observer, 99, 157–58
and photon-from-a-box experiment, 105, 107–108
cloud. See probability cloud
CMB. See cosmic microwave background radiation
CMS experiment, 217
CNT. See nanotubes
code breaking and encryption. See encryption and code breaking
coherence time, 84, 121, 143, 358, 361, 402
coherent light, 83, 84, 86, 408
Cole, K. C., 220
color charge (or force), 213, 216–17
polarization and wavelength associated with, 343–44
Colossus machine, 134
Como Conference (1927), 98, 99
compound, 47, 257, 267, 270–72, 273, 275–77, 291, 306, 309, 371, 402, 404, 409
Compton, Arthur Holly (Nobel Prize winner), 59–60
computers, classical, 135–36. See also bit(s); quantum computers
Computing with Quantum Cats (Gribbin), 130, 357
conduction band, 281, 319–20, 321, 402
Cooper, Leon (Nobel Prize winner), 291
Copenhagen (play and movie), 70
Copenhagen interpretation, 41, 77, 98–99, 116–17, 119, 122, 402, 414, 415
Einstein's challenge to, 99–108
See also Bohr, Niels; Born, Max; Heisenberg, Werner; Pauli, Wolfgang
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 159
cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), 176, 178, 179, 191–92, 193, 194, 195
cosmological constant, 159, 403
Cosmology, A Short Introduction (Coles), 191
Courtland, Rachel, 324
covalent bonds. See bonds and bonding
Crick, Francis (Nobel Prize winner), 73
crystalline, 39, 282, 319, 411
crystals, 39, 64, 85, 269, 277, 282, 321, 400, 403, 419
cyclotron, 403
d (“diffuse spectral lines”). See angular momentum quantum numbers; spectral line
dark energy, 162, 176, 177, 195, 403
dark matter, 162, 177, 195–96, 208, 403, center insert Fig. 9.3
DARPA. See US Defense Research Projects Agency
Darwin, Charles, 352
Davisson, Clinton (Nobel Prize winner), 64
de Broglie, Louis (Nobel Prize winner), 60–64, 61
standing-wave theory for the electron, 62, 63, 64, 74, 78, 100, 116–17, 118–19
decoherence, 121–22, 142, 145, 148, 403
defect, 86, 276, 282–83, 403, 413
Defense Research Projects Agency. See US Defense Research Projects Agency
Department of Defense (US), 302
Department of Energy (US), 329, 330, 331
Desaga, Peter, 47
Dicke, Robert, 193
diffraction
diffraction and interference, 37, 64, 68
two-slit experiment, 30, 65–66, 65–67, 121, 122
of waves in water, 27, 28, 29, 30, 37, 64
x-ray diffraction, 419
spectral-line characteristic, 230, 403 (see also angular momentum quantum numbers; spectral line)
Dirac, Paul (Nobel Prize winner), 71, 71–72, 75, 100, 101, 111, 126, 213–14
and spin, 72, 76, 207, 233, 250, 261
direct current (DC). See electricity, basic currents
Disappearing Spoon, The (Kean), 351
discrete energy, 29, 30, 31, 76, 92, 93, 228, 229, 338, 401, 415
Disney World, 313
DOE. See US Department of Energy
double-slit experiment. See light, wave-particle duality of
down quarks, 176, 209, center insert Fig. 9.11
drift chamber, 198, 205, 403–404
d states, 231, 246, 247, 248, 249, 253, 255, 259, 262, 265, 306, 373–74, 418
D-Wave (company), 360
Earth, two-dimensional map, center insert Fig. 9.7 (a)
Ehrenfest, Paul, 103
Einstein, Albert (Nobel Prize winner), 31–34, 34, 39–40, 50–51, 55, 59, 61, 68, 94–96, 104, 113–14
and Bohr, 12, 43, 49, 50, 53, 69, 95–96, 100, 104, 114, 115, 117, 118
on Copenhagen interpretation, 22, 99–112, 115, 117, 118
cosmological principle (constant), 159, 403
on entanglement, 16, 118, 140, 412
equivalence of mass and energy, 180
and the photoelectric effect, 31–39, 49, 59, 60, 84, 322–23
and Planck, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 53
and Schrödinger, 74, 111–12, 190
See also general theory of relativity; relativity; special theory of relativity; speed of light; unified field theory
Einstein, Eduard, 40
Einstein, Hans Albert, 40
Einstein, Maja, 32
electrical conduction, 258, 280–81, 312, 315. See also semiconductors; superconductors
electrical potential, 282, 404, 413, 418
electrical resistance, 201, 279, 282, 291, 292, 320, 330, 404
electricity, 292
basic currents (AC and DC), 281–83, 305, 307, 326
and magnetism in Maxwell's equations, 409
measuring in amperes, 330, 400, 401, 411, 413
electromagnetism, 213, 404, 411
electromagnetic energy, 42, 401, 411
electromagnetic quanta, 343, 344, 404
electromagnetic radiation, 59–60, 165–66, 174, 192, 210, 337, 343–44, 344, 404, 406, 408, 416 (see also microwaves; x-rays)
electromagnetic spectrum, 342–43
electromagnetic waves, 30, 36, 49, 161, 165–66, 409
nature and spectrum of, 337–44
photon particles and electromagnetic fields, 109, 188, 210, 215, 219, center insert Fig. 9.11
quantum electrodynamics, 214–16, 219, 408, 412, 413
See also radio waves
electrons, 81–82, 93, 233, 234–35, 250–51, 281–83, 363–64, 400, 401, 404, center insert Fig. 9.11
antimatter counterpart of (positron) (see positron)
attraction to nuclei, 76, 82, 249, 258, 263, 265, 358, 366, 369, 412
and recombination with nucleus, 176
development of electron microscope, 67
discovery of, 34–36, 35, 199, 225
dual particle/wave nature of, 60–67
electrical potential and flow of, 411
electron charge (see charge)
electron energy levels, 362, 402, 405, 418
electron structure and chemical behavior of atoms, 257–60
equal number of electrons and protons in an atom, 262, 369
as fermions, 250, center insert Fig. 9.11
“fuzziness” in, 78, 80–81, 97, 250, 365
hole in a semiconductor, 407, 410, 412
hybridization of, 407
in hydrogen (see hydrogen atom)
and ionic bonds (see ionic bonds)
magnetic moment, 234–35, 303, 361
many-electron atoms (see atoms)
mass of, 23, 36, 97, 198, 208, 212, 233
muons as second-generation equivalent, 410
and noble gases, 410
outer-electron energies and sizes of atoms, 364–67, 372
and filled valence subshell ions, 369–71, center insert Table D.1
occupied electron state for atom of each element, 242–43, 246
