(Note: Page numbers in boldface indicate glossary definitions)
academy, language 12, 27, 38, 45, 98, 108, 255, 257; Academia Argentina de Letras 108; Academie Française 38, 257, 261–262; Academy of the Quechua Language 257; Iranian Academy of Language 257; Real Academia Española 38, 132, 257
accent 9–10, 28, 30, 31–32, 38, 45, 54, 62, 66, 161, 204, 213, 215, 218, 289, 341, 351; reduction 45–46, 161
accommodation 48, 215 acquired language disability see language disability
acquisition see first language acquisition; second language acquisition
action research 95, 197, 338, 346; in additional language education 197; in language pathology 315
additional language education 10, 16, 57–58, 66, 99, 112, 123, 178, 182, 183, 185, 123–124, 197–219, 241, 271, 333–334; and age 7, 199–200; aptitude for 204, 205–206, 208; beliefs about 11–12, 57, 200, 202, 203, 213, 215; contexts of 197, 198–201, 202–203, 212, 214–215; cost-effectiveness 191, 205; discourse analysis and 84, 85–86, 94, 215; foreign language learning 40, 41, 198–199; individual learner differences in 204–209, 354; learning styles 206, 208, 211, 355; materials for 66, 168, 199, 202, 212–213, 332; methodologies see methodology (additional language education); motivation see motivation (additional language education); online learning 199, 327; second language learning 40, 41, 56, 71, 198–199; testing of see testing (additional language education); translation 201, 204, 226, 241, 246
advertisements see text, publicly displayed
age 4, 31–32, 33, 57, 64, 65, 66, 123, 135, 143–148, 149, 156, 159–160, 187, 260, 291, 314, 317–318; see also additional language education and age
alphabet 132, 138, 139, 139, 142, 148, 149, 326
alphabetic writing system see writing system
ambiguity 229, 234, 243, 279–281, 294
aphasia 67, 250, 305, 306, 310; 313, 319; Broca’s 305, 307; Wernicke’s 305
applied linguist, roles of 16, 18–19, 49, 52, 64–65, 66, 71, 72–73, 74, 94–95, 101, 123–125, 151, 172–174, 193–194, 218, 245–246, 273–274, 297–298, 315, 319–320, 332, 334–342
applied linguistics: autonomous 15–16; clients of 14, 17–18, 52–75, 94–95, 103, 117, 118–120, 121, 124–125, 168–170, 233, 239–240, 255–256, 260, 263, 269, 300, 305, 317, 319, 320, 332, 335, 336–338, 340, 342; collaborative nature 18–19, 73, 74, 95, 124, 128, 170, 218, 226–227, 282, 310, 320, 322, 334–336, 338; critical 18, 24, 118, 128, 350 (see also critical approaches); definitions 15–20, 271; interdisciplinarity 114–115, 130–131, 222, 223, 271, 300, 310, 332–334; journals 276, 298; organizations 39, 150, 171, 223, 276, 290, 298, 313, 326, 336, 340
aptitude see additional language education
articulation (speech, sign, writing) 287, 303, 305, 307, 308, 311; see also dysarthria; modality
artificial intelligence 243, 328, 346; see also translation types: automatic
assessment (additional language education; bilingual education; literacy) see testing
assessment (language pathology) 18, 168, 309–314, 315, 317, 331–332, 333
asylum seekers, language rights of 88, 168, 209, 289–290, 298
attitudes, speaker 30–31, 36–37, 40, 41–42, 43–45, 45–48, 84–85, 87–88, 94, 165–167, 179–180, 188–189, 194, 214, 236–237, 254, 258–259, 341
audio description 89
audiolingualism see methodology (additional language education)
augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) 315, 347
authorship, disputed 283–286, 292; see also forensic stylistics
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) 66–67, 312, 347; see also pragmatic language impairment, theory of mind
bilingual education 23, 56, 110, 112, 114, 121, 130, 149, 162, 176–196, 320, 327, 332; attitudes to 176–177, 179–180, 185–186, 188–189, 190–191, 194; costs 23, 119, 179, 191; de facto 350; effectiveness of 185, 186, 191–192; goals 176, 178, 183–184, 187–188; materials for 111–112, 168–169, 179, 193; mother tongue instruction 115, 178, 180–181, 182, 187; programmes 100, 182–191; prohibitions 27, 101–102; and reading instruction 184, 185; see also biliteracy
bilingual education frameworks: content-based 178; context-based 178; language-based 178, 179–181
bilingual education models: CLIL 185, 191–192; community language teaching 183, 187, 191, 192, 348; heritage language programmes see heritage language; immersion 162, 163–164, 183, 184–187, 191, 192, 353; maintenance 100, 113–114, 183–184, 191, 356; submersion 182–183, 191–192; transitional 168, 183, 191, 361
bilingual support see bilingual education models, transitional
bilingualism 6, 11–12, 30–31, 35, 46, 58, 59, 66, 79, 110–112, 114, 119–123, 124, 149, 159, 162, 168, 176–196, 218, 223, 227, 228, 231, 240, 243, 245, 246, 261, 294, 312–313, 318–319, 327, 330, 331, 332; additive 178, 180–181, 183, 360; elite 178, 185, 189–190, 191, 351; emergent 162, 187; folk 178, 189–190, 191, 352; subtractive 178, 180, 183, 190, 360; see also bilingual education; multilingualism
biliteracy 132, 151, 180, 188, 192, 347
Birmingham School (discourse analysis) 81–82
blindness 53, 54–55, 56, 63–65, 116, 131, 148, 168, 169, 260, 315
borrowing, lexical 107–108, 110, 228, 240, 257
‘bottom-up’ applied linguistics see applied linguistics
Braille 56, 63–64, 67, 98, 116, 130, 131, 148, 260, 315; literacy see literacy
brain, language and 3, 6, 15, 66–67, 145, 204, 243, 301–303, 305–310, 314; see also neurolinguistics
Broca’s aphasia see aphasia
census data 59–60, 119, 123, 135, 331–332
Center for Applied Linguistics 162, 172, 188
cerebral hemisphere 302, 305, 307, 348
character, Chinese 38, 98, 138, 270, 356
child-directed speech 6, 157, 348
chunk see formulaic language
citation (lexicography) 255, 264–265, 266, 267, 271, 348; contexts 269
classroom discourse see discourse
clients (applied linguistics) see applied linguistics
clinical linguistics see language pathology
cochlear implant 222, 318, 348
