Name means: “My Lord Is My Lord.”
Home: Born in Hebron; probably lived in Jerusalem.
Family: Fourth son of David, born to Haggith; apparently the oldest surviving son after the deaths of Amnon and Absalom. See “The Family of David” at 2 Sam. 3:2–5.
Best known for: His bid to inherit the throne of his father David; he failed despite support from the military (Joab) and the priesthood (Abiathar). Spared by Solomon after trying to seize the throne, he was later executed for trying to marry Abishag, one of David’s caregivers in his old age.
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God had promised David an unending dynasty (2 Sam. 7:16), and after the king’s death Israel must have wondered who would take the throne to carry on this legacy. Adonijah had popular support, but David named Adonijah’s half brother Solomon as heir (1 Kin. 1:11–14, 28–30, 38, 39).
Although Solomon extended grace to Adonijah (1:50–53), the older brother refused any role but king. Desperate to maintain his place in the power structure, he enlisted Solomon’s mother Bathsheba in a ploy to marry Abishag, a young woman who had cared for elderly David (2:13–18). Because a king’s harem normally went to his successor, the union of Adonijah and Abishag would have declared Adonijah the rightful heir to David’s throne. Solomon saw through the scheme and had Adonijah executed (2:22–25).
This is a story we can relate to today. Power brokers still scheme to protect their interests. And there is nothing surprising about a leader embroiled in scandal, because a drive for power leads to all kinds of evil. We can overcome our own thirst for control by trusting our lives to God and faithfully carrying out whatever He asks us to do. Rather than forcing our own agenda, we can count on Him to act for our good.
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Also known as: Bathshua (1 Chr. 3:5); often called the wife of Uriah (2 Sam. 11:3; 11:26; 12:10; Matt. 1:6).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Daughter of Eliam (also called Ammiel); possibly the granddaughter of Ahithophel, one of David’s counselors; wife of Uriah the Hittite; married David after Uriah’s murder; mother of Shimea, Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon. See “The Family of David” at 2 Sam. 3:2–5.
Occupation: Homemaker.
Best known as: The woman taken by David in adultery, leading to an illegitimate pregnancy, her husband’s murder, her marriage to David, the death of their first child, and the birth of David’s successor Solomon (11:1—12:25).
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If the tabernacle altar was similar to the altar that Moses was commanded to build (see “The Altar of Burnt Offering” at Ex. 27:1–8), it had a horn on each corner. Altars have been unearthed in Palestine dating to the period of Solomon, though the altar referred to in 1 Kings remains undiscovered.
More: By clinging to the horns on the altar, Adonijah followed a time-honored principle that places of worship should be sanctuaries where justice is ensured. The same concept was behind the designation of six cities of refuge in Israel. See “Cities of Refuge” in Num. 35:11.
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When the day draws near for us to bid farewell to this life and prepare to enter our new life in the heavenly home prepared for us (John 14:2), David’s last words to Solomon offer valuable insight into how to encourage and equip our children to carry on the faith. David’s final charge contained several parts:
• A blunt recognition and acceptance of death (1 Kin. 2:2).
• A challenge to Solomon to act responsibly (2:2).
• A review of God’s covenant with Israel (2:3) and David’s house (2:4).
• Instructions about justice and honoring David’s commitments (2:5–9).
As parents we spend our lives teaching and encouraging our children to walk in the ways of the Lord. This work reaches its final pinnacle as we bequeath upon our children their final spiritual inheritance. Like David, we can make the most of this moment by demonstrating a peaceful spirit in the face of death, challenging our children to do what is right, reminding them of God’s promises and character, and urging them to use wisdom as they navigate the conflicts of this world.
More: The Bible offers a wealth of advice for raising children with a strong sense of faith—and what to do when they wander from it. To learn more, see the articles under “Parenting” in the “Family” section of the Themes to Study index.
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Name means: “Peaceful.”
Also known as: Jedidiah (“Beloved of the Lord”; 2 Sam. 12:25).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Tenth son of David, born to Bathsheba; related to numerous half brothers and sisters, including Absalom and Adonijah; married hundreds of wives and concubines, including Pharaoh’s daughter; father of his successor Rehoboam. See “The Family of Solomon” at 2 Chr. 9:31.
Occupation: King of Israel.
Best known as: David’s wise successor who built his father’s kingdom into an empire that briefly dominated the Middle East.
More: Underlying all of Solomon’s accomplishments was a legendary God-given wisdom. See “The Wise King” at 1 Kin. 10:24.
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Joab had good reason to assume that he would be protected from Solomon’s wrath by taking refuge at the altar. His late master Adonijah had preserved his life not long before in the same way. See “The Horns of the Altar” at 1 Kings 1:50, 51.
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Shimei did not have to travel far from Jerusalem to retrieve his slaves from Gath, but the trip cost him his life (1 Kin. 2:46). Learn more about this Philistine stronghold in the city’s profile at 1 Samuel 27:3.
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The existence of high places and the habit of Solomon and the people of using them for worship was a disturbing sign. The high places had been centers of Canaanite idolatry. Even though Israelites in this era may have used them to worship the one true God, the settings may have tempted them to imitate idolatrous practices. Learn more in “The High Places” at Deuteronomy 12:2.
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When God approached Solomon in a dream, He informed the new king that He stood ready to grant any request. Money, health, and happiness were all available for the asking. But Solomon wanted “an understanding heart” (1 Kin. 3:9).
Considering the challenges facing the new king, the request itself was exceptionally wise. Young Solomon was replacing an extraordinary ruler and was well aware of his own inexperience. He’d been saddled with the responsibility of leading God’s people, an assembly that for hundreds of years had shown stubbornness, rebellion, and abrasiveness toward their leaders (see “The Humblest Man on the Face of the Earth” at Num. 12:3). Perhaps Solomon concluded that in order to become a good king to these people, he must become a wise king.
Moreover, Solomon had recently emerged from a messy fight over the right of succession (1 Kin. 1–2). Most of his enemies had been eliminated, but he was not likely to forget the hardship of those events. Solomon might have worried that he would face the same recurring threats to his life and crown that his father had endured. The circumstances leading to Solomon’s birth (2 Sam. 11–12) and the fact that he was not the eldest son had already given him a shaky start. Given his background, Solomon had good reason to ask for the ability to “discern between good and evil” (1 Kin. 3:9).
The Lord felt delight at Solomon’s request, the same joy He feels whenever people show purity of heart (Matt. 5:8). God granted him wisdom beyond any measure Solomon had anticipated (1 Kin. 3:12). Then He added gifts Solomon had not asked for: long life, honor, and vast wealth (3:13, 14). Solomon put his gift of wisdom immediately to use when he met two women fighting over a baby and was able to discern which was the true mother, in what has become one of the most best-known stories of the Bible (3:16–27). Solomon was blessed with wisdom, and the nation was blessed with another king determined to fear God and adhere to His law in administering justice to the people (3:28).
Discerning between good and evil, however, is not the same as doing good and rejecting evil. Despite his “understanding heart,” Solomon foolishly entered into hundreds of political marriages (11:1, 2; see also “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14). These marriages directly violated God’s law, and when his wives turned his heart to idolatry, his kingdom was eventually torn in two (1 Kin. 11:9–13).
Many of us have spent time daydreaming about what we would ask for if put in Solomon’s situation. But we should instead consider whether we are making the most of the gifts God has already given us. Even with unsurpassed wisdom, health, wealth, and honor, Solomon still turned away from the Lord. Whatever our gifts may be, they will wither and fade if we center our lives around ourselves. But if we dedicate our gifts to God and live in His service, He will bring them to their fullest potential, far beyond what we can even imagine (Eph. 3:20).
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The Justice of Wisdom
Earl Warren (1891–1974) was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1953 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who described Warren as a representative of “the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court.… [Warren] has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage.”
Warren had enjoyed immense popularity during his three terms as the governor of California, winning his most recent election unopposed. However, some found the Republican’s opinions as the nation’s leading jurist to be unabashedly liberal. Historians dispute whether Eisenhower actually said that Warren’s appointment was “the biggest fool mistake I ever made.” Regardless, the Chief Justice became a ready target among conservatives. Across the country, signs declared, “Impeach Earl Warren!”
During his tenure as Chief Justice (1953–1969), Warren’s greatest gifts to the court were his resolute leadership and his belief that the United States Constitution guaranteed rights not to some citizens but to all. He forged consensus around groundbreaking court decisions we now take for granted. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) unanimously banned segregation in public schools. Baker v. Carr and Reynolds v. Sims (1962–1964) established the principle of “one man, one vote,” ensuring fair representation in state legislatures. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) required public attorneys to be made available to all criminal defendants unable to afford legal counsel. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) mandated that anyone brought into police custody be informed of their rights, leading to what was formalized as the Miranda Warning. Under Warren, the court also outlawed mandatory school prayer in Engel v. Vitale (1962).
Strong Christian principles guided Warren’s work; he told Time Magazine, “I believe no one can read the history of our country … without realizing that the Good Book and the spirit of the Savior have from the beginning been our guiding geniuses.” He added that the charters of the first states were united in their objective of “a Christian land governed by Christian principles,” and he asserted that “the entire Bill of Rights came into being because of the knowledge our forefathers had of the Bible and their belief in it: freedom of belief, of expression, of assembly, of petition, the dignity of the individual, the sanctity of the home, equal justice under the law, and the reservation of powers to the people.” Warren felt that as long as citizens lived out the spirit of the Christian faith, “no great harm can come to our country.”