transition metal B-type groups, 372–73
and the photoelectric effect, 31
and photons, 415 (see also photons)
“planetary” model of the atom, 44–46, 45, 48, 76
probability of collision of two electrons, 96
and quantum dots, 412
and quantum electrodynamics, 214–15
re-exciting of, 86
screening of, 261, 262, 263, 265, 369, 376, 414
and spin, 72, 291–92, 361 (see also spin)
standing-wave theory for, 62, 63, 64, 74, 78, 80, 100, 116–17, 118–19
states in, 80–81, 84–85, 91–94, 246, 262, 408
d, f, p, and s states, 231, 246, 247, 253, 257, 272, 306, 321, 366, 369, 372, 373, 418
electron's lowest energy states, 79, 94, 238–39, 240–41, 242–43, 246, 247–49, 252–53, 262
generic tables of states, 238–44, 262
ground state, 46, 57, 140, 144, 229, 252, 339, 363, 407
transition from one state or energy level to another, 83, 93, 117, 140, 204, 231, 265, 343–44, 361, 408, 415, 418
Einstein's views on, 84–85, 95
and wavefunction, 97, 140, 250–51, 312
See also band gap; ions, anions and cations
“Electrons and Photons” (Fifth Solvay Conference), 20, 21–22, 99–104
electron volt (eV), 182, 203–204, 208, 212, 228, 339, 375, 401, 404
electro-weak force, 210–11, 216
chemical combining to form, 275
chemical properties of, 224, 363–74, 401, 414
electronic structure and chemistry of, 254–60
sizes and chemistries of, 266–67
generic table of states, 406
groups of, 259, 262, 345, 346, 347, 353, 364, 365, 407 (see also periodic table)
half-life, 41
outer-electron energies, sizes of atoms, and filled valence subshell ions, center insert Table D.1
See also atoms; bonds and bonding; specific types, i.e., halogens, metals, noble gasses, nonmetals, etc.
El-Kady, Maher, 311
Emperor's New Mind, The (Penrose), 148
encryption and code breaking, 129–30, 132–34, 137–38, 148–51, 410
one-time pad, 132–33, 136, 408, 410
public key encryption, 137, 148
quantum key distribution (QKD), 149, 150
use of teleported photons, 146
and allowed states, 92
atomic energy and fission, 297–98
discrete energy, 29, 30, 31, 76, 92, 93, 228, 229, 338, 401, 415
energy change (see electron volt)
bound state, 92, 93, 228, 229, 264, 363, 405
low energy levels for inner-electron states, 375
net energy level of an electron, 405
for single atoms and ions, 263
expressed in terms of wavefunctions, 414
ionization energy, 339, 363–64, 367, 408
kinetic energy, 199, 212, 227–28, 229, 404–405, 408
lowest energy state, 265–66 (see also ground state)
properties of hydrogen atom electron, 238–39, 246, 247–48
properties of in generic many-electron atoms, 240–41, 246, 248–50, 252–53
and mass, 107, 108, 162, 172, 180, 186, 188, 198, 212
negative energy, 188, 229–30, 249, 264–65, 363, 365–66, 367, 368, 370, 375, 408, 419
outer-electron energies, 364–67, 368–71, center insert Table D.1
potential energy, 227–28, 404, 405
quanta as packets of energy, 15, 29, 31, 39–40, 344, 412
thermal equilibrium, 166, 172, 191
and uncertainty principle, 418
and the universe, 175, 176–77, 195
wave-particle nature of matter and energy, 413
See also dark energy; fission; fusion; power; scattering
Englert, François, 217
ENIAC computer, 136
coherence and decoherence, 121, 122, 142, 361, 403
Einstein on, 16, 118, 140, 412
and the “local hidden variables” theory, 117–18
and quantum teleportation, 145–46, 147, 149
and qubits, 140, 141, 142, 358, 361, 397
EPCOT Center, 313
European Organization for Nuclear Research. See CERN
Everett, Hugh, III, 119
excited states, 84, 117, 182, 231, 361, 405
exclusion, 78, 223–24, 261, 291–92
and Bohr-Sommerfeld theory, 57–58
and the periodic table, 250–60
See also Pauli exclusion principle
expanding universe. See universe
f (“fundamental” spectral line). See angular momentum quantum numbers; spectral line
Fagan, Tom, 329
Fahrenheit scale, 166, 194, 202, 294, 326, 417, 418
Fairchild Semiconductor, 135
FDA (Food and Drug Administration, US), 296
Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope, 189
fermions, 207, 208–10, 219, center insert Fig. 9.11
fundamental fermion particles, 207–208, 250 (see also electrons; leptons; muons; neutrinos; quarks; taus)
ferromagnetism, 306–307, 403, 405
Feynman, Richard, 91, 175, 213, 215–16
Finnegan's Wake (Joyce), 210
fission, 114, 297, 399, 401, 405, 413
flavor of quarks. See quarks
four dimensions, 157, 158, 177, 415
Fowler, Ralph, 72
Fowler, Willy (Nobel Prize winner), 182
frame of reference, 157, 405–406
Franck, James, 50
Franklin, Rosalind, 73
frequency, 29–30, 39–40, 342, 402, 404, 406, 408, 411, 414, 415
Friedman, Alexander, 159
f states, 231, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 255, 259, 262, 265, 306, 373, 418
Fukushima reactor, 298
Fuller, Buckminster, 313
buckminsterfullerene, 310, 313
buckyballs, 271, 313, 314, 315, 406
See also nanotubes
fundamental particles, 207–208. See also bosons; electrons; fermions; leptons; quarks; Standard Model of particle physics
Fundamental Problems in Quantum Theory Conference, 121
“fundamental” spectral line. See angular momentum quantum numbers; spectral line
and formation of stars, 180, 181, 182, 183
fusion power, 288, 297, 298–302
reactors, 180, 326–27, 328, 417
“fuzziness,” 78, 80, 81, 97, 250, 365
galaxies. See stars and galaxies
gamma rays (gamma radiation), 165–66, 343, 344, 401, 404, 406
gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), 189
Gamow, George, 191
gates, 135–36, 142, 359, 361, 397, 406
gauge bosons, 207, 212, 214, 215, 217, 401, 406, 416. See also gluons; graviton; Higgs boson; W boson; Z boson
Geiger, Hans, and Geiger counter, 41, 60
Geim, Andre (Nobel Prize winner), 311
Gell-Mann, Murray (Nobel Prize winner), 210, 213, 216–17
General Fusion (company), 301
general theory of relativity, 51, 107, 157–60, 164, 177, 184–85, 185, 187, 214, 217–18, 403