code of conduct/ ethics/practice 239, 298, 335–338 see also ethics; professionalism
code, restricted vs elaborated 157, 358
code-switching 11–12, 48, 101, 326, 331, 348
codification (of language) 8–9, 28, 40, 108, 111, 115, 124, 137, 221, 240, 251, 254, 256, 261 see also corpus planning
codification (of law) 279, 294–297
cognition 11, 28–29, 58, 68, 86, 87–88, 134–135, 138, 143, 157, 193, 199–200, 204, 206, 208, 222, 226, 238, 240, 294, 300, 302, 303, 307, 308, 314, 319, 342; see also language, cognitive vs sociocultural nature
cognitive approach see language, cognitive vs sociocultural nature
cognitive neuropsychology see psychology
collocation 251, 273, 284, 348
colonialism 13–14, 41–42, 43, 108, 114–116, 120, 160, 214–215, 294, 331; Spanish conquest of America 132, 139–140, 182, 225
communicative approach see methodology (additional language education)
communicative competence see competence
compensatory strategy see strategy, compensatory
competence 7, 25, 58, 130, 143, 165, 180–1, 185, 190, 213, 227, 312, 313; communicative 63, 83–84, 134, 156, 185, 223, 348; linguistic 10, 48, 83–84, 156, 168, 229, 232, 271, 317
comprehension (psycholinguistics) see language processing
conceptual blending theory 86–87, 349
consciousness-raising 49, 58, 66, 74, 82, 93, 112, 116, 128, 150, 151, 212, 215, 217, 218, 289, 319–320, 332
construct see testing (additional language education)
construct validity see testing (additional language education)
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) see methodology (additional language education); bilingual education models
context 30, 35, 40, 43, 48–49, 77, 79–80, 82–83, 85, 86, 91–92, 138, 149–150, 157, 178–179, 188–190, 231–232, 238, 242–243, 252–253, 255, 266, 279, 287, 294, 333
conversation analysis 77, 87, 88, 310, 312, 349, 358
corpus 15, 79, 94, 99, 123, 150, 324, 328, 349; in additional language education 215; British National Corpus 32, 353; COBUILD Corpus of Spoken English 285; Collins WordBanks Online English Corpus 251; corpus linguistics 15, 16, 79–80, 94, 349; in discourse analysis 79–80, 95; in forensic linguistics 284–285, 285, 286; in language planning 123; in lexicography 251, 258, 264, 265, 269, 270, 271–273; reference corpus 284–285; in translation 243, 244, 361
corpus planning see language planning
court interpreting see interpreting, legal
creole 43–44, 163, 170, 324, ; see also decreolization; pidgin
critical approaches in applied linguistics see applied linguistics; discourse analysis; language planning; see also critical pedagogy
critical pedagogy 18, 203, 212, 350
Critical Period Hypothesis 6–7, 66, 204–205, 350; see also additional language education and age
cross-linguistic influence 42, 204, 350; substrate language 43, 44, 360; superstrate language 43, 44, 360
cross-references (lexicography) see lexicography mediostructure
culture 3, 10, 11, 28, 38, 41, 47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 83–85, 92, 93–94, 95, 100, 110, 114, 132, 135–141, 157–159, 173, 176–177, 178, 180, 192, 194, 198–199, 203, 208, 212–213, 215, 216–218, 224, 230–232, 235–237, 241, 243, 246, 274, 290–291, 293–294, 301, 312–313, 319, 333; dominant 178, 239–240; subculture 213, 252, 261
curriculum 34, 112, 119, 124, 158, 159, 161, 162, 167, 168, 169, 173, 179, 185, 187, 189, 193, 194, 200, 204, 246, 332, 342; National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) 149, 167, 172
Daubert ruling 297
deaf community 55, 66, 318–319,
deafness 7, 43–44, 53, 55, 56, 57, 63, 65–66, 70, 168–169, 222, 238–239, 240, 246, 260, 272, 305–306, 314, 317–319
deficit, language see language disability
definition (lexicography) 250–251, 255, 260, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267–270, 271, 273, 279, 315
democracy, linguistic 339
descriptive linguistics see linguistics
descriptivism see prescriptivism
design, graphic see design, visual
design, visual 130
development, international 73
developmental language disability see language disability
diagnosis (additional language education) see testing (additional language education)
diagnosis (language pathology) 65, 169, 239, 314, 315, 332, 338 see also assessment (language pathology)
dialect 3, 4, 9, 10, 26, 29–31, 32–34, 36–38, 42, 43, 46, 48, 60, 72, 84, 115, 149, 158, 165, 194, 226, 232, 237, 254, 261, 284, 289, 292, 313, 326, 332, 339
dictionaries 12, 14, 131–132, 154, 249–275, 328; as authority 38, 40, 47, 68, 253–258; compilation 249, 261–270; coverage 253, 263–264; additional language education and 215, 261, 270–271, 273, 330; language maintenance and 16, 256–257, 273–274, 330; language pathology and 315, 319; language planning and 108, 109, 256–258, 261; literacy and 16, 256–257, 264; mental lexicon and 221, 250–252, 266, 272–273; sub-entry 270; translation and 227, 238, 243, 245, 261, 273; user research 263, 265, 269; World Englishes and 40, 47, 257–258; see also academy, language; codification (of language)
dictionaries cited: American College Dictionary 264; American Dictionary of the English Language 254; American Heritage Dictionary (AHD) 254–255, 263; Concise Oxford English Dictionary 266, 315; Coxford Singlish Dictionary 109, 257; Diccionario de la Lengua Española 38, 108, 257; Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues 264; Dictionary of Lexicography 268; Dictionnaire de l’Académie française 38, 261–262; Duden– Die deutsche Rechtschreibung 258; English Schoole-Maister 154–155, 270; Gallaudet Dictionary of American Sign Language 260; Larousse Dictionnaire Français 258; Longman Dictionary of American English 269; Macquarie Dictionary 258; Merriam-Webster dictionaries 254, 256, 260; New Oxford American Dictionary (NOAD) 266–270; Oxford English Dictionary (OED) 14, 131, 258, 261, 264–265, 271; Random House Dictionary of the English Language 264; Registro de Lexicografía Argentina 108; Robert Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française 258; Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language 131, 254, 264; Table Alphabeticall of Hard Usual English Words 264, 270; Te Matatiki 256; Third New International Dictionary (Webster’s) 254–255