Warren demonstrated wisdom in his victories, but he also demonstrated wisdom in his ability to learn from his past mistakes. As Attorney General of California during World War II, Warren had been the moving force behind Japanese internment after the attack on Pearl Harbor. He later stated that he “deeply regretted the removal order and my own testimony advocating it, because it was not in keeping with our American concept of freedom and the rights of citizens.… Whenever I thought of the innocent little children who were torn from home, school friends, and congenial surroundings, I was conscience-stricken.… It was wrong to react so impulsively, without positive evidence of disloyalty.”
After his retirement in 1969, Warren warned that America faced continued upheaval if it did not recognize the rightful demand of equality for all. Warren died in 1975 and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery. He was posthumously Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
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David unified Israel under a strong, sustainable monarchy, but his successor Solomon took the nation to the next level, establishing it as one of the most dominant trading and military powers of the ancient world. Twelve governors oversaw administrative districts (see “The Twelve Districts” at 1 Kin. 4:7–19), with a cabinet of senior officials serving Solomon at Jerusalem.
Name: Azariah, the son of Zadok
Position: High priest
Responsibilities: Oversaw worship and religious rituals, representing the people to God.
Name: Elihoreph and Ahijah, the sons of Shisha
Position: Scribes
Responsibilities: Similar to chancellors or secretaries of state.
Name: Jehoshaphat, the son of Ahilud
Position: Recorder
Responsibilities: Maintained written historical records of the king’s business and the events of his reign.
Name: Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada
Position: Military commander
Responsibilities: Supervised the nation’s defenses, including its storage and chariot cities; led the army in military engagements; handled royal police matters (1 Kin. 2:28–35).
Name: Zadok and Abiathar
Position: Priests
Responsibilities: Oversaw religious matters and served as custodians of the Law.
Name: Azariah, the son of Nathan
Position: General
Responsibilities: Carried out the military orders of Solomon and Benaiah.
Name: Zabud, the son of Nathan
Position: Confidant
Responsibilities: Consulted with the king on personal matters.
Name: Ahishar
Position: Manager of Solomon’s household
Responsibilities: Oversaw the palace complex and the needs of Solomon’s extensive court (1 Kin. 4:22, 23; 11:3).
Name: Adoniram, the son of Abda
Position: Manager of the king’s labor force
Responsibilities: Led Solomon’s construction projects (1 Kin. 5:13; 7:1–8; 9:15–19).
More: Solomon’s cabinet appears to have been more extensive than the aides assembled by his father David. See “David’s Cabinet” at 2 Sam. 8:16–18.
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Jehoshaphat served as a recorder under both David and Solomon. His job was to preserve history through official annals. Similar jobs today would include registrars, court reporters, and historians. To learn more about the job of a recorder, which changed over the course of Israel’s history, see the entry for “Records Clerk (Recorder)” in the Jobs and Occupations index.
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King Solomon organized Israel into twelve administrative districts, each with its own governor. A primary job of these governors was to “provide food for the king and his household” (1 Kin. 4:7, 27). They must have exacted heavy taxes to meet the needs of Solomon’s expansive household (4:22, 23), large military (4:26, 28), and vast building projects (6:37—7:12; 9:15–19).
The districts were usually identified by their principal cities (4:8–19). Notably absent from the list was the territory of Judah. Solomon regarded his own tribe as distinct from the rest of Israel (4:20) and may have exempted it from taxation.
Solomon’s administrative system brought efficiency to the government, but the king’s expenses may have exceeded what his governors brought in. That could be why he gave twenty Galilean cities to King Hiram of Tyre (9:10–14). The heavy taxes he imposed also sowed discontent among his subjects, as Solomon’s son Rehoboam would later find out (12:1–19).
District 1: Mountains of Ephraim
Governor: Ben-Hur
District 2: Makaz
Governor: Ben-Deker
District 3: Arubboth
Governor: Ben-Hesed
District 4: Dor
Governor: Ben-Abinadab (Solomon’s son-in-law)
District 5: Taanach
Governor: Baana
District 6: Ramoth Gilead
Governor: Ben-Geber
District 7: Mahanaim
Governor: Ahinadab
District 8: Naphtali
Governor: Ahimaaz (Solomon’s son-in-law)
District 9: Asher and Aloth
Governor: Baanah
District 10: Issachar
Governor: Jehoshaphat
District 11: Benjamin
Governor: Shimei
District 12: Gilead
Governor: Geber
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Under Solomon’s leadership, Israel briefly emerged as a powerhouse of wealth and military might, with an influence extending from the Euphrates to Egypt and an affluence spreading to a “multitude” of citizens who reveled in “eating and drinking and rejoicing” (1 Kin. 4:20). As Solomon’s reign temporarily ended threats from both without and within, everyone lived in safety, “each man under his vine and his fig tree” (4:25).
Meanwhile, the cost of maintaining Solomon’s court was enormous (4:22, 23). His many building projects, including his gilded temple and even more lavishly decorated palace, were funded by increased taxes that created unrest and eventually led to a revolt (10:14, 15; 12:4, 18). Israel’s current economy also created a two-class society of privileged citizens and menial workers, most of whom were foreigners (9:15, 20–23). And while trade was lively (9:26–28; 10:22, 23), it contributed to a depletion of natural resources (see “The Cedar Trade” at 1 Kin. 7:2 and “The Ruin of the Land” at Is. 10:19).
These problems linger in the background of 1 Kings 4–10, which describes the peace and prosperity that Israel enjoyed after much turmoil. Reports of the empire’s power and prestige cascade from the text until the beginning of chapter 11. There the good news suddenly halts with the transition, “But King Solomon loved many foreign wives” (1 Kin. 11:1).
As Solomon turned from the Lord and worshiped the idols of his foreign brides (11:4–8), circumstances in Israel rapidly declined. God pronounced judgment on the king (11:9–13) and raised up adversaries against him (11:14–25). One of Solomon’s aides, Jeroboam, led a rebellion by the ten northern tribes (11:26–28), and the kingdom split after Solomon’s death (12:1–19). The wisest king who ever ruled (3:12; 10:3, 6, 7, 24) blatantly violated the Law by accumulating wives who led him into idolatry—and with his subjects looking to him as a spiritual leader, Solomon may in turn have led countless others into idolatry as well. A once brilliant reign ended in tragedy as God’s people turned away from Him and against one another in war.
This tragedy may never have occurred if Israel and its king had not overlooked the warning signs of disaster. Prosperity can dull the spiritual sensitivity of even the most devoted people of God. In and of itself, prosperity isn’t evil. But as Jesus pointed out, the deceitfulness of riches can choke the spiritual life of both individuals and nations (Matt. 13:22). The New Testament warns us to stay spiritually vigilant lest we fall into temptation (1 Cor. 10:12, 13; 1 Pet. 1:13; 5:8).
God’s blessings give us reason to be thankful. But we should never ignore the fact that prosperity makes us especially vulnerable to losing touch with God. With increasing wealth comes persistent temptation to forget that God is the source of every good thing (James 1:17). Without Him, all of life would be a tragedy; with Him, we still experience ups and downs but always in the knowledge of the joy that is to come (Rom. 8:18; 2 Cor. 4:17; Rev. 21:4).
More: During the peak of Israel’s empire, Solomon effectively controlled the entire western part of the Fertile Crescent. To see how much territory this covered, see the map at “Solomon’s Empire” at 2 Chr. 9:26. As Israel split into a two-tiered society of a wealthy upper class and a poor lower class, it followed in the footsteps of its predecessors in the land, the Canaanites and the Philistines. See “The Canaanites” at Josh. 3:10 and “The Philistines” at Judg. 13:1.
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Name means: “My Brother Is the Exalted.”
Not to be confused with: The expert craftsman Huram, also of Tyre, hired by Solomon to oversee the bronze work of the temple (1 Kin. 7:13, 14).
Home: Tyre, a major Phoenician seaport of Lebanon on the Mediterranean coast.
Family: Son of King Abibalus.
Occupation: King of Tyre for 34 years (978–944 B.C.).
Best known for: Supplying Solomon with cedar for the construction of the temple at Jerusalem.
More: Hiram of Tyre was probably David and Solomon’s most important ally. See “A Valuable Trading Partner” at 1 Kin. 9:27.
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As King Solomon built a house of worship for the Lord, he seemed to set no limit on its size, materials, beauty, and expense. Consider the costliness of Solomon’s project:
• The temple was constructed of the most precious building materials available, many of which were imported: cedar (1 Kin. 5:6), quarried stone (5:15–18), gold (6:20–22), olive wood (6:23–28, 31–33), cypress (6:34), and bronze (7:13–47).
• Solomon instructed his primary supplier, Hiram, to name his price for materials and workers (5:6); in exchange, Hiram supplied Solomon with as much material as he desired (9:11).
• The project employed 30,000 laborers (6:13), 150,000 stonemasons and haulers (6:15), and 3,300 supervisors (6:16).
• The stone was finished at the quarry before being carefully transported to the building site (6:7).
• Cedar panels, some ornately carved, embellished the walls (6:9, 15–18).
• The entire temple was overlaid with gold (6:20–22).
• The temple was furnished with items of finely crafted wood and gold (6:23–35; 7:48–50).
• So much bronze was used that its weight and cost were not determined (7:45–47).