generic table of states, 246, 249, 253, 262, 406
Germany. See Nazi Germany
Germer, Lester, 64
Glashow, Sheldon (Nobel Prize winner), 211
gluons (strong force), 210, 216–17, 401, 406, center insert Fig. 9.11
Grand Unification Theory (GUT), 406
graphenes, 18, 309–313, 310, 314, 315, 341, 406
gravity/gravitational field, 16, 103, 157, 207, 220, 231, 317, 406–407, 409
and black holes, 185, 186, 187, 188
“gravity lensing,” 196
loop quantum gravity (LQG), 17, 218, 219
and massive bodies, 43, 51, 228, 405
in stars and galaxies, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180–81, 183–84, 195–96 (see also dark matter)
and time, 107–108, 157–59, 170, 218, 219
See also unified field theory
GRBs. See gamma rays (gamma radiation)
Greene, Brian, 122, 159, 162–63, 220
Greer, Julia, 289
Gribbin, John, 130, 134, 142–43, 146–47, 181–82, 334, 357, 359
Grossman, Marcel, 40
ground state, 46, 57, 80, 81, 140, 144, 229, 252, 339, 363, 407
groups. See elements, groups of; periodic table
Gubser, Steven S., 218
GUT. See Grand Unification Theory
H2O. See water
Haller, Henry, 329
halogens, 407
Hawking, Stephen, 72, 185, 188–90, 218
heat capacity of solids, 39–40, 68
heating, 39, 258, 276, 277, 282–83, 417
heat radiation, 25–26, 27, 29, 30, 202, 368
in stars, 179, 180, 181, 182, 298
and superconductors, 292, 295, 296, 299, 301, 315, 325, 326–27
See also temperature
Heisenberg, Werner (Nobel Prize winner), 68–70, 69, 71, 72, 74, 75, 96–97, 98, 99, 101, 114, 126, 233
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 96, 105, 108, 188, 215, 418 (see also uncertainty principle)
particulate theory (see matrix mechanics)
See also Copenhagen interpretation
Helion Energy (company), 301
helium, 101, 176–77, 264–65, 299, 375
Bohr's model for, 49
liquid helium, 202, 291, 294, 295, 326, 327
in the periodic table, 225, 251, 252, 254, 256–57
in stars, 180, 181, 182, 183, 191–92
Hertz, Gustav, 50
Hidden Reality, The (Greene), 162–63, 220
Higgs, Peter, 217
Higgs boson and Higgs field, 17, 205, 207, 212, 214, 217, 288, center insert Fig. 9.11
hole in a semiconductor, 320, 407
p-type semiconductor, 412
Housecroft, Christine E., 373
Hubble, Edwin, and Hubble's law, 160–61, 163, 164
Hulse, Russell (Nobel Prize winner), 187
Human Side of Science, The (Wiggins and Wynn), 34
hydrogen atom, 35, 47–49, 75, 101
and Bohr's model of the atom, 45, 45–46, 76, 214
Bohr-Sommerfeld theory clarifying, 51–53
bonding with oxygen or carbon, 269–73
and the creation of qubits, 140
energy level for single atoms and ions, 263
and formation of stars, 179–80, 181
as guide to rest of the elements (periodic table), 17–18, 238–39, 240–41, 246, 247–50, 251–54 (see also periodic table)
and the photoelectric effect, 51
Schrödinger's equation, 75–76, 77–81, 79, 144, 261
ID Quantique (company), 150
Iijima, Sumio, 314
Imitation Game, The (movie), 134
Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology (PTR), 26–27
Imprint Energy (company), 324
inert. See noble gases
inflation (cosmic) phase in expansion of universe since the big bang, 162, 167, 168–69, 172, 195, 407
Inorganic Chemistry (Housecroft and Sharpe), 373
Institute for Advanced Studies, 73, 113–14, 115
Institute for Physiology, 104
Institute of Theoretical Physics, 41
Intel (company), 135
Intelligence Advanced Projects Activity, 296
interference, 86, 103, 201, 281, 282–83, 407, 419
diffraction and interference, 27, 30, 37, 64, 68
two-slit experiment, 65–66, 65–67
of waves in water, 27, 28, 29, 30, 37, 64
International Physics Congress. See Como Conference (1927)
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), 300
intrinsic spin, 232, 233, 234–35, 250–51, 303, 415, 416. See also angular momentum
“Introducing the Micro-Super-Capacitor” (El-Kady and Kaner), 311
Introduction to Solid State Physics (Kittel), 279
inventions. See applications and inventions
ionic bonds. See bonds and bonding
ionization energy. See energy
ions, 203, 205–206, 209, 265, 270, 282, 358, 367, 376, 402, 403–404, 414
anions and cations, 270, 368, 371, 372, 407
energy level for single atoms and ions, 263
lattice of ions in band of states, 280, 281
valence-subshell ions, 364, 369–72, center insert Table D.1
isotopes, 114, 176, 297, 298, 299, 361, 408
isotopic nuclear spin, 143, 359, 360–62
ITER. See International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
Jones, Cliff, 329
Josephson junction, 296, 360, 408, 416
Joyce, James, 210
Kaner, Richard, 311
Kelvin scale, 166, 189, 192, 194, 294, 326, 399, 417
key distribution of coded messages, 133, 149–50, 408, 410
Khvolson, Orest, 196
kilowatt-hours (kWh), 401, 404
kinetic energy. See energy
Kittel, Charles, 279
KMS Industries, 301
Knoll, Max, 67
Kronig, Ralph (Nobel Prize winner), 56
Kuhn, Thomas S., 127
Kumar, Manjit, 22, 29, 34, 104, 120
l (angular momentum quantum number). See angular momentum quantum numbers; quantum numbers
Lamb, Willis, and Lamb shift, 215, 408
lanthanide (or lanthanoid) series, 259, 373–74, 408
Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 201, 202, 203, 204–205, 212, 217, 325
illustrations of, center insert Figs. 9.8, 9.9, 9.10
See also colliders and their particle detectors
large object, 17, 81, 93, 94, 97, 119, 127, 402, 408
lasers, 17, 83–86, 288, 297, 301–302, 343–44, 408
Lawrence Livermore Laboratories, 301
Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Paul Emile François, 350–51
Legends of Flight (3-D movie), 318
Lemaître, Georges, 159
Lenard, Philipp, 51
leptons, 174, 209, 210, 406, 408, 416, center insert Fig. 9.11
Lewis, Gilbert, 60
LHC. See Large Hadron Collider
LHV. See quantum mechanics, “local hidden variables” (LHV) theory
as chunks of energy (quanta), 15, 36
Einstein's findings, 50