dictionary types: bilingual/multilingual 79, 227, 243, 245, 261, 264, 270, 328; Braille 260; children’s 271, 272, 319; college 263, 266, 271; concise 265–266; dialect 109, 260, 266; electronic 249, 260, 263, 266, 267, 271–273; jargon 261; learners’ 154, 270–271, 272; monolingual 256, 261, 264, 266, 270; online 249, 252, 257, 260, 266; pocket 265–266; rhyming 260, 359; sign language 260, 272; slang 260–261, 266; specialized 260–261, 266; spoken 260; unabridged 265, 266
directive see speech act disability, language see
language disability discourse 8–9, 10, 12, 14, 56, 61, 65, 71, 72, 76–97, 119, 181, 238, 312, 319, 326; children’s 160; classroom 77, 81–82, 84, 94, 158, 163, 165, 169, 170, 173; courtroom 35, 71, 93, 293–294, 297; definition of 76–77; doctor-patient 72; intercultural 92–94; as legal evidence 290–292; and lexicography 260, 271; markers 319; media 28, 36, 88, 217; political 86, 88, 89, 91, 93; and translation/ interpreting 224, 234, 236–237, 239–240, 244; see also discourse analysis
discourse analysis 76–97, 338, 339–340; and additional language education 84, 85–86, 88, 215; cognitive 86; critical 88–89, 212; and forensic linguistics 284; and language pathology 87, 312, 320; see also conversation analysis
discrimination, linguistic 28, 59–61, 85, 94, 161, 289–290
discursive psychology see psychology, discursive
disinvention, language 334
disorder, language see language disability document analysis 283–286
double dissociation (language pathology) 308–309
Down Syndrome 308
dual language education see bilingual education models, immersion
dubbing 240–241; see also translation types: audiovisual
dyslexia 53, 56, 67, 150, 168, 170, 305, 306–307, 315, 316, 351
education 1, 7, 8, 11, 16, 28, 30, 34, 39–40, 43, 63, 65, 66, 68–69, 70, 73, 98, 99, 107, 109, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119–120, 121, 246, 270–271, 273, 304, 308, 315–316, 320, 324–326, 330, 331, 332, 334–335, 336–337, 339, 340, 341; (post-)colonial 114, 116, 120–121, 160, 214–215, 331; early childhood 157, 164; see also additional language education; bilingual education; language in education, as medium; language in education, as object; language in education planning; literacy education; special needs education
education, bilingual see bilingual education
elaborated code see code, restricted vs elaborated
elite bilingualism see bilingualism
emergent bilingualism see bilingualism
emergent literacy see literacy
endangered language see language (types of): endangered
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 61, 150, 334
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) 41, 80, 109, 215, 223, 238, 334; see also lingua franca
English Language Teaching (ELT) 197, 212, 257–258; see also TESOL
epistemology 18, 20, 86, 250, 352
equality, linguistic see language rights
ethics 118, 169, 211, 239–240, 293–294, 298, 339–341
ethnicity 55–56, 72, 123, 131, 158, 184, 187–188, 213, 216, 225, 239–240, 284, 289, 292, 294, 312–313, 330–331
ethnography 24, 74, 78, 83–84, 88, 114, 131, 142, 159, 216, 278, 293, 352
ethnomethodology 87
evolution of language see language evolution
Expanding Circle see World Englishes
eye movement studies 130–131, 145–146
finger-spelling 65
first language acquisition 6–7, 8, 11, 43, 64, 67, 110–112, 156–157, 199–200, 201–202, 204, 306–307, 308; milestones 314
Fissure of Rolando 303
folk beliefs 25, 94, 146, 148, 198, 250
folk bilingualism see bilingualism, folk
foreign language 13, 39, 40–41, 184–189, 198, 246, 359; see also additional language education
forensic linguistics 16, 71, 79, 221, 276–299, 333–334; forensic phonetics 287–290; forensic stylistics 284, 352; judicial reform 296–297
form of address 100
formulaic language 65, 279–280, 319; see also collocation
French immersion education see bilingual education models
frequency (acoustic) 286–287, 303, 352
frequency, word see word
Funds of Knowledge 162, 174, 352
gender 29, 52, 56, 62, 63, 69–70, 83, 88, 92, 119–120, 131, 146–147, 152, 160, 165, 168, 213, 229–230, 291, 304
genetic inheritance 63, 307–308
genre 61, 79, 80, 84, 85, 89, 91, 124, 144, 145, 150, 180, 181, 216, 224, 232, 234, 260, 266, 273, 285, 326
globalization 3, 99, 118, 133, 176–177, 217, 238, 329–331, 344
gloss, morphemic 226, 229–230, 235, 356
glossaries 89, 243, 264, 270, 272, 346–361
glottographic writing system see writing system
Google Translate 242
Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale 113
grammar 3, 6, 10, 13, 14, 31, 33, 35, 43, 50, 55, 80, 83, 124, 145, 158, 173, 204, 221, 232, 251, 273, 300, 305, 307; rules 13, 29, 154, 201, 243–244
grammar translation method see methodology (additional language education)
h-dropping 62
headword 260, 266–267, 270, 353
heritage language 172, 180, 353; programmes 187–188, 191–192, 195
homophone see homonym
human rights 107, 131, 176–177, 191, 296; see also language rights
hybridity (of language) 20, 24, 121, 332, 341–342
identity 9, 15–16, 105, 194, 215–216, 284, 290, 317, 319, 330–331, 344; group 3, 24, 30–31, 54–55, 114, 252, 284, 301, 325; national 9, 13, 33, 199, 225, 228, 257, 331
ideology 18, 20, 25, 46, 86, 91, 93, 123–124, 134, 178, 180,188–189, 236–237, 253, 256–257, 265–266, 269, 293, 342; see also language ideology
illiteracy see literacy
illocution see speech act
immersion see bilingual education models
immigration see migration
impairment, language see language disability
imperialism, linguistic 41–42, 60
implicature, Gricean 290