The world has seldom seen a more lavish building project, and determining whether the expense was justified is not easy. The project contributed to the rising economic and social problems of Solomon’s reign, including heavy taxation, a growing foreign underclass, and the ravaging of Lebanon’s forests (see “Prosperity and Tragedy” at 1 Kin. 4:21, 24). The temple was not the sole cause of these troubles (note Solomon’s other projects in 9:15–19), but Solomon’s decision to build with only the costliest materials was characteristic of his rule.
On the other hand, Solomon’s intention to build a beautiful, lasting tribute to God’s glory (8:12, 13) was admirable. All buildings, especially those built for sacred purposes, can be constructed as works of art that glorify God. But many of the world’s great architectural feats were accomplished to memorialize those who built them, and Solomon may have also built the temple for his own glory. God apparently approved of Solomon’s achievement, however, because He blessed the sanctuary with His presence (8:10, 11).
Even so, God reminded Solomon that cedar and gold meant nothing compared to keeping the Law (6:11–13). When we build a house of worship, its size, beauty, and costliness matter little compared to the obedience and sincere devotion of the worshipers who gather there (8:27; Acts 7:48; 17:24; 1 Cor. 6:19, 20).
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Building According to the Blueprints
As Solomon constructed the temple, God reminded him that a spiritual foundation was necessary to support not only the project but life itself. Just as plans guided the building of the temple (1 Kin. 6:37, 38), so the Lord’s statutes, commandments, and judgments were meant to serve as blueprints for Solomon and the rest of God’s people.
Constructing a life is far more important and complex than any building, but we can rely on God’s Word for direction. If we do not examine our lives against the divine blueprints by reading and studying Scripture, we risk putting up a structure that will ultimately collapse (Matt. 7:24–27).
More: Living according to God’s blueprints means learning to determine His will. See “Discovering God’s Will” at Judg. 6:36–40. Recognizing that God has made us for unique purposes helps us carry out His desires for us. See “You Are Unique” at Ps. 33:15.
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Solomon’s laborers toiled for seven years to complete the temple (1 Kin. 6:38). They spent nearly twice that long completing the king’s palace. Four elaborate structures composed the palace complex:
• the House of the Forests of Lebanon (7:2),
• the Hall of Pillars (7:6),
• the throne room or Hall of Judgment (7:7), and
• the queen’s residence (7:8).
These extravagant dwellings reflect Solomon’s kingly policy of building and buying only the best. But the expense of the palace, temple, and Solomon’s other public works (9:15–19) created a crushing tax burden that slowly diminished his subjects’ loyalty (10:14, 15; 12:4). For more, see “A Tax Revolt Divides the Kingdom” at 1 Kings 12:18, 19.
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The parched landscape of modern-day Lebanon makes it difficult to imagine the massive cedar forests that flourished in the region three thousand years ago. The timber was so plentiful that Solomon sent thousands of laborers to cut and transport lumber to Jerusalem, where he used it to build structures that included his impressive palace, appropriately called the House of the Forest of Lebanon. Cedar was also used to construct the temple (1 Kin. 5:6–10; 6:9, 10, 15–18) and again much later in the second temple (Ezra 3:7).
Solomon was not the only ruler to import this fragrant, durable, and attractive wood. Lebanon traded cedar as well as cypress and fir with Syria, Egypt, and the nations of Mesopotamia. But in the centuries between Solomon and Christ, this lively economy collapsed. A massive change occurred in Palestine’s ecology (see “The Ruin of the Land” at Is. 10:19), and Scripture suggests that this disaster was part of God’s judgment against Israel for turning from Him.
Overcutting decimated Lebanon’s cedars even though ancient loggers practiced reforestation. Solomon was a major contributor to the problem, but the Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar far surpassed even Solomon’s demand, according to extrabiblical sources and, possibly, biblical prophets (for example, Hab. 2:17). Cedar forests vanished within generations, never to be replaced.
More: To learn more about God’s perspective on the environment, see the articles under “Environment” in the Themes to Study index.
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The clay molds for Solomon’s bronze works were fabricated from sediments in the Jordan River Valley a few miles north of the Jordan-Jabbok fork. This flood plain was part of a large geographic region known as the Arabah. See the map “The Plains of Israel” here.
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Solomon praised the Lord for keeping His “covenant and mercy,” words remarkably similar to lyrics composed by his father David (2 Sam. 22:51). Like David, Solomon understood mercy to mean that God would faithfully keep His promises. Find out more about God’s character in “The God of Mercy” at Deuteronomy 7:9.
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Solomon understood that the temple was a place in which and toward which people would pray (1 Kin. 8:38, 41, 42). The temple represented God’s presence on earth, so when the faithful prayed toward Jerusalem, they were turning to entreat the Lord.
People pray when they experience famine, pestilence, blight, and other plagues and sicknesses (8:37). But they pray for more than these widespread calamities. They turn to God for their deepest individual needs, what Solomon called the plague of a person’s heart.
These plagues leave us with nowhere to turn but toward God. He is ready to heal our most personal afflictions, the points where a fallen world’s trouble, pain, and sorrow intersect with our own heart and life. We serve a personal, loving God who cares about our individual needs. We pray, and God hears.
More: Habakkuk prayed from an anguished soul. See “The Prophet’s Complaints” at Hab. 1:2–4; 1:12—2:1.
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An International House of Prayer
Solomon’s prayer dedicating the temple showed that Israel’s God was the God of all nations. The king anticipated that foreigners from throughout the world would be drawn to the house of worship in Jerusalem. He asked God to honor their prayers so that “all peoples of the earth may know Your name and fear You.”
Solomon’s prayer was soon answered by a visit from the queen of Sheba (1 Kin. 10:1–13). She had heard rumors of Solomon’s splendors but wanted to see them for herself. When she observed all his accomplishments, she praised God for what the king had done for Israel (10:9). Other visitors had similar reactions (see “Attracted to Israel’s God” at 2 Chr. 6:32, 33).
The temple was situated at Jerusalem, but as Jesus pointed out (quoting Isaiah), it was meant to be “a house of prayer for all nations” (Is. 56:7; Mark 11:17). Likewise, Israel was to bless the nations and light the way toward the one true God (Gen. 12:1–3; Is. 51:4).
Jesus also taught His followers to be a light to the world (Matt. 5:14–16). But rather than gathering others to a central place of worship, believers today have been commanded to scatter throughout the earth, taking the news of God’s grace around the world (see “To Every Nation” at Matt. 28:19).
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The Lord Renews His Covenant with David
After Solomon had completed the temple, the Lord appeared to him, inviting him to renew the covenant that had been established with his father David. Psalm 72 expresses some of the political and spiritual significance of this agreement between the Lord and Solomon. Read the song in conjunction with this passage, and see also “An Anthem for the King” at Psalm 72:1.
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• A portion of the fortified citadel of Jebus (Jerusalem; see the site’s profile at 1 Chr. 11:4, 5) that was captured and fortified by David (2 Sam. 5:9).
• Name means “The Landfill.”
• May have been a tower filled with earth or another type of bastion strengthening a weak point in the wall; recent excavations suggest the Millo might have been a set of terraces supported by retaining walls to allow building on the city’s slopes.
• Repaired or expanded by King Solomon using forced labor (1 Kin. 9:15).
• Strengthened further by King Hezekiah to defend against an Assyrian attack (2 Chr. 32:5).
• Possibly the same as “the house of the Millo” (literally Beth Millo), site of the assassination of King Joash (2 Kin. 12:20).
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• An ancient Canaanite city 20 miles west of Jerusalem on the road to Joppa; strategically located near the Via Maris, the main highway connecting Egypt and Mesopotamia.
• Name means “Portion” or “Division.”
• Not conquered by the Israelites (Josh. 16:10; Judg. 1:29) but allotted to Ephraim (1 Chr. 7:28) and designated a Levitical city (see “The Levitical Cities” at Josh. 21:1–3).
• Taken over by the Philistines (2 Sam. 5:25; 1 Chr. 20:4).
• Captured and sacked by the Egyptians during Solomon’s reign, then given as a dowry to Pharaoh’s daughter when she married Solomon.
• Rebuilt by Solomon into a military and economic center (1 Kin. 9:15–19) eventually destroyed by the Assyrians.
• Served as an important military fortress during Jewish wars shortly before the time of Christ but was destroyed by the Romans.
• Site of several prominent discoveries, including a calendar from the age of Solomon based on agricultural seasons.
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Solomon’s storage cities warehoused government supplies of food, building materials, and military equipment. They were seen as a measure of the kingdom’s prosperity, prestige, and power.
Solomon’s kingdom was divided into twelve administrative districts (see “The Twelve Districts” at 1 Kin. 4:7–19), and much of the revenue the governors collected was probably channeled through the storage cities before delivery to Jerusalem (4:21). Excavations at Beth Shemesh (see the city’s profile at 1 Sam. 6:12) and Lachish have uncovered long, rectangular rooms used for storage. A large underground silo dating to Solomon’s era has been found at Megiddo, with the holding capacity of nearly thirteen thousand bushels of grain.
Other ancient rulers also built storage cities. Pharaoh forced the Israelite slaves to construct the supply cities of Pithom and Raamses in Egypt (see “Pithom, Raamses, and the Land of Goshen” at Ex. 1:7, 11). King Jehoshaphat and Hezekiah of Judah also developed storage cities during their reigns (2 Chr. 17:12; 32:27–29).