photons as quantum/packet of light, 411 (see also photons)
coherent light, 83, 84, 86, 408
colors in light, 416
electromagnetic radiation, 344, 408
and electromagnetic waves, 337–44
and evaporation of black holes, 188–89
influence of dark matter, 403
infrared light, 29, 30, 343, 344
intensity of measured, 415, 416
as particles, 31, 36–37, 40, 50–51, 64, 105, 166, 338, 343
light particles in single-slit experiment, 102–103
and the photoelectric effect, 31–39, 32, 51, 60, 74, 411
photon-from-a-box experiment, 105–108, 106
and pulsars, 412
ultraviolet light, 30, 322, 343, 344
visible light, 67, 85, 182, 343, 344, 415
as wavelike, 29, 36–37, 67, 337
wave-particle duality of, 37, 60
two-slit experiment, 65–66, 65–67, 100, 103, 121, 122
and working of a spectrograph, 46
Young's diffraction and interference experiment, 27, 30
See also Doppler effect; heat; lasers; spectrum; speed of light
Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission of Radiation. See laser
Linde (company), 330
Link, Frantisek, 196
“Linking Chips with Light” (Savage), 324
Little Book of String Theory, The (Gubser), 218
Litz, Don, 329
Lorentz, Hendrik (Nobel Prize winner), 99, 102
LQG. See gravity/gravitational field
Lukyanovich, V. M., 314
luminiferous ether, 405–406, 409
m (magnetic quantum number). See quantum numbers
Mach, Ernst, 55
MagiQ Technologies, Inc., 150
magnetic moment, 234–35, 303, 305, 306, 361, 409, 415
magnetic resonance imaging. See magnetism, and MRI
magnetism, 307
angular momentum and spatial-state solution to Schrödinger's equation, 231–32
and electricity in Maxwell's equations, 409
influence on radiation, 99
magnetic data storage, 307
modern magnetic materials, 288, 303–307
and MRI, 294–95, 304, 305, 313, 327
nonmagnetic substances
superconducting magnets (see superconductors)
See also quantum numbers
magnetometers. See SQUIDs
malleability, 276, 279–80, 409
many-electron atoms. See atoms
“many worlds,” 111–13, 119, 120–21, 122, 163, 409
maps, two-dimensional
outward-looking sky map, center insert Fig. 9.7 (b)
representation of Earth, center insert Fig. 9.7 (a)
Marsden, Ernest, 41
maser, 85
mass, 92, 96–97, 180, 212, 213–14, 219, 407, 409, 410
and energy, 107, 108, 162, 172, 180, 186, 188, 198, 212
mass times velocity equaling momentum, 44, 410
See also atomic weight/atomic mass
materials. See applications and inventions
matrix mechanics, 70, 71, 74–75, 96–97, 98, 101
transformation theory of Dirac and Jordan, 75, 100
matter, 39, 105, 147, 151, 206, 207, 409
and energy, 158, 162, 176–77, 195, 412, 413, 418
and solid-state physics, 414–15
and space-time, 158–59, 165–66
and the Standard Model of particle physics, 214, 218
and the universe, 170, 171, 174, 175, 176–79, 186, 195, 208–209, 410
See also antimatter; dark matter
Maxwell, James Clerk, 127, 337, 342
equations and theory, 409, 412
measurement. See unit
megavolt amperes (MVA), 411
Mendeleev, Dmitri, 47, 210, 346–47, 350–52, 351, 353
periodic table of (1879), 348–49
predictions of new elements, 350, 350
mesons (quark/antiquark pairs), 175, 209–10, 213, 409, 413
metallic bonds. See bonds and bonding
metalloids, 259, 261–67, 409, 414
insulators and electrical conduction in, 279–83, 414
in the periodic table, 258, 372–73
strength and weight of, innovations in, 289
Meyer, Oskar Lothar, 346
microscopic, 96, 122, 127, 322, 409
Microsoft (company), 130
Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (maser), 85
microwaves, 161, 343, 344, 404, 409
cosmic microwave background radiation, 176, 178, 179, 191, 193, 194, 195
microwave photons (maser), 85
Milky Way galaxy, 161, 163, 179, center insert Fig. 9.3
minus spin. See spin
MIT Technology Review (journal), 289, 324
Mole, John, 329
molecules, 15–16, 39, 86, 176, 303, 313, 338, 358, 361, 401, 403, 407, 409, 414, 415
magnetic moment, 303, 305, 306
and teleportation, 144–45, 147
of water (H2O), 27, 272, 273, 342
See also atoms; bonding; elements; fullerenes; solids
momentum, 36, 42, 96, 103, 107, 108, 205
conservation of, 199
mass times velocity equaling, 44, 410
and uncertainty principle, 96, 105, 418
Moore, Walter, 73
Moore's law and Gordon Moore, 135, 141, 311
Mount Wilson Observatory, 160
MRI. See magnetism, and MRI
multiverse of parallel universes. See “many worlds”
muons, 408, 410, center insert Fig. 9.11
n (primary quantum number). See quantum numbers
Nanotech Energy (company), 312
nanotubes (carbon nanotubes) (CNT), 18, 271, 287, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314–16, 317, 323, 406, 410
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (US), 305 National Ignition Facility, 301–302
National Security Agency (US), 138
Nazi Germany, 50, 51, 70, 73, 113–14, 133–34
NEC (formerly Nippon Electric Company), 314
negative energy. See energy, negative energy
negative spin. See spin, minus spin
Nernst, Walter, 40
Neumann, John von. See von Neumann, John
neutrons, 114, 204, 209, 213, 217, 345, 400, 401, 405
antineutrons, 175
and creation of the universe, 176, 180, 183
in nucleus, 206, 299, 310, 346, 410
bonding with proton, 209, 216–17, 416, 417
neutron star, 184, 187, 410, 412
Newton, Isaac, and Newtonian physics, 16, 21, 27, 29, 30, 47, 125
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), 330
NGC 1132 galaxy, center insert Fig. 9.4
Nicholson, J. W., 44
Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory, 304
“Nitrogen Supercharges Super-Capacitors” (Choi), 324
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance). See quantum computers
noble gases, 56, 225, 255–57, 259, 369, 407, 410
nonmagnetic substances, 303–306
in the periodic table, 257, 259, 271, 319, 347, 367–68
Novoselov, Konstantin (Nobel Prize winner), 311