indigenous peoples 41, 46, 113–114, 115, 117, 120, 140–141, 158, 170, 180, 188–189, 225–227, 235, 257, 290–291, 296, 330, 338
individual learner differences see additional language education
Inner Circle see World Englishes
input 6–7, 38–39, 64, 65, 144, 199, 204–205, 216, 303, 306, 310–311
Institute for Language and Education Policy 107
intelligence 9–10, 14, 31, 58, 101, 119, 142, 148, 151, 193, 233, 320, 340
interactional sociolinguistics see sociolinguistics, interactional
interdisciplinarity see applied linguistics, interdisciplinarity
International English Language Testing System (IELTS) 10, 39, 210
internet see technologies, new
interpreting 227, 238–240, 246, 297, 322, 324, 328–329, 336, 354; community 119, 238–239, 348; consecutive 238–239, 349; legal 291; sign language 100, 165, 170, 227, 231, 238, 240, 246, 306, 319; simultaneous/whispered 238, 361
intertextual analysis 293
IRF/E (Initiation, Response, Feedback/Evaluation) 82
jargon 54, 171, 218, 261, 265–266, 280–281
judicial reform see forensic linguistics
justice, social 1, 63, 165, 290, 339, 342, 344
Kamehameha Early Education Program 170
LADO (Language Analysis for the Determination of the Origin (of asylum seekers)) 289–290
language: attitudes to 31,166; bans 12, 14, 102, 103, 106–107, 110, 115, 170, 180, 185, 204; borders 324; cognitive vs sociocultural nature of 1–4, 11, 17, 18, 19, 28–29, 37, 76–77, 86, 87–88, 89–90, 134–135, 157, 222–223, 246, 294, 300, 301–302, 308–309, 309–310, 312, 314, 319, 332–334; and colonialism 41–43, 214; ‘dead-ends’ 4–14; decisions 99–107, 112; discrimination 161; diversity 120, 177; in education, as medium 165–167; in education, as object 167; in education planning 112, 355; folk theories of 4, 36–37, 46; in the home 105, 113, 157–159, 162, 168, 180, 183; and law, as medium 277–278; and law, as object 279; legislation 12–13, 23, 27, 103, 105, 110, 117, 256, 280, 329, 337, 339; monolithic conception of 12–13, 23–24, 25, 27, 36–37, 45–47, 49, 127, 133, 213, 254, 274, 330–334, 340, 342; nationality and 13–14, 33, 330–331, 342; number of 1, 60; politics and 13, 15, 16, 18, 38, 43, 68, 88, 93, 94, 108, 123, 128, 183, 190, 191, 198, 212, 218, 241, 280, 319, 322, 329; and power 8, 10, 14, 25, 27, 34, 41–43, 46, 71, 88, 95, 107–108, 110, 167, 194, 212, 217, 331, 341, 342; in schools 115, 159–161, 164, 166; simplification of 71, 271, 282, 298; (socio)economics and 43, 68–69, 115–116, 118–120, 160, 189, 212–213, 307; and thought 2, 4–6, 11, 12, 28, 77, 85, 93, 141–142, 279; variability of see language variation; women and 46, 53, 56, 62, 63, 68, 69–70, 117, 119–120, 131, 146; in the workplace 27, 72, 85
language (types of): community 2, 18, 111, 172, 185, 203, 257, 318, 332; dominant 58–59, 68, 103, 104–105, 111, 178, 179, 183–188, 190–192, 351; endangered 16, 46–47, 60, 73, 112–13, 115, 226, 274, 352; heritage see heritage language; indigenous 34, 111, 114–116, 119–120, 131–132, 189, 246, 257, 332; legal 72, 93, 276, 279, 280, 282, 298, 320; legitimate 121, 164, 355; minority 16, 18, 38, 53, 59–61, 68, 71, 103–105, 110, 161, 168, 179–180, 184, 186–187, 191–192, 241, 246, 256, 273, 298, 332, 356; official 41, 44, 45, 60, 99, 102, 105–107, 112, 178, 240, 241, 244, 261; pre-literate 116, 142; spoken see speech; tonal 9, 309; written see writing
language acquisition see acquisition
language biology 2–4, 6, 36, 53, 56–57, 67, 79, 199, 300–320; see also brain, language and; language disability; neurolinguistics
‘language broker’ 239
language change 46, 108, 114, 132, 137
language death 112–113, 115, 354
language disability 169, 300–301, 305, 317, 320; acquired 306–307; genetic 67, 307–308; language-related 304–305, 314, 320; language-specific 307–308
language ecology 257
language evolution 242
language ideology 37, 42, 114, 123, 192
language insecurity 25, 45–48, 68
language of instruction see language in schools
language laboratory 201
language maintenance 47, 54, 99, 114–115, 119, 124, 183–184, 256, 274, 330, 339, 354
language myths see language ‘dead ends’
language nationalism see language, nationality and
language norms 40–41, 158, 183, 215, 257, 283
language orientations (language planning): language as problem 103, 190–191; language as resource 103, 190–191; language as right 103, 190–191
language pathology 6, 16, 18, 45–46, 52, 57, 67, 221–222, 250, 300–321, 327, 332–333; assessment 309–320; recovery 313, 317; testing 310–317; treatment 314–320
language planning 98–126; acquisition 99, 107, 110–112, 123–124, 346; bottom-up 122–124; corpus planning 99, 107–108, 112, 350; critical 116, 118–123, 350; de facto 112; status planning 99, 107, 108–111, 115, 240, 256, 332, 359; top-down 19, 74, 124; as ‘wicked problem’ 99; see also language orientations, language policy
language policy 14, 18, 21, 23, 46, 93, 98–126, 154, 172, 194, 205, 261; explicit 104–105; implicit 104; national 98, 102–104, 107, 109–110, 112, 154
language processing 86, 244, 302, 310, 317, 328, 358; comprehension 18, 86, 124, 223–224, 230, 240, 302–303, 309; language and speech perception 314–319; production 302–303, 305, 311
language revitalization 46–47, 60, 68, 99, 103, 113–114, 124, 188, 226, 256, 354
language shift 46, 105, 113, 115, 119, 187, 256–257, 355
‘Language Spell’, the 4–5, 26, 62, 74, 129–130, 254, 297, 299, 301, 307, 317, 335, 342
language teaching see additional language education language variation 23, 25–51, 59, 213–215, 254–255, 312–313
language vitality 99, 105, 109, 111, 113–115, 121, 159, 355
language of wider communication 19, 39, 103, 105, 113, 179, 188, 189, 214–215, 318, 354
legal system 294–296; adversarial 294, 296; inquisitorial 294
legalese see language (types of): legal
lexical entry 226, 243, 251, 258–263, 265, 266–270
lexical phrase see formulaic language
lexicographer, definition 253–254