More: To learn more about Solomon’s storage cities, see the profiles for Hamath at 2 Chr. 8:3, 4; Tadmor at 2 Chr. 8:4; and Upper and Lower Beth Horon at 2 Chr. 8:5.
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• A seaport and settlement strategically located at the north end of the Gulf of Aqaba near a second port, Elath.
• Name means “Backbone of a Man.”
• Wayside for Israel during their wilderness journey on the way to Kadesh (Num. 33:35, 36).
• Key port for Solomon’s ships manned by Phoenician sailors, which he used to import gold, silver, ivory, spices, precious stones, wood, and exotic animals (1 Kin. 9:26–28; 10:11, 12, 22).
• Nearby extensive copper smelting and refining furnaces built where north winds provided a draft for the fires.
• Burned after Solomon’s reign but rebuilt, probably by Jehoshaphat, whose fleet was wrecked in port before it could sail (22:48, 49; 2 Chr. 20:35–37).
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Hiram of Tyre was probably the most valuable ally of both David and Solomon. He supplied them with not only raw materials but also expert craftsmen for their many building projects. He also helped launch Israel’s shipping industry by providing experienced sailors and ships (1 Kin. 9:26–28; 10:11, 22). During the twenty-year period of Solomon’s work on the temple and palace complex, Israel incurred a trade imbalance with Phoenicia. Hiram was compensated with twenty cities along the Galilean-Phoenician border, but he returned the settlements when he determined they were cabul, “good for nothing” (5:1–18; 9:10–14; 2 Chr. 8:1, 2).
More: Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar to construct the temple at Jerusalem. See his profile at 1 Kin. 5:1. Hiram’s eagerness to supply Israel and other nations with cedar may have precipitated the destruction of Lebanon’s forests. See “The Cedar Trade” at 1 Kin. 7:2.
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The exact identity and location of Ophir remains a mystery. Each time it appears in the Old Testament it is connected with gold, which seems to have been its main export (1 Kin. 10:11; 22:48; Job 28:16; Is. 13:12). Several sites have been suggested as Ophir’s location:
• The African lands of Punt or Sheba at the lower end of the Red Sea (modern-day Ethiopia and Somalia).
• The southern region of the Arabian peninsula on the Red Sea (modern-day Yemen).
• Southeastern Arabia on the Arabian Sea (modern-day Oman).
• A region of northwestern India (just north of modern-day Bombay).
• A region of southern Africa (modern-day Zimbabwe).
Wherever Ophir was located, the round trip from Solomon’s port at Ezion Geber took three years (1 Kin. 10:22), meaning either three full years or one full year and parts of two others. Either way, the voyage was lengthy, and trips as far as India were not impossible. Trade between the Persian Gulf and India was established nearly a thousand years before the time of Solomon.
The gold that brought Ophir its fame may have come from the region itself, or it may have passed through Ophir from another place. Ophir also exported silver, precious stones, ivory, apes, almug trees (possibly sandalwood), and peacocks.
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Also known as: The “queen of the South” (Matt. 12:42).
Not to be confused with: The leader of a rebellion against David after the death of Absalom (2 Sam. 20:1).
Home: Sheba, likely located at or near southwestern Arabia (see “The Queen of the South” at Luke 11:31).
Occupation: Queen of Sheba.
Best known for: Journeying to Jerusalem to see Solomon’s splendors and hear his wisdom; she exclaimed that “the half was not told me” (1 Kin. 10:7).
More: Jesus warned His critics that the queen of Sheba would rise up in judgment of their generation. For more, read Luke 11:29–32.
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The queen of Sheba was no doubt drawn to visit Solomon in order to view the impressive temple he had constructed for his God, to wander his magnificent palace complex with its cedar and gold treasures, and to hear firsthand the vast wisdom that had brought Solomon worldwide fame. But what ultimately motivated her to caravan more than a thousand miles to meet him was the connection between Solomon’s fame and the “name of the LORD” (1 Kin. 10:1). She came to test Solomon with hard questions, eager to know what this God might mean for her.
The Lord was answering a request Solomon had made when dedicating the temple. He had asked God to hear the prayers of foreigners. Now the temple and its God were drawing people from throughout the world (see “An International House of Prayer” at 1 Kin. 8:41–43). Solomon evidently passed the queen’s test, because she praised the Lord for making Solomon king and for the Israelite values that reflected God’s character (10:9).
No one knows if the queen of Sheba remained a worshiper of Israel’s God. But Jesus mentioned her—along with the city of Nineveh (see the introduction to Jonah)—as examples of Gentiles in the Old Testament responding to the living God (Luke 11:29–32). The queen of Sheba’s desire to seek the truth about the Lord made the Pharisees’ hypocrisy obvious to everyone, and it shows how our own spiritual wonderings should drive us to actively seek answers from God.
More: An official from Ethiopia asked questions about God and found eternal salvation just as the early church was getting underway. See “The Message Spreads to Africa” at Acts 8:27–39. Queen Victoria of England and Queen Ranavalona II of Madagascar were rulers of earthly kingdoms but also members of the kingdom of God. See here for an article on the life of Queen Victoria. See here for an article on the life of Queen Ranavalona II.
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A list of Solomon’s political, administrative, military, and architectural achievements are among the most impressive in the ancient world. Under his leadership, Israel expanded its influence from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from Asia Minor to the Gulf of Aqaba and Egypt (see “Solomon’s Empire” at 2 Chr. 9:26). Yet underlying all of Solomon’s accomplishments was a God-given wisdom for which he was renowned both in his own day and today (see “An Understanding Heart” at 1 Kin. 3:6–14).
• He won the respect of his nation when he discerned the rightful mother of a child claimed by two women (3:16–28).
• His wisdom surpassed that of all the other wise men of his day (4:30, 31).
• He spoke three thousand proverbs (4:32), many of which have been recorded in the Book of Proverbs.
• He composed more than one thousand songs (4:32), including Psalms 72 and 127.
• He demonstrated knowledge of botany, horticulture, zoology, and ichthyology, a branch of zoology that deals with the study of fish (4:33; compare Prov. 30:24–31; Eccl. 2:4–6).
• Visitors from throughout the world traveled to Jerusalem to hear his opinion (1 Kin. 4:34); the best known of these travelers is the queen of Sheba (10:1–9).
• He was the man behind most of the Book of Proverbs, as well as Ecclesiastes and Song of Solomon; several pieces of extrabiblical literature are attributed to him as well.
• Folktales from ancient Israel, Arabia, and Ethiopia celebrate Solomon’s wisdom; some even go so far as to ascribe magical powers to him.
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David and Solomon presided over the golden age of the Israelite empire. David continues to be remembered as a man after God’s own heart (1 Sam. 13:14; 16:7), and Solomon is still celebrated as the wisest man who ever lived (1 Kin. 3:12; 4:29–32; 10:3, 6, 7, 24). Yet as impressive as these two rulers were, they violated three specific commands given directly to kings (Deut. 17:16, 17): they each took many wives (2 Sam. 3:2–5; 5:13; 1 Kin. 11:1–3), and Solomon hoarded horses and amassed silver and gold for himself (10:14, 15, 22, 23, 28, 29).
This royal father and son acquired most of their wives through political marriages (see “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14), unions that complicated their home lives and turned their hearts from God. By importing horses from Egypt, Solomon symbolically returned Israel to bondage. God had delivered His people from the Egyptians in the days of Moses and He warned them never to “return” to Egypt by making alliances with its people. In time, David and Solomon’s blatant disregard for the law caused the nation to split and many citizens to abandon God.
More: David’s polygamy led to big problems for his family. See “Giving Birth to Trouble” at 2 Sam. 3:1–5.
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While God is not against marriage between persons of different ethnicities, the Bible does record that God was displeased with Solomon for marrying “many foreign women.” Although many have recognized that God’s displeasure did not arise from a disapproval of interracial relationships, it is worthwhile to confront a few of the interpretations that have been offered concerning this issue:
• Some claim that Solomon’s main error may have been marrying outside Israel. The Law did prohibit Hebrews from intermarrying with Canaanites (Deut. 7:1–5; compare 1 Kin. 11:2). Yet elsewhere the Law permitted Israelite men to marry non-Canaanite women captured in war (20:14–18). Moses had a wife from Ethiopia (Num. 12:1). And Ruth, who married Boaz and became the great-grandmother of David, was a Moabite (see “A Web of Technicalities” at Ruth 2:1).
• Others argue that some inherent flaw in the nature of woman endangered Solomon. They say that just as Eve caused trouble for Adam (Gen. 3:6), Delilah for Samson (Judg. 16:6–21), and Bathsheba for David (2 Sam. 11:1–5), Solomon’s wives weakened his resolve to follow the Lord and led him into sin. Yet God created woman equal with man and gave her shared responsibility over creation (Gen. 1:26, 27). And Scripture shows abundant examples of women with spiritual insight, selflessness, and obedience to God, including Jael (Judg. 4:17–24; 5:24–27), Ruth (Ruth 1:6–18), Abigail (1 Sam. 25), and Lydia (Acts 16:14, 15).
• Many fault Solomon’s practice of polygamy. After all, the Law warned Israel’s kings not to “multiply wives” (Deut. 17:17). Yet all of the Hebrew patriarchs had more than one wife, as did Moses, Gideon, and David. God never encouraged polygamy, but that alone does not seem to be the main cause of Solomon’s downfall.