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). See quantum computers
mass of a nucleus, 410
and recombination with electron, 176
strong force in, 209–10, 216–17, 416 (see also mesons)
transmutation of by radioactive emission, 418
and weak nuclear force, 418
See also fission; fusion; neutrons; protons
NV centers. See quantum computers
NYSERDA. See New York State Energy Research and Development Authority
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 331
observer, role of, 93, 101–102, 163, 409
Bohr and Copenhagen interpretation on, 97, 98, 402
and decoherence, 121–22, 142, 144, 148
in quantum mechanics, 93, 94, 97, 140
“collapse theories,” 119
in Schrödinger's cat paradox, 112–13
time relative to, 108, 156, 157–58, 185
ohms and ohm-cm units, 413, 414
Once before Time (Bojowald), 218
Onnes, Kamerling, 291
“On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules” (Bohr), 49
Oppenheimer, Robert, 116
orbital. See spatial state
“Origin of the Universe” (Turner), 176
p (“principal” spectral line). See spectral line
Page, Lymon, 67
Parker, Barry, 157
Parker, Jim, 329
particle accelerators. See accelerators
particles, 197
behaving as pointlike, 64
colliders and new particles, 197–206, 203
dual particle/wave nature of electrons
two-slit diffraction and interference experiment, 65–66, 65–67, 100, 103, 121, 122
and the “local hidden variables” theory, 117
particles of the Standard Model, 206–217
particle landscape, center insert Fig. 9.11
radiation of energy when accelerated, 42
Schrödinger's equation applied to, 75–76
stages in coalescence of, 173–74
use of colliders to discover new particles, 203
See also fundamental particles
Patterson, Adolphus, 329
Pauli, Wolfgang (Nobel Prize winner), 54, 54–55, 56, 57–58, 59, 69, 70, 96, 98, 99, 114, 210, 233. See also Copenhagen interpretation
Pauli exclusion principle, 57, 78, 207, 250. See also exclusion
Pauling, Linus (Nobel Prize winner), 272
Pavlus, John, 312
Penrose, Roger, 147
Penzias, Arno (Nobel Prize winner), 192–94, 193, 194
periodic table, 47, 224–25, 225, 246, 400, 407, 409, 410, 411
argument of reduction, 223, 413
Mendeleev's work, 346–47, 348–49, 350–51
modern arrangement of, 244–45, 354–55, 409
electron structure and chemical behavior of atoms classified in groups, 257–60
placement of noble gasses, 255–57
rare earth and heavier elements, 373–74
transition elements/transition metals, 372–73, 418
transuranic elements, 418
and reduction, 413
variation showing outer-electron energies, relative sizes of atoms, and filled-valence-subshell ions of some elements, 364–67, 369–71, center insert Table D.1
Perlmutter, Saul, 197
Perry, Malcolm, 190
phase, 83, 122, 276, 277, 307, 341, 343, 402, 411, 415
photoelectric effect, 31–39, 32, 51, 60, 74, 411
charge-coupled devices (CCDS), 322–23
and black holes, 189
charged photons, 416
coherent photons, 85
Compton's use of term, 60
electromagnetism and photon particles, 109, 188, 210, 215, 219, center insert Fig. 9.11
emission of in electron transitions, 47–49, 48, 84–85, 415
energy of violet photon and electron volts, 204
and energy release, 83
gamma rays (gamma radiation) as high-energy photons, 406
high photon energy and photoelectric effect, 32
and intensity of light, 415, 416
and laser, 408
microwave photons (maser), 85
in phase, 402
photon-from-a-box experiment, 105–108, 106, 115
and polarization, 108–10, 117–18, 145, 146, 231, 233–34, 411
as purveyor of electrostatic force, 338
virtual photons, 215
and x-rays, 419
See also gamma rays (gamma radiation)
Physical Review (journal), 108
Physics (Bortz), 22
Physics Today (magazine), 300
pions. See mesons
Planck, Max (Nobel Prize winner), 25–31, 26, 50, 73, 99, 170
and Einstein, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 53
on light radiation and quanta, 15, 29, 31, 36, 49, 68, 166, 344, 412
Planck's constant, 29–30, 36, 44, 49, 96–97, 100, 105, 215, 406, 411, 413
and angular momentum, 230, 233
plane-polarized electromagnetic wave, 339–41, 340
plasma, 179, 299–300, 301, 326, 417
plus spin. See spin
Podolsky, Boris, 108. See also EPR paradox
polarization, 343–44, 359, 411
and photons, 108–10, 117, 118, 145, 146, 231, 411
plane-polarized electromagnetic wave, 339–41, 340
and quantum photonics, 143
polycrystalline. See grain
Popular Books on Natural Science (Bernstein), 32–33
positive energy. See energy
potential energy. See energy
fission for electrical power, 297–98
fusion for electric power, 297, 298–302, 417
and nanotubes, 316
and superconductors, 326, 327–32
primary quantum number. See quantum numbers
prime number, 137, 143, 150, 358, 411
principal spectral line. See angular momentum quantum numbers; spectral line
privatdozent, 26, 39, 40, 411–12
private key encryption. See encryption and code breaking
Born's “probability interpretation,” 77–81, 91, 96, 98, 100, 101, 110
and Schrödinger's equation, 228–29
probability cloud, 97, 140, 141, 228, 248–49, 264, 265, 306, 365, 412
cross sections, 232, 238–39, 248, 249
“fuzzy” nature of, 78, 80, 81, 97
and Schrödinger's equation, 77–81, 79, 230–32
processor, 135, 136, 138, 143, 315, 322, 324, 358, 360, 402, 412
protons, 36, 400, 405, 410, 412
as baryons, 213
composed of quarks, 209
equal number of electrons and protons, 262, 369
formation of after the big bang, 176
impact of on spatial-state solutions, 82
spin states of protons, 294
strong force binding neutrons and protons in nucleus, 216–17, 416
use of colliders to discover new particles, 203–204
See also charge
Proton Synchrotron (PS), center insert Fig. 9.10
p states, 231, 247, 249, 253, 255, 257–58, 259, 262, 265, 310, 321, 366, 367, 369, 372, 409, 418
PTR. See Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology
QED. See quantum electrodynamics