lexicography 73, 98, 101, 114, 124, 221, 249–275, 286; corpus use in 271–273, 328; grammatical information 226, 260; history of 249, 254–255; planning 263; semantic information 145, 229; stages 262–263; Thorndike’s proportions 264–265; see also dictionaries
libraries 47, 64, 101–102; Bibliothèque et Archives Canada/Library and Archives Canada 101
lingua franca 41–42, 80, 103, 109, 215, 223, 238–239, 334, 355; see also English as a Lingua Franca
linguistic imperialism see imperialism, linguistic
linguistic landscape 99, 117, 121, 123, 328, 355
linguistic minority see minorities
linguistics: descriptive 9, 15, 29, 39, 249, 310, 327, 350; forensic see forensic linguistics; general 1, 9, 14–18, 26, 53, 74, 90, 250, 335; ‘linguistics applied’ 15–16, 73, 255; systemic functional 82, 88, 360; theoretical 15, 28, 163, 310, 360; see also corpus linguistics; discourse analysis; neurolinguistics; psycholinguistics; sociolinguistics
lip-reading 65
literacies: consumer 132; financial 132; mathematics see numeracy; media 132
literacy 8, 33, 47, 132; adolescent 143, 163, 324–325; adult 68–69, 134, 143, 145–148; alphabetic 38, 62, 65, 106, 111, 132, 134, 138–150, 311, 346; Arabic 142, 326; attainment 131, 148; Braille 64, 13, 148, 260, 347; definitions 131–135; emergent 132, 143–145, 151, 351; illiteracy 62–63, 131, 14–17; materials for 68, 111, 148, 149, 151; meaning 131, 134; practices 33, 128, 131, 134, 143, 148, 150–152, 162, 325–326, 334; preliteracy 53, 61–62; technologies see technologies, new; see also biliteracy; oracy; writing system
literacy education 10, 134, 146–150
literacy studies 130–131, 133–134
loan(word) see borrowing, lexical
locution see speech act
logographic writing system see writing system
machine translation see translation types: automatic
macrofamily 59–60 macrostructure (lexicography) 258–261, 263, 266, 271, 356; see also mediostructure; microstructure
mapping 99–100, 123, 125, 163–164, 175, 199, 229, 232, 273, 312, 329, 342–343, 356
materials development see textbooks; see also additional language education; bilingual education; literacy
meaning 3–4, 29–30, 78–79, 80–91, 95, 136, 145–146, 149–150, 227–236, 278–280, 292–293, 301, 303, 310–311; indeterminacy of 279–280, 295; word see word meaning
media, digital 14, 89–90, 129, 136–137, 151–152, 190, 324–327; text messages 129, 138, 266, 284, 325–326; video games 163–164, 240–241
mediostructure (lexicography) 266–268, 356; see also macrostructure; microstructure
memory 15, 86, 140–142, 152, 221, 226, 243–245, 250–251, 286; long-term 86, 204; working 205, 239, 286, 310, 333
mental lexicon 252, 266–267, 274, 356
metalinguistic: knowledge 232, 234–235, 260, 263; skills 167, 356
methodology (additional language education) 201–203, 212, 333; audiolingualism 201, 346; communicative approach 84, 348; community language learning 187; community language teaching 183, 187, 192, 195, 348; Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 185, 191; grammar translation 201, 352; task-based instruction 84, 173, 202, 312; Total Physical Response 201–202, 360
methodology (research) see research methods
microstructure (lexicography) 258, 266–270, 356; see also macrostructure; mediostructure
migration 2–3, 14, 88, 107, 120–123, 133, 158, 168, 176–177, 187, 210, 214, 238, 289–290, 329–332, 344; policy 93, 120–121
minorities 14, 52–56, 59, 125, 260–261, 272, 331; ethnic 72, 177, 180, 187–188, 239–240, 292, 312–313; linguistic 16, 27, 34, 67–68, 105, 118–119, 157–158, 161–162, 167, 170, 186–187, 214, 238, 298, 330–332, 341
minority language see language (types of): minority
Miranda warning see caution, legal
misunderstanding 4, 69, 74, 77, 84–85, 87, 177, 209, 291
mobile phones see technologies, new
modality 8, 31, 44, 63, 66, 129–130, 140, 260, 301, 305–306, 310, 315; differences between 139, 241, 286; tactile 64, 67, 98, 148, 206; see also sign language; speech; writing; Braille
modularity 67, 301–303, 308, 310–311
monolingualism 2, 13–14, 115, 119–120, 177, 189, 192–193, 213, 291–292, 332
monolithism see language, monolithic conception of
morphology 32, 43, 67, 83, 249, 293, 356 see also grammar
mother tongue 28, 42–43, 110, 113, 198, 293; instruction 69, 112, 114, 119, 178, 180, 184–185, 187 (see also bilingual education)
motivation (additional language education) 57, 88, 204, 206–207, 212; command and demand 200–201, 219; extrinsic 206–207, 354; intrinsic 206–207, 354; motivational self system 206–207
Multilingual Cities Project 187
multilingual education see bilingual education
multilingualism 105–107, 120, 177, 179–181, 185, 187, 205; see also bilingualism
nationality, language and see language
native-speakerism 39, 213–214, 228, 357
nonce word see word ‘nonstandard’ variety see variety
nonword see word ‘null subject’ 229–230
numeracy 132
Official Languages Act, Canada 101–102
online learning see additional language education, online learning
orientation (motivation): instrumental 206, 354; integrative 206, 354
orthography 68, 98, 108, 111, 137, 251, 256–257, 267–268, 357; practical 226–227
Outer Circle see World Englishes
pedagogy, critical see critical pedagogy
perception, language and speech see language processing
performative speech act see speech act
perlocution see speech act
phoneme 38, 134, 138, 149, 228, 307, 311, 346, 352, 357; phonemic awareness 149, 311
phonetics 30, 68, 108, 137, 139, 205, 226, 266, 287, 288, 290, 292, 351, 358; acoustic 303; articulatory 303
phonology 3, 9, 15, 31, 32, 33, 63, 65, 67, 68, 93, 149, 150, 213, 228, 240, 251, 307, 310, 311, 317, 351, 357
placement see testing (additional language education)
‘plain English’ see language simplification
planning (lexicography) see lexicography
planning, language see language planning
pluricentrism 40
poverty 56, 68, 69, 118–120,158, 336