Ultimately, the Lord disapproved of Solomon’s many marriages because his wives worshiped idols, which encouraged Solomon to turn his heart from the true God (1 Kin. 11:4–10). God’s anger was not a result of interracial marriage, and He does not look at women as inferior or dangerous to men. And although polygamy does create profound problems, the Lord’s great disappointment was Solomon’s idolatry. It was a deeply spiritual issue, as the law concerning kings reveals (Deut. 17:19, 20). God’s main concern—then and now—is a person’s heart. What matters is not a spouse’s appearance or background but whether our marriage aids or impedes our faith and obedience.
More: Many of Solomon’s concubines were probably acquired through his military victories, as he inherited the harem of a conquered foe. See “Concubines” at Gen. 30:3–13.
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By building a high place on the hill east of Jerusalem (possibly the Mount of Olives), Solomon took the Israelites’ terrible inclination to wander after other gods and made the problem infinitely worse. As king, he institutionalized idolatry, a grave sin. See “The High Places” at Deuteronomy 12:2.
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Solomon had never met Hadad the Edomite even though Hadad had vowed to take revenge against Solomon. His hostility stemmed from the slaughter of his father and other Edomite males by David’s general Joab, a tragedy that was largely the result of a centuries-long feud between Israelites and Edomites. Learn more about the roots of Hadad’s hatred in “Pain That Leads to Prejudice” at Numbers 20:14–21 and “How We Will Be Remembered” at 2 Samuel 8:13, 14.
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Name means: “Let the Kinsman Plead.”
Not to be confused with: Rehoboam, king of Judah (c. 931–913 B.C.; see his profile at 1 Kin. 11:43), or Jeroboam’s descendant, Jeroboam II (c. 782–753 B.C.; 2 Kin. 14:23–29).
Home: Zereda in the territory of Ephraim; later Egypt, where he fled from Solomon (1 Kin. 11:40); as king of the northern kingdom, Shechem and Tirzah (12:25, 14:17).
Family: Son of Nebat and Zeruah, who was left widowed; father of Abijah, a sickly child who died as a sign against Jeroboam, and of Nadab, who succeeded him until deposed by Baasha.
Occupation: Probably a wealthy landowner (11:28, according to one possible translation); placed in charge of the workforce of the northern tribes by Solomon; first king of the northern kingdom of Israel for 22 years (c. 931–910 B.C.).
Best known as: Leader of the rebellion of the northern kingdom.
More: The Lord warned Jeroboam that he had committed more evil than any of his predecessors, and he became a benchmark against which later kings would be assessed. See “Benchmarks for Evil Kings” at 2 Chr. 33:2.
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The Lord took Solomon’s descent into idolatry so seriously that He offered Jeroboam kingship over a major portion of Israel’s territory. The invitation was unexpected and unimaginable, the Lord asking an unknown minor official to father a dynasty to rule God’s people.
Jeroboam squandered this gift right from the start. He either forgot or distrusted the Lord’s promise to establish his kingdom, because he soon began to worry that his people would return to Rehoboam (1 Kin. 12:26, 27). Rather than look to God for reassurance and assistance, he set up a system of idolatrous worship (12:28–33), promoting the same evil that God had raised him up to overcome. The Lord judged him by quickly curtailing his family line (14:17, 18; 15:29, 30), and the king became a bad example against which all his successors were measured (for example, 1 Kin. 16:26; 22:52; 2 Kin. 3:3).
Jeroboam could have enjoyed lasting acclaim, but he left a legacy of infamy. We seldom foresee when God will present us with an opportunity to rise to new levels of obedient service. But while God is patient with our erratic starts and stops, He will not tolerate a lasting disinterest in carrying out His will.
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Name means: “The People Is Enlarged.”
Not to be confused with: Jeroboam, king of the northern kingdom of Israel, his constant opponent in war (1 Kin. 14:30; 15:6).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Solomon and Naamah, an Ammonite woman; married to a foreigner named Maachah; father of Abijah, whom he named as successor.
Occupation: King of Judah for 17 years (c. 931–913 B.C.).
Best known as: Solomon’s successor and the king whose decision to raise taxes caused a disastrous split of the kingdom once united under David and Solomon.
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In the Footsteps of Our Fathers
Rehoboam’s coronation was held at Shechem, a city with a rich history. Twice Israel had met there to ratify their covenant with the Lord (see “Signing Off on the Covenant” at Deut. 27:11–13 and “A Done Deal” at Josh. 8:30–35), and it was an important political and religious center for the Israelites. See the city’s profile at Genesis 33:18.
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A Tax Revolt Divides the Kingdom
Citizens in Solomon’s day were likely angered by the nation’s expanded bureaucracy. The king had organized the country into twelve administrative districts, creating a more efficient government but also increasing its reach to collect taxes and interfere in local issues. The tribe of Judah alone was exempt from being ruled by a district governor. (See “The Twelve Districts” at 1 Kin. 4:7–19.) Solomon had imposed heavy taxes to fund endless building projects and his lavish lifestyle. While Israel’s international trade was brisk, and foreigners were conscripted for cheap labor, the Israelites nevertheless felt “a heavy yoke” upon them (12:4).
After Solomon’s death, Rehoboam, perhaps intending to outdo his father, rejected the advice of his father’s counselors and raised taxes even higher (12:6–8, 13, 14). The tax burden became so great that all but one tribe revolted, killing the chief tax collector and forcing Rehoboam to flee. The kingdom split into two competing domains, and eventually both parts were carried away into exile. Scripture indicates that these calamitous events were all part of God’s plan to judge Solomon and the people for committing idolatry (11:9–13, 29–39; 12:15).
When a government levies excessive taxes and forsakes God, its people are headed for hard times. Jesus told His followers to give Caesar his due (Matt. 22:17–21), and Paul explicitly urged Christians to pay taxes (Rom. 13:6–7). But believers can also join efforts to make government more accountable to its citizens, more efficient in its spending, and more responsible in its fiscal policies. God’s people can help head off the anger, frustration, and injustice that led to Israel’s downfall.
More: Israel’s rebellion against Rehoboam did not end high taxes. Successive governments both local and foreign continued to raise levies. By Jesus’ lifetime, citizens likely paid more than 30 percent of their income in taxes and religious dues. See “Taxes” at Mark 12:14.
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The Divided Kingdom: The North
Just as God had warned (1 Kin. 11:11–13), Solomon’s idolatry tore the kingdom of Israel in two. Ten tribes, collectively referred to as Israel or the northern kingdom, sided with Jeroboam in the rebellion (12:19). Solomon’s successor Rehoboam retained his throne over the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, known together as Judah or the southern kingdom. For the remainder of the nation’s history, two separate lines of kings ruled two lands.
The Kings of Israel
Name: Jeroboam I
Length of Reign: 22 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 11:26—14:20
Name: Nadab
Length of Reign: 2 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 15:25–28
Name: Baasha
Length of Reign: 24 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 15:27—16:7
Name: Elah
Length of Reign: 2 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 16:6–14
Name: Zimri
Length of Reign: 7 days
Reference: 1 Kin. 16:9–20
Name: Omri
Length of Reign: 12 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 16:15–28
Name: Ahab
Length of Reign: 21 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 16:28—22:40
Name: Ahaziah
Length of Reign: 2 years
Reference: 1 Kin. 22:40—2 Kin. 1:18
Name: Jehoram (Joram)
Length of Reign: 11 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 3:1—9:25
Name: Jehu
Length of Reign: 28 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 9:1—10:36
Name: Jehoahaz
Length of Reign: 16 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 13:1–9
Name: Jehoash (Joash)
Length of Reign: 16 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 13:10—14:16
Name: Jeroboam II
Length of Reign: 40 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 14:23–29
Name: Zechariah
Length of Reign: 6 months
Reference: 2 Kin. 14:29—15:12
Name: Shallum
Length of Reign: 1 month
Reference: 2 Kin. 15:10–15
Name: Menahem
Length of Reign: 10 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 15:14–22
Name: Pekahiah
Length of Reign: 2 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 15:22–26
Name: Pekah
Length of Reign: 20 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 15:27–31
Name: Hoshea
Length of Reign: 9 years
Reference: 2 Kin. 15:30—17:6
More: For a list of the kings who ruled the southern kingdom of Judah, see “The Divided Kingdom: The South” at 1 Kin. 14:30.
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Shechem and Penuel: Reconstructing a Legacy
By rebuilding Shechem and Penuel, Jeroboam came across as both religiously sensitive and politically astute. Each location enjoyed a rich legacy full of spiritual symbolism. Shechem was the site where Jacob built an altar (Gen. 33:18–20). There the entire nation gathered twice to renew their covenant with the Lord in a dramatic ceremony spanning Mount Ebal and Mount Gerazim, two peaks that bounded Shechem (Josh. 8:30–35; 24:1–15; see also “Signing Off on the Covenant” at Deut. 27:11–13). Penuel was honored as the site of Jacob’s wrestling match with the Angel of the Lord (Gen. 32:22–32). See Shechem’s profile at Genesis 33:18 and Penuel’s profile at Judges 8:8.
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The presence of one of Jeroboam’s golden calves at Bethel caused later prophets to recall its shame. For centuries the site had been known as Bethel (“House of God”; see the city’s profile at Gen. 28:19). After being polluted as a center of idolatry, Hosea called it Beth Aven (“House of Idols”). See “From Holiness to Harlotry” at Hosea 10:5–8.