QKD. See encryption and code breaking
quanta (quantum). See electromagnetism; energy; light
Quanta Enigma (Rosenblum and Kuttner), 322
Quanta Magazine, 220
quantum bits. See qubits
quantum chromodynamics. See color, color charge
quantum computers, 17, 129–32, 138–43, 146, 150, 324
isotopic nuclear spin, 359, 360–62
nitrogen-vacancy centers (NV centers), 359, 360–61
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 358
quantum dots, 143, 358–59, 412
See also SQUIDs
Quantum—Einstein, Bohr, and the Great Debate about the Nature of Reality (Kumar), 22, 34
quantum electrodynamics (QED), 214–16, 408, 412, 413
quantum entanglement. See entanglement
quantum mechanics, 11–13, 15, 21, 91–94, 402, 412
attendees at Fifth Solvay International Conference (1927) (Fig. 1.1), 20, 21–22
challenge to Copenhagen interpretation of, 99–104
clash between relativity and, 197
as a “closed theory,” 100–101, 102, 105
Einstein's efforts to refute, 99–104, 107–111
interpretations of, 120–21 (see also “collapse theories”; Copenhagen interpretation; “many worlds”; matrix mechanics; Schrödinger's equation; wave mechanics)
“local hidden variables” (LHV) theory, 110, 116–17, 118–19
roles of nature, philosophy, and mathematics, 125–28
superconductivity as a quantum mechanical property, 417
unitarity as a tenet of, 190
use of to describe the micro world, 101, 111
Quantum Mechanics (Schumacher), 130
l (angular momentum quantum number), 52, 56, 57, 80, 230–31, 232, 247, 249, 253, 403, 405, 408, 410, 414
m (magnetic quantum number), 52, 56, 57, 79, 80, 232, 234, 249, 253, 409
n (primary quantum number), 56, 57, 80, 230–31, 232, 248, 249, 253, 410
and shells, 414
spin as a quantum number, 56, 57, 80, 232, 249, 416
quantum packets, 404
quantum photonics. See photons
Quantum Physics and the Nature of Reality Conference, 121
quantum states, 147, 361, 412. See also spatial state; spin
quantum theory, 15, 16, 21, 126–27, 401, 402, 410, 412, 413
applied to the practical world, 17
quarks, 206, 210, 400, 402, 406, 413, 416
flavors or types of, 208–209, 405 (see also bottom quarks; charm quarks; down quarks; strange quarks; top quark; up quarks)
gauge boson exchanged between (see gluons [strong force])
a hadron formed of three quarks (see baryons)
particle landscape, center insert Fig. 9.11
quarks and antiquarks (see mesons)
quark “soup,” 174, 176, 195, 197–220
and strong nuclear force, 216–17, 416–17
qubits, 138, 139–43, 145–46, 357, 360, 408, 413
Quest to Find the True Age of the Universe and the Theory of Everything, The (Gribbin), 181–82
QuintessenceLabs (company), 150
radiation, 27, 68, 76, 80, 99, 344
See also blackbody radiation; cosmic microwave background radiation; electromagnetism, electromagnetic radiation; gamma rays (gamma radiation); Hawking radiation; x-rays
radioactivity, 41, 112, 216, 259, 297–98, 352, 413, 418. See also alpha rays; beta rays; gamma rays
radio waves, 42, 294, 337, 343, 344, 358, 404, 413
Radushkevich, L. V., 314
Reagan administration, 203
REBCO (rare-earth-barium-copper oxide), 327
recombination, 176, 191–92, 195
regimentation. See coherence
relative frame of reference. See frame of reference
relativity, 16, 107–108, 159, 352, 415
clash between quantum mechanics and, 197, 217–19
See also general theory of relativity; special theory of relativity
renormalization, 413
electrical resistance, 201, 280, 304, 320, 330, 403, 404
and superconductivity, 291, 292, 295, 326, 417
resonance, 414
magnetic resonance. See MRI; nuclear magnetic resonance
RHIC collider, 203
Riess, Adam G., 197
“Rise of the Nanowire Transistor” (Stevenson), 324
Rochester Gas and Electric, 331
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 114
Rosen, Nathan, 108. See also EPR paradox
Ross, Mary, 115
Royal Society in London, 29, 71
Rubbia, Carlo (Nobel Prize winner), 200
Rusk, Ernst, 67
Rutherford, Ernest (Nobel Prize winner), 41–42, 44, 49, 53, 72, 114
s (“sharp” spectral lines). See angular momentum quantum numbers; spectral line
Sagan, Carl, 11
SAKTI3 (company), 324
Salam, Abdus (Nobel Prize winner), 211
Savage, Neil, 324
SCE. See Southern California Edison
Scerri, Eric, 223–24, 225, 347, 352, 353
Schmidt, Brian P., 197
Schrieffer, Robert (Nobel Prize winner), 291
Schrödinger, Erwin, 68, 72–74, 73, 75, 97, 98, 99, 114, 125, 126, 190, 233
efforts to develop unified field theory, 73
at Fifth Solvay Conference, 99–104
See also wave mechanics
Schrödinger's cat paradox, 111–13
Schrödinger's equation, 80, 92, 281, 402, 414
applied to visualizing an atom, 77–81, 79
for hydrogen atom, 75–76, 78, 144, 229, 262
for many-electron atoms, 248, 262, 266, 280
spatial-state solutions, 79, 81–82, 227–29, 232, 234, 261, 263, 263–65, 273, 402, 412
and standing waves, 77, 78, 81–82
and wavefunction, 92–93, 121, 418
See also Copenhagen interpretation
Schumacher, Benjamin, 130
Schwarzschild, Karl, 184
Schwinger, Julian, 215
Scientific American (journal), 311
scientific notation and scientific shorthand, use of, 22–23
screening
of electrons, 261, 263, 265, 376, 414
electrostatic screening (shielding), 262
semiconductors, 280–81, 288, 413–14
applications and inventions, 319–24
and band gap, 312, 319, 320, 321
charge-coupled devices (CCDS), 322–23
insulators and electrical conduction in, 279–83
metalloids as, 409
n-type semiconductor, 410
in the periodic table, 259
p-type semiconductor, 321, 412
and quantum dots, 358
semiconductor-chip-construction, 360
solid-state semiconductor electronic devices, 17, 18, 324
undoped semiconductors, 319–21
semimetals, 281, 319, 409, 414
SeQureNet (company), 150
787 Dreamliner (aircraft), 317–18
Shapiro, Julie, 289
sharp (characteristic of spectral lines). See angular momentum; spectral line
Sharpe, Alan G., 373
shell, 414