pragmatic approach (language pathology) see language pathology, treatment
pragmatic language impairment 312, 358
pragmatics 80, 100, 167, 173, 229, 232, 251, 278, 316, 317, 319, 333, 358
preliteracy see literacy
prescriptivism 26–29, 45, 49, 254, 256, 257, 258, 274
processing, language see language processing
production (psycholinguistics) see language processing
profanity 105
professionalism 342; professionalization 246, 298; standards 39, 335, 336–338, 344; see also code of conduct/ethics/ practice
proficiency 10, 15, 39, 42, 57, 58, 72, 168, 171, 178, 182, 183, 184, 186, 193, 200, 205, 212, 214, 215–216, 245, 260, 277–278, 329, 333, 334; testing see testing (additional language education)
Progress in International Reading Literacy (PIRLS) 172
pronunciation 10, 32, 38, 62, 161, 167, 204, 251, 252, 266; Received Pronunciation 10, 30, 358; word see word
psycholinguistic approach (language pathology) see language pathology, treatment
Psycholinguistic Assessments of Language Processing in Aphasia (PALPA) 310, 316
psycholinguistics 15, 16, 18, 43, 65, 76, 86, 142, 213, 221, 231, 238, 251, 252, 310, 311, 312, 314, 316, 317, 333, 358
psychology 11, 15, 16, 57, 92–93, 130, 142, 143, 204, 206, 209, 300, 309, 310, 317; cognitive neuropsychology 29, 310; discursive 87–88, 351
public services, access to 116
publicists, applied linguists as 335; see also applied linguist, roles of punctuation 33, 118, 136, 144, 167, 284, 351, 356
purity, linguistic 254
Queen’s English 10
quotation (lexicography) see citation (lexicography)
reading 8, 62–63, 131, 134–135, 138–141, 143–150; as decoding 131, 134, 146, 149, 150; as encoding 131, 134, 145–146, 150; see also literacy
Received Pronunciation see pronunciation
recovery (language pathology) see language pathology
refugees, language rights of 105–107, 289–290
register 35, 48, 82, 83, 84, 100, 160, 216, 232, 237, 252, 284, 313, 351, 358; children’s knowledge of 159–160
reliability see testing (additional language education)
request see speech act
research methods 15, 73, 76–97, 95, 119, 142–143, 145, 160, 162, 163, 197, 206, 284, 285, 286, 287, 310–312, 315, 338, 339, 340, 346; qualitative 88, 95;quantitative 95, 284, 293, 312
restricted code see code, restricted vs elaborated
rhetoric, contrastive 85–86, 349
rights see human rights; language rights
Rosetta Project 47
schools, language in see language in schools
screen translation see translation, audiovisual
second language acquisition (SLA) 17, 183, 198, 200, 204, 334; see also additional language education
self-monitoring 311
semantics 31, 65, 82, 108, 132, 145, 149, 224, 229, 232, 235, 236, 249, 252, 259, 260, 265, 273, 278, 358
sign language 7, 32, 43, 44, 56, 65–66, 169, 183, 227, 240, 260, 272, 301, 306, 318, 319, 357; see also deafness
simulated voice technology see technologies, new
social justice see justice, social
‘social model’ (language pathology) 305
social networking see technologies, new
socialization 7, 28, 62, 157, 159
sociocultural approach see language, cognitive vs sociocultural nature
socioeconomics, language and see language
sociolinguistics 9, 15, 16, 29, 37, 71, 359; interactional 84, 339, 354
source language (SL) (translation) 117, 223, 347, 349, 359, 361
Speak Good English campaign 109, 154
speaker identification 286, 287, 288, 357
special needs education 168–170, 169, 359; assessment 168; exclusion approaches 169; inclusion approaches 169; over-representation of linguistic minorities in 168
Specific Language Impairment (SLI) 67, 307, 359
spectrogram 286, 287, 327, 359
speech 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 28, 29, 31–32, 33, 36, 38–39, 43–45, 45–46, 48–49, 62, 67, 80–85, 87, 130, 155–156, 157–161, 166, 277–278, 286–287, 289–292, 303, 306, 307, 309, 311, 313, 317, 331, 339, 346, 348, 351, 352, 354, 359
speech act 80–81, 82, 359; directive 160, 351; illocution 80–81, 356; locution 80, 355; performative 277; perlocution 80–81, 356; request 80
speech event 83
speech and language therapy see language pathology
spelling 62, 68, 123, 137, 144–145, 149, 150, 251, 256, 263, 266, 267, 284, 307, 310–311, 351, 359; non-conventional 122–123, 148, 284
‘Standard English’ 10, 106, 109, 165, 194, 313, 347; see also variety, ‘standard’
‘standard’ variety see variety; codification (of language)
standards, professional see professionalism
status planning see language planning
strategy 6, 7, 57, 85, 93, 158, 199, 215, 232, 237; compensatory (additional language education) 209, 349; compensatory (language pathology) 319; learning 204, 207–208
structure, linguistic 3, 5, 6, 66, 79, 80, 165, 167, 229, 234, 279, 282, 284, 306, 349, 355, 361; see also grammar; morphology; syntax
style, learning see additional language education
stylistics, forensic see forensic linguistics
stylometry see forensic linguistics
submersion education see bilingual education models
substrate language see cross-linguistic influence
subtractive bilingualism see bilingualism, subtractive
Summer Institute of Linguistics 111
superstrate language see cross-linguistic influence
Sylvian Fissure 302, 303, 347, 360, 361
syntax 28, 32, 43, 67, 83, 157, 240
system, language as see language system
systemic functional linguistics see linguistics
tactile modality see modality, tactile
target language (TL) (translation) 223, 224, 347, 349, 359
task-based instruction see methodology (additional language education)
teacher education 114, 156, 159, 160, 173, 174, 191, 192, 326, 360
technologies, new 323–328, 329, 341; in additional language education 199, 200, 201, 214, 215, 217, 218; in forensic linguistics 292, 297; internet 3, 14, 58, 64, 90, 112, 190, 324, 325, 326, 327; in language pathology 304, 311, 314, 315; in lexicography 38, 108, 249, 259, 260, 263, 265, 266, 269, 271–273; and literacy 129, 131, 132, 133, 137, 151; mobile phones 266, 284, 324, 328; One Laptop per Child 328; simulated voice technology 64; social networking 14, 38, 58, 324, 326; in translation 227, 242–245, 335; see also additional language learning, online; media, digital