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Using Religion for Political Gain
Jeroboam was playing with fire when he abused religion to further his political ends. The Lord had invited Jeroboam to follow Him, promising to be with him and build him “an enduring house” (1 Kin. 11:38). Yet when Jeroboam rose to power, he took matters into his own hands. To prevent his kingdom from reverting to the house of David, Jeroboam disregarded God’s instructions and set up two idolatrous worship sites, one at Bethel in the south of his kingdom and the other at Dan in the north (12:28–30). He expanded the priesthood beyond the descendants of Levi to include men from every tribe (12:31), a capital offense (Num. 3:10). And he instituted a rival system of feasts and holidays (1 Kin. 12:32, 33). The Lord responded by cutting off Jeroboam’s family rather than building it into a dynasty (14:7–16).
Subversion of religion for political ends still happens today. Many public figures project an image of religiosity that plays well with undiscerning voters. People do not always see past a person’s outward appearance, but the Lord examines the heart (1 Sam. 16:7). We can ask God to help us identify and lift up leaders who are truly devoted to His ways.
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The Divided Kingdom: The South
Rehoboam and Jeroboam divided Solomon’s kingdom and fought each other throughout their lives. This was the judgment that God had promised against Solomon for his sin of idolatry (1 Kin. 11:11–13). Ten tribes, collectively referred to as Israel or the northern kingdom, sided with Jeroboam in rebelling against Solomon’s successor Rehoboam, who kept control over the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, known as Judah or the southern kingdom.
The Kings of Judah
Name: Rehoboam
Length of Reign: 17 years
Reference*: 1 Kin. 11:42—14:31
Name: Abijam
Length of Reign: 3 years
Reference*: 1 Kin. 14:31—15:8
Name: Asa
Length of Reign: 41 years
Reference*: 1 Kin. 15:8–24
Name: Jehoshaphat
Length of Reign: 25 years
Reference*: 1 Kin. 22:41–50
Name: Jehoram
Length of Reign: 8 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 8:16–24
Name: Ahaziah
Length of Reign: 1 year
Reference*: 2 Kin. 8:24—9:29
Name: Athaliah (queen)
Length of Reign: 6 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 11:1–20
Name: Joash
Length of Reign: 40 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 11:1—12:21
Name: Amaziah
Length of Reign: 29 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 14:1–20
Name: Azariah (Uzziah)
Length of Reign: 52 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 15:1–7
Name: Jotham
Length of Reign: 18 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 15:32–38
Name: Ahaz
Length of Reign: 19 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 16:1–20
Name: Hezekiah
Length of Reign: 29 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 18:1—20:21
Name: Manasseh
Length of Reign: 55 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 21:1–18
Name: Amon
Length of Reign: 2 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 21:19–26
Name: Josiah
Length of Reign: 31 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 22:1—23:30
Name: Jehoahaz
Length of Reign: 3 months
Reference*: 2 Kin. 23:31–33
Name: Jehoiakim
Length of Reign: 11 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 23:34—24:5
Name: Jehoiachin
Length of Reign: 3 months
Reference*: 2 Kin. 24:6–16
Name: Zedekiah
Length of Reign: 11 years
Reference*: 2 Kin. 24:17—25:30
*Parallel passages can be found in 2 Chronicles.
More: For a list of the kings who ruled the northern kingdom of Israel, see “The Divided Kingdom: The North” at 1 Kin. 12:19.
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Name means: “Physician.”
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of King Abijam of Judah.
Occupation: King of Judah for 41 years (911–870 B.C.).
Best known as: The first king to bring reform to Judah.
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After spiritual and political decline under Rehoboam and Abijam, the southern kingdom of Judah reversed course under the reformer Asa. He campaigned fervently against idolatry, even banishing his grandmother Maachah, a notorious worshiper of the Canaanite fertility goddess Asherah (1 Kin. 15:11–15).
Asa also strengthened his country’s defenses by refortifying its walled cities (2 Chr. 14:6, 7). His soldiers won a decisive victory when “the fear of the LORD” came upon Zerah the Ethiopian’s troops (14:9–15). With the help of Ben-Hadad of Syria, Asa’s army also captured fortified cities and carried off plunder during periodic forays against the northern kingdom (1 Kin. 15:16–22; 2 Chr. 16:2–4).
Yet despite Asa’s initial loyalty to the Lord, his reliance on a foreign power suggested that he ceased to rely solely on God. He was rebuked by the prophet Hanani, but instead of listening, he had the seer imprisoned (16:7–10). Toward the end of his life, Asa developed a severe disease in his feet. Again he failed to rely on the Lord for healing, and he never recovered (16:12).
In the New Testament, Paul coached Christians to run strong and fast all the way to the finish line in the race of faith (see “The Games” at 1 Cor. 9:24–27). Our good beginnings can come to nothing if we stray from the path and fail to return to the life God desires for us.
More: To learn about a man who “finished the race” (2 Tim. 4:7) of his spiritual journey—and is also one of the most beloved sprinters of all time—see the article on the life of Eric Liddell here.
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• A royal Canaanite city lying in a valley in the northern part of Mount Ephraim northeast of Shechem.
• Name means “Delight”; renowned for its beauty (Song 6:4).
• Located on the best route between the Transjordan and the central hill country.
• Conquered by Joshua (Josh. 12:24).
• Capital of the northern kingdom of Israel from the time of Jeroboam I (931–910 B.C.) to Omri (885–874 B.C.), who reigned in Tirzah for six years, then moved the government to the more central location of Samaria (1 Kin. 16:23).
• Site of the palace where Zimri took his own life (16:17, 18).
• Excavations of ruins from the eighth century B.C. suggest that Tirzah had a two-tiered society of a few wealthy homeowners and many poor inhabitants (compare Is. 9:8–10; Amos 5:11).
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• Capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel, located 42 miles north of Jerusalem and 25 miles east of the Great (Mediterranean) Sea; situated on a defensible hill 300 feet above the surrounding valleys.
• Name possibly means “Watchtower” and came to be equated with the northern kingdom of Israel.
• Mentioned in the Bible more than any other city except Jerusalem and Babylon.
• Built by King Omri (c. 875 B.C.).
• The only major city known to have been founded by the Israelites (see “Following God in the City” at Deut. 6:10).
• Infamous for its idolatry (Is. 8:4; Jer. 23:13; Hos. 7:1–7; Mic. 1:6, 7). Archaeologists have unearthed nearly 500 fragments of ivory plaques and inlaid wood portraying Egyptian and Syro-Phoenician gods and goddesses (compare 1 Kin. 22:39; Amos 6:4).
• Fell to the Assyrians in 722 B.C. after a three-year siege (2 Kin. 17).
• Repopulated by imported settlers (17:24) who intermarried with the few Israelites who remained.
• Changed hands among the Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Judean kingdoms.
• Site of mass evangelization by Philip in the days of the early church (Acts 8:5–8).
More: The repopulation of Samaria with Gentiles led to bitter enmity between Jews and Samaritans. By Jesus’ day, the two ethnic groups refused to have any dealings with each other. The gospel nevertheless broke through that ethnic barrier. See “The Road Less Traveled” at John 4:4–42; “Jews and Samaritans” at John 4:9; and “Converting Samaritans and Apostles” at Acts 8:4–25.
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Name means: “Father Is Brother” or “Father’s Brother” (Assyrian).
Not to be confused with: A false prophet in the era of Jeremiah (Jer. 29:21).
Home: Palace at Jezreel; capital at Samaria.
Family: Son of King Omri of Israel; husband of Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon and priest of Astarte; father of his successor Jehoram, and a daughter, Athaliah, who became the wife of a king of Judah also named Jehoram.
Occupation: King of Israel for 21 years (c. 874–853 B.C.).
Best known as: One of Israel’s most evil kings; he was opposed by the prophet Elijah in a dramatic contest on Mount Carmel (1 Kin. 18:20–46).
More: Ahab called the prophet Elijah a “troubler of Israel,” but Elijah replied that it was Ahab who was troubling the northern kingdom. See 1 Kin. 18:17, 18. Like Jeroboam before him, Ahab was so wicked that he became a benchmark against which later kings would be assessed. See “Benchmarks for Evil Kings” at 2 Chr. 33:2.
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Ahab turned from the Lord with a determination shown by few other kings of Israel. The pagan idol that he and his wife Jezebel served was probably Baal-Melqart, the protective deity of Tyre. Ahab’s renunciation of the Hebrew faith created a climate in which the Israelites felt free to serve whatever deity they wished from among the many gods of the Canaanites. See “The Gods of the Canaanites” at Deuteronomy 32:39.
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Name means: “The Lord Is My God.”
Not to be confused with: Three other men in the Old Testament named Elijah (1 Chr. 8:27; Ezra 10:21, 26); nor with Elisha, the prophet who succeeded him.
Home: Possibly from Tishbe of Gilead, although the site is unknown.
Family: Reported to be “of the inhabitants of Gilead” (17:1) but no other information is known.
Occupation: Prophet in Israel during the reigns of Ahab (and Queen Jezebel) and Ahaziah, two Israelite kings of the ninth century B.C.
Of special interest: A whirlwind accompanied by a chariot of fire swept him directly to heaven (2 Kin. 2:11).
Best known as: One of Israel’s greatest prophets.