and the Bohr-Sommerfeld model of the atom, 55–56
outer-electron energies, sizes of atoms, and filled-valence-subshell ions, 369–71, center insert Table D.1
subshell, 253–54, 257–58, 259, 265, 303, 364, 367
use of concept of exclusion applied to Bohr-Sommerfeld theory, 57–58
Shinkansen (bullet train), 292
Shor's algorithm, 359
Simmons, Michelle, 359
sky map, 194–95, center insert Fig. 9.7 (b)
small object, 414
Snowden, Edward, 138
Soddy, Frederick (Nobel Prize winner), 41
Solar City (company), 324
amorphous solids, 276, 400, 406
strength and weight of, innovations in, 289
See also glass
solution, 415
Solvay, Ernest, 21
Solvay International Conference on quantum mechanics
Fifth Conference in 1927, 20, 21–22, 99–104
Sixth Conference in 1930, 105, 107–108
Sommerfeld, Arnold, 51–53, 55, 59, 70, 99
sound, 62, 135, 161, 295, 323, 415
Southern California Edison (SCE), 331–32
Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry, 314
space as finite loops, center insert Fig. 9.11
space elevator, 317
space-time, 157, 165, 407, 415
and the expanding-universe scenario, 162, 163
in the general theory of relativity, 158–59
gravity as a distortion of, 177
gravity resulting from curvature of, 158, 218
and loop quantum gravity, 219
and merger of black holes, 187
See also observer, role of, time relative to; special theory of relativity
spatial state, 80, 226, 410, 415
and angular momentum, 230–32, 234, 251, 303, 403, 415
magnetic moments, 403, 405, 410
properties of 128 of the lowest energy combined spin and spatial states of the hydrogen atom electron, 238–39, 246
properties of 128 of the lowest energy states for electron in generic many-electron atoms, 252
and Schrödinger's equation, 77–81, 79, 227–29, 402, 412
standing waves as part of solution, 81–82
“spatial-state magnetic quantum number” (also known as m), 52, 56, 57, 80, 232, 234, 249, 253, 406
of water (H2O), 273
special theory of relativity, 103, 106, 156–57, 233, 406
spectral line, 51, 68, 80, 161, 230, 415
and Bohr's model of the atom, 48, 49
d (“diffuse” spectral line), 230, 403
f (“fundamental” spectral line), 230, 405
p (“principal” spectral line), 246, 410
s (“sharp” spectral line), 230, 414
spectral-line splitting, 415
See also angular momentum quantum numbers
spectrometer, 415
electromagnetic spectrum, 30, 60, 192, 337–44
hydrogen spectrum, 47–49, 48, 51, 70, 76, 215, 231, 408
See also spectral line
Spectrum (journal), 324
“Speculations about Earth and Sky and on Vesta” (Tsiolkovsky), 317
speed of light (c), 16, 23, 85, 102, 110, 146, 172, 198, 404, 407, 409, 416. See also special theory of relativity
and angular momentum, 233, 250
and electrons, 55–56, 76, 77, 361, 415
in antimatter electrons, 175
combined spin and spatial states of the hydrogen atom electron, 238–39, 246, 252
and populating states of the many-electron atom, 252–53
switching between quantum-dot spin states, 358
isotopic nuclear spin, 143, 359, 360–62
minus spin, 233–34, 247, 253, 291–92, 303
plus spin, 233–34, 247, 249, 253, 291–92
and protons, 294
as a quantum number, 56, 57, 80, 232, 249, 416
and Schrödinger's equation, 72, 402
spinfoam theory (covariant LQG). See gravity/gravitational field
SPS. See Super Proton Synchrotron
SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference device), 143, 295–96, 360, 408, 416
s states, 231, 247, 249, 250, 253, 255, 257, 259, 262, 265, 310, 321, 365, 370, 371, 409
Standard International (SI) units, 413
Standard Model of particle physics, 154, 174, 177, 197, 203, 205, 206–217, 218, 250, 410, 416
fundamental particles, 207–208, 214, 217
particle landscape, 208, 210–11, 212, 214, 215, center insert Fig. 9.11
standing wave, 416
de Broglie on, 62–64, 63, 74, 78, 100, 116–17, 118–19
harmonic vibrations, 62–64, 63, 81–82
Schrödinger on, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81–82
Stark, Johannes, 51
stars and galaxies, 16, 17, 126, 153, 160, 182–84, center insert Figs. 9.3–9.5
bending of starlight, 51
collapsing of stars, 182–83, 186
and the expansion of the universe, 161, 167
mass of sun and stars, 43, 181, 182, 186, 187, 189
See also black holes; dark matter; universe
Star Trek (TV series), 144, 147
Star Wars (movie), 86
states, allowed, 147, 361, 412
generic table of states, 246, 249, 253, 262, 406
steps leading to modern arrangement of periodic table, 246–55
See also atoms, and ground state; d states; electrons, states in; excited states; f states; p states; spatial state; spin; s states; stationary state
stationary state, 44, 46, 93, 95
Stellarator, 300
Stevenson, Richard, 324
strange quarks, 210, 416, center insert Fig. 9.11
string theory, 218, 219–20, 416
M theory, 219
Strominger, Andrew, 190
strong force, 202, 210, 213, 416
quantum chromodynamics, 216–17
strong nuclear force, 209–10, 400, 401, 402, 406, 408, 410, 416–17
subatomic particles, 92, 206–217, 209, 210, 217, 402, 403, 411, 416, 417
See also baryons; bosons; electrons; fundamental particles; leptons; mesons; muons; neutrons; protons; quarks
submicroscopic, 93, 111, 126, 127, 360, 417
Sumitomo Electric Industries, 330
sun, 107, 181, 183, 186, 187, 298, 344, 405
planets orbiting, 42–43, 43, 49, 51, 92
superconducting quantum interference device. See SQUIDs
Superconducting Super Collider, 203
superconductivity, 288, 291–92, 311, 417. See also critical current; temperature, critical temperature
superconductors, 17, 18, 296, 326
high-temperature superconducting materials, 326–27, 330–31
intermediate temperature superconductors, 327
power generation and transmission, 288, 325–32, 329
fault-current-limiting transformer, 330, 331–32
superconducting torus (tokomak), 299–300, 326–27, 417
in transportation, medicine, and computing, 291–96 (see also quantum computers)