terminology 98, 111–112, 232, 233, 244, 256, 257, 265, 273; terminology banks 243, 360
TESOL 39
test 171–172, 246, 308, 310–314, 317, 361; standardized 127, 149, 172, 192, 213, 310; validity of 211, 349
Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) 10, 39, 210, 219
testing (additional language education) 10, 57, 127, 199, 200, 207, 209–211; achievement 210; aptitude 205, 206; construct 209, 349; diagnosis 121, 210; placement 210; proficiency 209, 210, 215–216, 333; variety 39, 40, 45, 213, 334, 341; see also test validity
testing (bilingual education) 112, 123, 184, 192
testing (language pathology) see language pathology
testing (literacy) 62–63, 124, 135, 142, 147, 149, 150
text 30, 64, 82–83, 91–92, 235–236, 315; multi-modal 89–90; multi-voiced 91; oral 79, 286–290; publicly displayed 100, 122, 125, 355; sacred 103; written 85–86, 130, 131, 134, 145–146, 227, 283–286; linguistic elements in written texts 91, 353; non-linguistic elements in written texts 89–90; see also linguistic landscape; literacy; writing
text messages see media, digital
textbooks 9, 34, 42, 83, 101, 111, 112, 114, 154, 169, 173, 200, 217, 229, 332
th-fronting 32
theoretical linguistics see linguistics
theory of mind 67, 314, 347, 360
theory vs practice 14–20, 74, 250
therapy (language pathology) see language pathology, treatment
thesaurus 259, 260, 269; Collins Paperback Thesaurus in A-to-Z Form 260, 269; Roget’s Thesaurus 259, 260
Total Physical Response see methodology (additional language education)
Toubon Law 13
translation 223–248, 277–278, 324, 333, 347, 349, 352, 358, 359, 361; in additional language education 201, 204; dictionary use in 250, 261, 328; domesticating 236, 237, 238; foreignizing 236, 237, 238, 241; reader-focused 235; text-focused 235; see also interpreting
translation equivalence 42, 224, 226, 227–230, 231, 235, 240, 250, 261, 361
translation memory 244, 245, 361; see also terminology bank
translation studies 223, 227, 234, 238, 246
translation theory 232
translation types: audiovisual 238–241, 240, 347; automatic 242, 244, 319, 347; literary 234, 235, 237; professional 117, 227, 232; statistical 244, 358, 359; technical 234
treatment (language pathology) see language pathology
United Nations (Organization) 131, 244, 328; Literacy Decade (campaign) 131, 147; Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs 169, 315; International Declaration of Human Rights 191; UNESCO 8, 62, 113, 115, 134, 135, 147, 169, 191, 315; University 328
Universal Grammar 204
usage 8, 12, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, 38, 40, 167, 244, 250, 251, 253, 255, 256, 257, 260, 261, 263, 266, 267, 273, 286; ‘nonstandard’ 8–9, 26, 31, 45, 46, 106, 165–166, 298, 334; panel 255, 256; see also variety, ‘nonstandard’
validity see testing (additional language education)
variable 57, 69, 99, 121, 184, 201, 202, 205, 211, 214, 293, 354; linguistic 284, 352; sociolinguistic 29
variation, language see language variation
variety 9–10, 25–50, 29, 58, 79, 80, 99, 101, 111, 127–128, 154, 164, 171, 193, 197, 213, 214–215, 256, 257–258, 289, 332, 333, 334, 350, 351, 355, 357, 361; ‘non-native’ 158, 298; ‘nonstandard’ 8–9, 26, 31, 45, 46, 106, 165–166, 298, 334; ‘standard’ 8–9, 62, 106, 108, 313, 331 (see also ‘Standard English’); indigenized 109; nativized 109
video games see media, digital
vocabulary 12, 32, 35, 43, 71, 119, 166, 167, 204, 226, 232, 234, 243, 250–253, 254, 256, 260, 273, 348, 356, 358, 360; development 226, 273
vocal tract 67, 286, 301, 303, 307, 351
voice analysis, disputed 288
voice line-up 287
voice recognition software 315
voter initiative see referendum
Wernicke’s aphasia see aphasia
Western Aphasia Battery 310
women and language see language word 6, 12–13, 32, 35, 43, 79, 80, 108, 136, 144, 146, 148, 149, 150, 205, 224, 229, 235, 240, 249–274, 277, 284, 287, 292, 307, 309, 310, 311, 314, 315, 326, 328, 332, 346, 348, 349, 353, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 361; definition see definition (lexicography); form 6, 251, 252, 253, 256, 259, 260, 268, 269, 270, 273, 307, 310, 357,358; nonce 273, 357; nonword 310, 311, 357; pronunciation 32, 62, 85, 251, 252, 253, 266, 267; rhyming 149, 235, 260, 311, 359; sense see word meaning; use 80, 292, 309
word meaning 250, 251, 252, 267, 310, 328; see also definition (lexicography)
World Englishes 25, 39–42, 158, 197, 215, 253, 257, 290, 313, 361; Expanding Circle 41, 258, 352; Inner Circle 41, 42, 109, 241, 257, 242; Outer Circle 41, 42, 47, 257, 313, 352
World Health Organization 63, 65, 150, 305
World Wide Web see technologies, new
writing 8, 37–39, 40, 61–63, 85–86, 129–153, 283–286, 307; ability 148–150; as human right 131
writing system 8, 38, 62, 108, 116, 129, 130, 134, 135–141, 145, 148, 307, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 356, 360; alphabetic 38, 62, 98, 134, 138, 139, 142, 143, 144, 148, 150, 346, 347, 352, 356, 357; glottographic 38, 139, 145, 307, 352; logographic 38, 68, 138, 139, 142, 351, 356; Putonghua 38, 103, 223
Afar 104
Agew 104
Aguaruna 332
Akkadian 270
American Sign Language (ASL) 65–66, 260, 318
Andamanese 112
Arabic 39, 59, 60–61, 108, 111, 120, 121, 138, 142, 143, 163, 168, 171, 187, 206, 214, 238, 326; Moroccan 60; Palestinian 326
Asháninka 34, 111, 327, 330, 332
Australian Sign Language 66
Bahasa Malaysia see Malay
Berber 61
Bo 112
British Sign Language (BSL) 13, 66, 100, 231, 260, 272
Canadian Sign Language 66
Catalan 34
Chemehuevi 115
Cherokee 138