More: Only six chapters of the Old Testament record Elijah’s ministry, narrating his life through six major events. See “The Lord Is God” at 1 Kin. 18:37—19:14.
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Not to be confused with: The Shunammite woman who showed hospitality to the prophet Elisha (see her profile at 2 Kin. 4:8).
Home: Zarephath, a small town on a coastal road in Phoenicia (see the site’s profile at 1 Kin. 17:10).
Family: Widowed; mother of one son.
Occupation: Impoverished homemaker.
Of special interest: Whatever sins this woman had committed (1 Kin. 17:18), she now feared God (17:12) and acknowledged Elijah as His true prophet (17:24).
Best known for: Extending hospitality to Elijah, a complete stranger, even when she and her son were near starvation; God responded to her kindness by miraculously providing food for many days (17:13–16).
More: Jesus honored this Phoenician widow in His inaugural sermon, triggering a violent reaction from His hometown listeners (Luke 4:25, 26).
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• A small town along a Phoenician coastal road about 10 miles south of Sidon.
• Name means “Refinery” or “Smelting-Shop.”
• Originally belonged to Sidon, then Tyre, but was captured by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 701 B.C. Sennacherib’s successor Esarhaddon gave the town back to Tyre.
• Hometown of a poor widow who opened her home to the prophet Elijah, who raised her son from the dead (1 Kin. 17:8–24).
• Identified by Obadiah as the northern boundary of the territory the Israelites would possess after the Exile (Obad. 20).
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1. Elijah is born, apparently in the village of Tishbe, south of the Sea of Galilee; he is known as “Elijah the Tishbite” (1 Kin. 17:1).
2. Elijah predicts a drought as God’s punishment for the idolatry of King Ahab of Israel (1 Kin. 17:1, 7; 18:17, 18).
3. The prophet is miraculously fed by ravens while he stays by the Brook Cherith (1 Kin. 17:2–6).
4. Elijah miraculously provides for a needy widow at Zarephath and raises her son from the dead (1 Kin. 17:8–24).
5. The prophet dramatically wins a contest against 450 prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel by calling down fire from heaven. This act encourages spiritual revival and ends the drought (1 Kin. 18:20–40).
6. Elijah flees to Beersheba and then on to Mount Horeb (Sinai) to escape the wrath of Queen Jezebel (1 Kin. 19:1–18).
7. Elijah selects Elisha as his successor at Abel Meholah (1 Kin. 19:16–21).
8. The prophet denounces King Ahaziah for going to the Philistines for divine guidance and predicts that the king will die, which he does (2 Kin. 1:2–8, 17).
9. The prophet sets out from Gilgal toward Bethel, near which he is taken up into heaven by a whirlwind accompanied by a fiery chariot (2 Kin. 2:1–12).
More: See Elijah’s profile at 1 Kin. 17:1.
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When King Ahab called Elijah the “troubler of Israel,” Elijah replied that it was in fact Ahab who troubled the northern kingdom by abandoning the Lord and leading the nation into idolatry. Under Ahab, evil in Israel rose to unprecedented heights (1 Kin. 16:30, 33).
When Ahab married Jezebel (16:31), she made him her puppet (21:7, 8, 25) and introduced the worship of Baal-Melqart, protective god of Tyre (16:31–33), along with other forms of idolatry and witchcraft. She openly combated true worship by massacring the Lord’s prophets (18:4) and tearing down His altars (19:10, 14).
After Jezebel murdered the landowner Naboth to seize his estate for her husband (21:1–16), Elijah predicted the end of Ahab’s dynasty (21:21, 22), and the sad king experienced his lone shining moment. He tore his clothes, fasted, and wore sackcloth as a symbol of his mourning and repentance, and the Lord took note of his humility (21:27–29).
Ahab’s one moment of faith may seem like a dull spark of hope in a lifetime of darkness, but the fact is that we are all sinners, just as much in need of God’s forgiveness—and as undeserving of it—as any other human being. And as puzzling as it may seem, Scripture tells us that the Son of God descended from Ahab and Jezebel—their daughter Athaliah was great-grandmother to King Uzziah (2 Chr. 26:1), named in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1:8, 9). But when we remember that everything good comes only from God, we realize that human ancestry cannot limit holiness. It can, however, serve as a demonstration that God’s power knows no bounds. His grace, offered to us in spite of our sins (Rom. 5:8), is mightier than any mistake.
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• The highest and northernmost peak of a range of hills protruding into the Mediterranean Sea (compare 1 Kin. 18:42–44), beginning about 10 miles northwest of Megiddo.
• Name means “Fruitful.”
• Rises more than 1,700 feet above sea level.
• Heavily forested in Bible times, as alluded to by the prophets (Amos 1:2; 9:3; Mic. 7:14).
• Formed part of the southern border of Asher’s tribal territory (Josh. 19:26).
• Site of Elijah’s confrontation with the prophets of Baal and Asherah (1 Kin. 18:19, 20).
More: Mount Carmel should not be confused with the region of Carmel in the Maon district of Judah (see that site’s profile at 1 Sam. 25:2).
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In an era when Israel’s wickedness reached unprecedented extremes (1 Kin. 16:30, 33; 21:25), the Lord brought Elijah on the scene as His spokesperson (17:1). Only six Old Testament chapters record Elijah’s life and ministry, but the remainder of Scripture upholds him as a model of faithfulness and a forerunner to Christ. Elijah’s story unfolds over six major events:
1. the drought (1 Kin. 17),
2. the contest on Mount Carmel (ch. 18),
3. the flight from Jezebel (ch. 19),
4. the murder of Naboth (ch. 21),
5. the prophecy against Ahaziah (2 Kin. 1), and
6. the transfer of Elijah’s ministry to Elisha (ch. 2).
The dramatic battle between Elijah and Baal’s prophets on Mount Carmel is one of his most memorable moments. Elijah, whose name meant “The Lord Is My God,” called down fire from heaven to show all of Israel that the Lord is indeed the one true God (1 Kin. 18:37–39).
The intensity of Elijah’s heroic stand at Carmel, along with his fear of repercussions from Queen Jezebel, who threatened him as fiercely as ever, is perhaps what led Elijah to fall almost immediately into a deep depression (19:1–4). Yet even as Elijah expressed the agony of his heart to God, the Lord sent an angel to nourish him for his journey to Mount Horeb (19:5–8), where God spoke gently to him in “a still small voice” (19:12).
Elijah illustrates the immeasurable value God places on His servants, even if their grandest achievements may seem to have little impact. If we look at Israel’s history, we see that even after the miracle atop Mount Carmel, Ahab’s successor Ahaziah continued his father’s evil patterns. In fact, Israel’s extreme depravity continued long after Elijah’s departure (2 Kin. 3:1–3). Yet God loved Elijah, cared for his needs, comforted him, and honored him by taking him up into heaven in a whirlwind and fiery chariot (1 Kin. 19; 2 Kin. 2).
When we seek to proclaim God’s majesty in our own lives, we must remember that even if we do not see obvious results, this does not mean that we have not succeeded in God’s eyes. The Lord sees our faithfulness, and He will welcome us into His presence.
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The New Testament reports that the drought that Elijah called down on the northern kingdom of Israel (1 Kin. 17:1) lasted three and a half years (Luke 4:25; James 5:17). With a simple prayer, the prophet prayed for rain, and the Lord sent a cloudburst (1 Kin. 18:42, 45). Elijah’s dramatic prayer may seem unusual, but James pointed to Elijah as a model for how Christians should pray (see “Elijah: A Model of Prayer” at James 5:17, 18). The New Testament also cites other ways Elijah is a vital figure for God’s people. See “Elijah in the New Testament” at Malachi 4:5, 6.
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Name means: “There Is No Prince.”
Not to be confused with: A prophetess of Thyatira who enticed Christians to commit sexual sins and idolatry (Rev. 2:20).
Home: Originally from Tyre or Sidon; lived at Samaria after marrying King Ahab.
Family: Daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians and priest of Melqart, the local Baal; wife of King Ahab of Israel, likely a political marriage arranged by Ahab’s father Omri.
Occupation: Queen of Israel.
Best known for: Her determination to kill the prophet Elijah, which forced him to escape to Mount Horeb (1 Kin. 19:1–8). Jezebel’s devotion to Baal led her to employ 450 Baal prophets and 400 prophets of Asherah (18:19). She encouraged Ahab to set up idols (16:32, 33) and murder Naboth (21:1–29).
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Ups and Downs
No eighteenth-century poet was more beloved than William Cowper (1731–1800), yet, like the despondent prophet Elijah taking shelter on God’s mountain (1 Kin. 19:1–21), Cowper’s life was marked by episodes of overwhelming despair that seemed to descend upon him suddenly and in spite of his intimate knowledge of God’s resplendent power and grace. As modern theologian John Piper notes, the poet’s life “seem[ed] to be one long accumulation of pain.”
After the death of Cowper’s mother and four of his siblings (all before Cowper reached the age of six), he was sent away to boarding school and pressured into pursuing a law career. The thought of a public interview for a job with parliament pushed Cowper over the edge. He felt, as he put it, like “a man when he arrives at the place of execution.” Buckling under this pressure and the heartbreak of a broken engagement, Cowper made several suicide attempts under the belief that he was acting under God’s command.