maglev (magnetically levitated trains), 292–93, 293
MRI, 294–95, 304, 305, 313, 327
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 143, 294, 358
See also Josephson junction; SQUIDs
Supernova Cosmology Project, 197
SuperPower (company), 330, 331
Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) preaccelerator, 200, center insert Fig. 9.10
Svore, Krysta, 130
Talmud, Max, 33
taus, 408, center insert Fig. 9.11
Taylor, Joseph (Nobel Prize winner), 187
Tegmark, Max, 121
critical temperature, 291–92, 294, 326, 403, 417
high temperatures and superconductor operation, 326, 327, 330–31
two-dimensional outward-looking sky map, 194–95, center insert Fig. 9.7 (b)
temperature scale, 294, 401, 417, 418. See also Celsius scale; Fahrenheit scale; Kelvin scale
Terrestrial Energy (company), 298
Tevatron collider, 203, 203–204, 325
theories of relativity. See general theory of relativity; relativity; special theory of relativity
“theory of everything” (Hawking), 218
thermonuclear energy, 406
Thomson, J. J., 34–36, 35, 37, 41, 44, 64, 199
three dimensions, 74, 78, 80, 81, 86, 101, 157, 275, 319, 403
time. See clock; coherence time; gravity/gravitational field, and time; observer, role of; space-time
Toback, David, 11–13, 162, 177, 185, 195, 196
tokomak reactors, 299–300, 326–27, 417
Tomonaga, Sin Itiro (Nobel Prize winner), 215
top quark, 204, 212, center insert Fig. 9.11
transistors, 136, 141, 294, 312, 401, 406, 418
and semiconductors, 134, 135, 319, 321–24
“Transistors Could Stop Shrinking in 2021” (Courtland), 324
transition. See electrons
transition metals/transition elements, 255, 259–60, 270, 364, 372–73, 375, 418
transmutation, 418
transuranic elements, 418
Tri Alpha Energy (company), 301
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 317
Tunney machine, 134
Turing, Alan, 134
Turner, Michael S., 176
two-dimensional material. See graphenes
two-slit experiment. See wave-particle nature of matter and energy
uncertainty principle
and the Copenhagen interpretation, 98, 105, 107
Einstein on, 95–96, 104, 105, 108
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 96, 100, 105, 108, 188, 215, 418
unified field theory, 73, 103, 115
unit, 23, 169, 345, 346, 400, 401, 404, 418
unit of angular momentum, 230, 231, 232, 233, 250, 411
unit of charge, 36, 74, 213, 370, 412
United Kingdom Atomic Energy Research Establishment, 115
contracting universe, 159
curvature of the universe, 162, 195
Earth-centered universe, 159
expanding universe, 159, 160–63, 165–70, 168, 191–94, 195 (see also big bang theory)
coalescence of matter in, 170, 171, 173–77, 186
phases of expansion, 162, 167–69, 168, 172, 178, 187, 195, 407
the universe from the big bang until now, 173–77
quantum fluctuations, 16, 178, 188, 194–95
“steady state” model of, 164, 191
See also black holes; dark energy; dark matter; galaxies and stars; gravity/gravitational field, gravity waves
University of Berlin (now Humboldt University of Berlin), 26, 40, 47, 50, 96
up quarks, 176, 210, center insert Fig. 9.11
US Defense Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 150
US Department of Defense, 302
US Department of Energy, 329, 330, 331
US National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 305
US National Security Agency, 138
valence band, 281, 319, 320, 321, 418
valence-subshell ions, 364, 369–72, center insert Table D.1
van der Meer, Simon (Nobel Prize winner), 200
visible light, 67, 82, 85, 343, 344, 415
VLHC collider, 203
volts, 281, 404, 411, 413, 418. See also electron volt
von Neumann, John, 116–17, 136
Walker, Michael “Mike,” 11, 12, 329
water (H2O)
bent shape of, 273
water and waves hitting a wall, 27, 28, 29, 30, 37, 64, 342
Watson, James (Nobel Prize winner), 73
Waukesha Electric Systems (formerly Waukesha Transformer), 331, 332
collapse of requiring an observer, 119
Copenhagen interpretation of, 102, 103, 112, 119, 122
and electrons, 97, 140, 250–51, 312
and entanglement, 109, 111, 147
and Schrödinger, 77, 82, 92, 93, 101, 112, 121, 414, 415, 418
single-slit experiment, 102–103
wavelength, 49, 84, 141, 165, 402, 404, 408, 411, 415, 418
crest-to-crest wavelength, 27, 28, 30
of electromagnetic radiation, 344
and interference, 407
and the photoelectric effect, 31
and photon-from-a-box experiment, 105, 106, 107
in plane-polarized electromagnetic wave, 340, 342
and polarization associated with color, 344
and sound, 415
wave mechanics, 68, 72–76, 91, 97, 98, 112, 415
compared with matrix mechanics, 101
and the hydrogen atom, 75–76, 144, 214–15
transformation theory of Dirac and Jordan, 75, 100
wave-particle nature of matter and energy, 97, 413
and complementarity, 98, 101, 102, 103
and the Copenhagen interpretation, 77, 100, 101
dual particle/wave nature of electrons, 65–67
two-slit experiment, 65–66, 65–67, 100, 103, 121, 122
wave-particle duality of light, 37, 60
wave propagation, 340, 341–42, 343
waves hitting a wall, 27, 28, 29, 30, 64
W boson (weak force), 200, 211, 401, center insert Fig. 9.11
weak nuclear force, 210–11, 401, 418
weight, 407, 409, 418, 419. See also gravity/gravitational field
Weinberg, Steven (Nobel Prize winner), 211
Wendelstein 7-X (magnetic-confinement system), 300
Westinghouse (company), 328, 329
What Is Life (Schrödinger), 73
Wheeler, John, 185
Wiggins, Arthur, 34
Wikipedia, 311
Wilkins, Maurice (Nobel Prize winner), 73
Wilson, Robert (Nobel Prize winner), 192–94, 193
World Wide Web, 131
Wynn, Charles, 34
x-rays, 59–60, 265, 313, 344, 375–76, 404, 419
Yamanashi test track, 292, 293
YBCO (yttrium-barium-copper oxide), 327, 330
Young, Thomas, 27, 29, 37, 67, 337
Yukawa, Hideki (Nobel Prize winner), 209
Z boson (weak force), 211, 401, center insert Fig. 9.11
Zelliger, Anton, 146