Chinese (Han/Mandarin/Putonghua) 9, 12, 38, 39, 44, 59, 98, 103, 110, 113, 138, 171, 177, 209, 213, 214, 216, 223, 237, 238, 243, 270, 271, 302
Dari 289
Egyptian 233
English: Aboriginal (Australia) 272, 290–291; African American 10, 34, 43–44, 48, 55, 158, 165–166, 159, 339; American (US) 26, 48, 165, 197, 254, 269, 272, 287, 292; Australian 26, 40, 266; British (UK) 26, 197, 199, 254, 266; Brummie 31; Cockney 31, 38; Geordie 26, 34; Hong Kong 158; Indian 40, 158, 197; London Jamaican 44, 158; Maine 29–30; Mexican American 34, 158; Nigerian 40; Panjabi 158, 313; Scottish 26, 32, 40, 293; Singapore/Singlish 109, 154, 257; South African 226, 261; Sri Lankan 42; see also Scots
Estonian 12
French 2, 4, 9, 10, 32, 59, 60, 61, 66, 104, 108, 111, 116, 119, 121, 138, 144, 179, 185, 187, 201, 214, 217, 218, 224, 238–239, 241, 243, 244, 258, 264, 280–281, 327, 328; Belgian 61; Canadian 12–13, 102, 163–164, 184, 186, 191, 197; Haitian 188; Jersey Norman (JNF) 256; Moroccan 197; Norman 12; Parisian 44
Fulfulde 111
Galician 34
Georgian 12
German 59, 108, 185, 187, 201, 213, 214, 238, 240, 241, 258, 328; Austrian 46
Greek 92, 138, 201, 228, 233, 234, 266, 273
Guarani 226
Hokkien 109
Ika 114
Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) 116, 229, 294–295
isiNbedele see Nbedele
isiXhosa see Xhosa
isiZulu see Zulu
Italian 59, 144, 185, 187, 241
Jamaican Creole 44
Japanese 12, 13, 38, 44, 59, 104, 138–139, 154, 198, 223, 235, 283
Kankuamo 114
Kikuyu 124
Kogui 114
Korean 11, 59, 138, 148, 185, 209, 271, 283, 293–294, 313
Kunama 104
Kurdish 106
Latin 2, 12, 72, 132, 154, 180, 201, 227, 228, 230, 237, 243, 270, 347, 353
Malay (Bahasa Malaysia) 41–42, 109
Mandarin see Chinese Maori 180, 188, 256
Mexican Sign Language (MSL) 65–66
Mongolian 38
Ndebele (isiNdebele) 261
Nicaraguan Sign Language 43, 44
Nigerian Pidgin 43
Oromo 104
Panjabi 60, 157, 187, 313, 327, 331–332; Western Panjabi 60
Portuguese 34, 59, 110, 144, 154
Putonghua see Chinese
Quebecois Sign Language (LSQ) 65–66
Russian 12, 59, 121, 138, 223, 237, 239, 257, 258, 327
Saho 104
Scots 34 see also English: Scottish 32, 40
Sepedi 261
Seraiki 60
Shekgalagarghi 69
Sign Language of the Netherlands (Nederlandse Gebarantaal, NGT) 240
Sinhala 42
siSwati (Swazi) 261
Sotho see Sesotho Spanish 2, 9, 12, 39, 59, 102, 104, 105–106, 108, 111, 114, 117, 121–122, 131–132, 144, 161–162, 168, 176, 178, 184, 187, 226–227, 229, 242–243, 252, 257–258, 277–278, 294, 302, 307, 326–327; Castilian 34
Spanish Sign Language 66
Tagalog 120
Thai 138
Totonac, Misantla 226–227, 235, 339
Tshivenda 261
Urdu 33, 40, 59–60, 179, 187, 356
Valencian 34
Welsh 35, 103, 116, 117, 179, 351
Xitsonga 261
Zapotec 139
Zulu (isiZulu) 2, 11, 167, 226, 261
Afghanistan 289
Africa 2, 13, 14, 40, 42, 57, 68, 69, 88, 108, 112, 114, 115, 124, 176; East 103, 289, 328, 354; North 168, 172; sub-Saharan 73, 133, 176
Amazonian region 111, 327, 330
Americas 11, 14, 55, 132, 138, 139, 182; Latin America 102, 105, 132, 241, 258; North America 165–166, 176, 188, 189, 254–255, 291, 326; Meso-America 38, 135, 139, 140, 141
Asia 13, 14, 42, 103, 114, 139; Central 142; East 172, 223; South 40, 258; South Central 172; South-East 40, 182, 258
Australia 14, 26, 96, 129, 143, 149, 162, 175, 187, 272, 289, 290, 291, 293, 296, 297, 348
Bolivia 257
Botswana 68
Cambodia 182
Cameroon 44
Canada 12–13, 14, 30, 38, 44, 66, 101–102, 115, 116, 119–120, 121, 156, 163–164, 176, 184, 185, 186, 188, 191, 206, 286, 352, 353
Caribbean region 43, 55, 114, 182
China 38, 41, 52, 96, 98, 110, 129, 135, 138, 141, 171, 177, 189, 197, 209, 219, 223, 237, 241, 270, 271, 292, 322, 324, 329, 330, 336
Cuba 184
Denmark 13
Ecuador 257
El Salvador 102
England 13, 14, 26, 32, 40, 41, 154, 187, 270, 280
Europe 13, 38, 41, 60, 85, 108, 115, 117, 135, 138, 139, 171, 177, 179, 181, 184, 185, 187, 189, 201, 241, 243, 244, 257, 270, 282, 291, 294, 295, 329–330, 353; European Union 34, 75, 117, 184, 204, 223, 227, 331
France 13, 31, 60, 61, 294, 295
Gaza (Palestine) 322, 326, 328, 331, 333, 336, 340
Germany 9, 108, 129, 184, 289, 294
Haiti 324
Hong Kong 38, 86, 158, 181, 219, 271
Iceland 13
India 33, 40, 41, 42, 62, 96, 112, 158, 159, 181, 219, 226, 313, 327, 328, 334
Indonesia 62, 200–201, 217, 294, 295
Japan 13, 154, 184, 198, 241, 271
Kenya 73, 96, 112, 124, 276, 328
Malta 276
Mexico 46, 62, 89–90, 102, 105, 122, 132, 135, 139, 140, 158, 161, 162, 177–178, 225, 226, 228, 277, 290, 296, 322, 339, 348, 352
Netherlands 33, 147, 187, 240, 284, 289, 294, 348
New Spain 140
New Zealand 14, 26, 40, 149, 180, 188, 256
Norway 13
Pakistan 34, 60, 62, 179, 198, 289, 313, 356
Peru 34, 111, 117, 132, 257, 322, 327, 330, 334, 338
Portugal 108
Puerto Rico 182
Rwanda 328
Sierra Leone 138
Singapore 96, 109, 154, 257, 276
Somalia 164
South Africa 26, 91, 129, 133, 154, 167, 178, 226, 261
Spain 34, 121, 132, 140, 168, 225, 228, 241, 257, 294, 329
Sudan 105
Switzerland 90, 185, 214, 251, 289
Tanzania 328
Thailand 182
Uganda 328
United Kingdom 10, 13, 14, 26, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 40, 41, 42, 63, 64, 72, 73, 79, 84, 91, 116, 117, 149, 150, 154, 156, 158, 162, 165, 167, 174, 176, 177, 179, 183, 187, 189, 197, 199, 217, 236, 241, 252, 258, 260, 270, 276, 277, 279, 280, 282, 288, 289, 294, 297, 298, 300, 310, 312, 313, 315, 319, 320, 322, 327, 329, 331, 332, 333, 337, 339, 342, 347, 348, 351, 352, 356
United States of America 9, 11, 13, 14, 26, 27, 29, 40, 41, 42, 45, 54, 64, 67, 75, 85, 86, 89–90, 91, 93, 96, 105, 106, 107, 119, 135, 136, 148, 149, 158, 162, 167, 168, 172, 176, 177, 182, 183, 185, 186, 188, 189, 191, 199, 201, 205, 206, 207, 226, 234, 239, 241, 253, 254, 258, 263, 276, 277, 279, 281, 282, 285, 292, 293, 294, 297, 298, 300, 302, 308, 310, 313, 314, 318, 322, 326, 330, 336, 342, 352, 358
Wales 26, 35, 117, 179, 241, 320, 351
Zimbabwe 133