After his third unsuccessful attempt to end his life, Cowper, at the age of thirty-two, was institutionalized for insanity. He felt a swift conviction of sin, believing that he was doomed to eternal damnation. Half a year later he discovered a Bible deliberately left on a bench for him to find. He read the story of how Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead (John 11:1–44) and saw “so much benevolence, mercy, goodness, and sympathy with miserable men, in our Saviour’s conduct, that I almost shed tears.” Cowper then found in Romans 3:25 reason to trust that God had forgiven him. “Immediately I received the strength to believe it,” Cowper wrote, “and the full beams of the Sun of Righteousness shone upon me. I saw the sufficiency of the atonement He had made, my pardon sealed in His blood, and all the fullness and completeness of His justification. In a moment I believed, and received the gospel.”
When he was released from the asylum two years later, Cowper found shelter with the pious family of the clergyman Morley Unwin, and after Unwin’s death, with his widow Mary Unwin, who cared for Cowper until her death in 1796. Their move to the rural town of Olney in 1786 brought Cowper into contact with John Newton, the repentant slave trader and fervent evangelical minister who penned “Amazing Grace.” Together Newton and Cowper wrote the famous Olney Hymns, including “God Moves in a Mysterious Way,” “There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood,” and “O for a Closer Walk with God.”
Cowper’s faith was also expressed in his most monumental poetic work The Task, a long meditative poem in which he describes his spiritual suffering and recovery using the metaphor of a wounded deer:
I was a stricken deer, that left the herd
Long since; with many an arrow deep infixed
My panting side was charged, when I withdrew
To seek a tranquil death in distant shades.
There I was found by one who had himself
Been hurt by the archers. In his side he bore,
And in his hands and feet, the cruel scars.
With gentle force soliciting the darts,
He drew them forth, and healed, and bade me live.
Sadly, Cowper’s newfound faith did not prevent him from suffering a second bout of madness at age forty-three, when he had a “fatal dream” that he had been cast out by God. He never again attended church services, devoting his life to distracting himself from his bitter hopelessness through every possible innocent means. He gardened, he kept pets, he even wrote some of his best poetry during this time. But though he clung to the truth of Jesus throughout these dark days, he died without confidence in his own salvation, feeling cut off from the God whose bright care for him never dimmed.
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In fleeing to Mount Horeb, Elijah returned to the site where Israel had received the Law. Just as Moses had heard God’s voice at Mount Horeb (Sinai), Elijah heard God speak in a still small voice (1 Kin. 19:12). See “Mount Sinai and the Wilderness of Sinai” at Exodus 19:1, 20.
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When Elijah stood on the mountain to experience God’s presence, he repeated an act Moses performed centuries earlier (Ex. 19:20), a scene that was one of many parallels between the two leaders.
Moses | Elijah |
Journeys to Mount Horeb where he meets God (Ex. 3:1–6). | Journeys to Mount Horeb where he meets God (1 Kin. 19:8–11). |
Sees God reveal Himself through fire (Ex. 13:21; 19:18; 24:17; Lev. 10:2; Num. 11:1; 16:35). | Sees God reveal Himself through fire (1 Kin. 18:38; 19:12; 2 Kin. 1:10, 12; 2:11). |
Witnesses God miraculously provide food (Ex. 16). | Witnesses God miraculously provide food (1 Kin. 17:8–16). |
Reveals God’s power through miraculous deeds (Ex. 7–12). | Reveals God’s power through a miraculous deed (1 Kin. 18:30–39). |
Emphasizes that the Lord is God (Deut. 6:4). | Emphasizes that the Lord is God (1 Kin. 18:37–39). |
Is succeeded by Joshua (name means “The Lord Is Salvation”; Deut. 31:7–8; Josh 1:1–9). | Is succeeded by Elisha (name means “My God Saves”; 2 Kin. 2:12–14). |
His death is shrouded in mystery (Deut. 34:5, 6). | His departure to heaven is shrouded in mystery (2 Kin. 2:11, 12). |
The Jordan River parts to begin his successor’s ministry (Josh. 3:14–17). | The Jordan River parts to begin his successor’s ministry (2 Kin. 2:13, 14). |
Appears with Jesus at the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:3). | Appears with Jesus at the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:3). |
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Ben-Hadad’s servants had heard rumors that the kings of Israel were “merciful.” In reality, Israel’s rulers were anything but merciful, at least according to the true meaning of mercy (Hebrew: chesed).
To be “merciful” in the Old Testament sense meant to show loyalty and faithful adherence to the Law, the terms of the covenant between God and His people. If Ahab and the other kings of Israel aimed to be merciful, they needed to be devoted to God just as God was devoted to His people.
Instead, Israel’s kings habitually broke God’s covenant, resorting to idolatry and partnering with foreign governments rather than trusting God to guide them in political and military endeavors. When Ahab allowed the Syrian Ben-Hadad to escape after God had marked him for death, God declared that Ahab and his house would suffer punishment in his stead (1 Kin. 20:42).
Yet the account does not end there. Scripture illustrates the true meaning of chesed when Ahab repented of his wrongs (21:20–27). True to His word as a gracious Lord, God heard the prayer of Ahab—perhaps the most wicked of all of Israel’s kings—and postponed the punishment until the reign of Ahab’s son Ahaziah (21:29). God was devoted to His promises, that is, He was “merciful.” And He keeps His word as faithfully now as He did then.
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Name means: “Sprout.”
Not to be confused with: Nabal, the husband of Abigail (1 Sam. 25).
Home: Jezreel, located in a rich agricultural district between Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa. Naboth’s vineyard was adjacent to King Ahab’s summer palace.
Occupation: Landowner and vineyard keeper.
Best known for: Being stoned to death on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy. Jezebel instigated the plot to seize Naboth’s coveted vineyard for her husband, King Ahab (1 Kin. 21:1–16). As the prophet Elijah predicted, God severely judged Ahab and Jezebel for their crime (21:17–19, 23; 22:37, 38; 2 Kin. 9:30–37).
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Ahab copied the Amorites’ abominations, re-instituting the idolatry of the peoples that the Lord had expelled from Canaan. These nations had advanced cultures, but their religious practices displeased the Lord. To learn more, see “Amorites and Canaanites” at Joshua 5:1.
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Name means: “The Lord Is Judge.”
Not to be confused with: Four other men in the Bible, including the father of Jehu, the tenth king of Israel (2 Kin. 9:2).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son and successor of Asa, king of Judah; father of seven sons, including Jehoram, his firstborn, who killed all the other heirs after succeeding his father; ancestor of Jesus Christ.
Occupation: King of Judah (870–848 B.C.); he shared the throne with his father Asa during part of his reign (911–870 B.C.).
Of special interest: Jehoshaphat arranged a political marriage (see “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14) between his son Jehoram and Athaliah, daughter of Israel’s King Ahab, a mistake that created big problems for Judah (2 Chr. 18:1; 21:5, 6).
Best known as: A reformer king who strengthened his nation’s defenses (17:1, 2, 10, 12–19), removed idols, and commissioned judges and teachers to challenge the public to honor the Law (17:3–9; 19:3–11). Under his reign, Judah enjoyed rest from its enemies (20:1–30) and a measure of prosperity (17:5, 11).
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Name means: “Who Is Like the Lord?”
Not to be confused with: Micah the idolater (Judg. 17–18) or Micah of Moresheth, a prophet contemporary to Isaiah.
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Imlah.
Occupation: Prophet in Israel during the reign of King Ahab (874–853 B.C.).
Of special interest: Jewish tradition says that Micaiah was the unnamed prophet who condemned Ahab for allowing the Syrian ruler Ben-Hadad to escape (1 Kin. 20:30–43).
Best known as: The courageous prophet who stood against Ahab’s false prophets by predicting the Syrians would defeat an Israelite coalition (22:8–28; 2 Chr. 18:3–27). He was imprisoned for his pointed words, but those words came to pass, and when they did, Ahab was killed in battle.
More: Ambrose was a spiritual leader who also stood against false prophets in the Christian era. See here for an article on his life.
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• An important fortified city in the territory of Gad, 25 miles east of the Jordan River near the ancient border of Israel and Syria.
• Name means “Heights of Gilead.”
• Also called Ramah (2 Kin. 8:29) and sometimes identified with Ramath Mizpah (“Heights of Mizpah”; Josh. 13:26) or Mizpah of Gilead (Judg. 11:29).
• Designated a Levitical city for the Merarites (Josh. 21:38) and one of three cities of refuge east of the Jordan River (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8).
• A commercial center along the major north-south route connecting Syria to the King’s Highway (see “The King’s Highway” at Num. 20:17).
• Likely hometown of Jephthah the outcast (Judg. 11:34, if Mizpah refers to Ramoth Gilead).
• Headquarters for one of Solomon’s 12 district officers responsible for securing food for the king’s household (1 Kin. 4:13).
• Site of many battles between Israel and Syria, with possession of the city frequently changing hands.
• Place where Ahab was killed trying to reclaim the city after ignoring the prophet Micaiah’s warning (22:1–40).
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Jehoshaphat’s fleet of ships apparently never made it out of port. Scripture does not detail the cause of the wreck at Ezion Geber, but the disaster ended Jehoshaphat’s interest in shipping (1 Kin. 22:49). Ezion Geber was Israel’s port on the Gulf of Aqaba. During Solomon’s reign, ships departed on a three-year voyage for Ophir, a place renowned for its gold and other exports. Find out more in Ezion Geber’s profile at 1 Kings 9:26 and Ophir’s profile at 1 Kings 9:28.
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