Annotations for Numbers

1:1—25:18 The Death of the Exodus Generation in the Wilderness. This section has two parts: 1:1—10:10 and 10:11—25:18. In the first part, the Israelites are faithful, obedient, and careful to do “just as the LORD commanded” (1:54; cf. 2:34; 4:49; 8:4, 22; 9:5, 23). In the second part, they disbelieve, disobey, and ultimately rebel against the Lord (14:1–10; cf. 11:1–9; 14:39–45; 16:1–14; 20:2–5; 25:1–3). This rebellion results in the Lord’s discipline: it will not be the exodus generation of Israelites that enters the promised land, but their children (14:26–35).

1:1—10:10 Preparing to Enter the Promised Land. As the book of Numbers opens, the Israelites are at Mount Sinai, where they have camped for 11 months (cf. Exod 19:1 with Num 1:1). Since their arrival in Exod 19, the text has focused on the question, What does it mean for the Israelites to be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exod 19:4–6)? To answer this question, the text provides instructions and laws that guide the people in holy living (Exod 20–23; 34; Lev 11–27) and in holy worship (Exod 25–31; 35–40; Lev 1–10). Now the text begins to focus on the question, How do the Israelites prepare to march into battle in the promised land? It answers this question by describing various preparations that need to take place (1:1—10:10). The tone of this section is positive (see note on 1:1—25:18): the Israelites are faithful to do everything the Lord commands.

1:1—2:34 The Census of Israel and the Arrangement of the Tribal Camps. In order to prepare for the upcoming battles in the promised land, the Israelites needed to know the number of their troops (1:1–46) and what their war camp should look like when at rest or on the march (2:1–34).

1:1–54 The Census. After briefly describing the setting (v. 1), ch. 1 describes the preparation for the census (vv. 2–19), its results (vv. 20–46), and the duties of the one tribe (Levi) not counted in the census (vv. 47–53). Verse 54 is a conclusion.

1:1 Moses. See Introduction: Author. tent of meeting. Described in Exod 25–27; it stood within the sanctuary complex (see “The Tabernacle”). It was the Lord’s portable royal palace, where he sat enthroned over the ark (2 Sam 6:2; 1 Chr 28:2). Desert of Sinai. Traditionally identified with an area in the south of the Sinai peninsula in modern-day Egypt (see note on Exod 16:1). The Israelites arrived here ten months earlier (see “The Israelites’ Location: Where and How Long”). second month. Sometime in April or May. out of Egypt. A reminder from the very beginning of the book that the Lord is a God who delivers his people (see Exod 12–15; see “Exile and Exodus”); the Israelites need to embrace this with full faith as they head to battle in the promised land.

1:3 Armies preparing for battle need to know the extent of their resources.

1:4–16 Only Levi is not counted (see note on 1:47–53). The list still arrives at 12 tribes because Joseph’s tribe is counted as two tribes: Ephraim and Manasseh (v. 10; see Gen 48:1, 5).

1:20–46 The census shows that the Lord had begun to fulfill his covenant promise to give Abraham many descendants (Gen 13:16; 15:5; 22:17; see “Covenant”). God could therefore be trusted to fulfill his promise to give Abraham’s descendants a land (Gen 12:7; 13:15; 15:18). As for the numbers, there is significant debate (see Introduction: Interpretive Issues).

1:20 Israel. Abraham’s grandson; also known as Jacob (Gen 32:28). The Israelites are heirs of the Abrahamic covenant and jointly responsible for carrying out its mission of spreading God’s kingdom (see notes on Gen 12:1–3; Exod 19:4–6). In place of 12 tribes, Jesus called 12 apostles, commanding them to carry out the new covenant’s kingdom mission in the land of Israel (Luke 9:1–6) and beyond (Matt 28:18–20).

1:47–53 The tribe of Levi was not counted in the military census. They were not to fight but were to assist with the tabernacle and make sure that unauthorized people did not mishandle the holy property or trespass on it (1:48–53). Chs. 3–4 describe these responsibilities in greater detail.

1:50-51 carry . . . take care of it . . . take it down . . . set up. Due to the tabernacle’s holiness (Exod 30:26–29), the Levites went through a special purifying rite (Num 8:5–22) and were responsible for handling the tabernacle and its furnishings.

1:50 tabernacle. Means “dwelling place”; another name for the “tent of meeting” (v. 1). covenant law. In particular, the Ten Commandments, which were written on two stone tablets (Exod 31:18; 32:15; 34:28) and put in an ornate golden box (Exod 25:16, 21; 40:20) called the “ark of the covenant law” (Exod 25:22). The ark sat within the Most Holy Place in the tabernacle (Exod 26:33–34).

1:51 put to death. Swift justice, perhaps by the priests or Levites themselves. For an unauthorized person to handle such holy property was a sign of great disrespect.

1:52 See ch. 2.

1:53 Levites . . . set up their tents around the tabernacle. So that non-Levites did not trespass on the Lord’s holy property (see note on 3:38). wrath. The Lord’s just anger against rebellion (cf. Lev 10:1–3 with Lev 16:1–2; see “Wrath”). The Lord draws near to his people in love, but he is still their King, and they must greatly revere him (cf. 2 Sam 6:7; Acts 5:1–5; Heb 12:18–29).

1:54 Obeying the Lord’s commands is typical in the beginning of the book (1:1—10:10) and in the end (26:1—36:13) but not in the middle (10:11—25:18; see note on 10:11—25:18). Obedience is a necessary sign of embracing the covenant from the heart and therefore a sign of true faith (Deut 6:1–9; John 14:15, 23–24; Jas 2:14–26).

2:1–34 The Arrangement of the Tribal Camps. Ch. 2 gives instructions regarding the arrangement of the tribes in the camp, whether at rest or on the march. See “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel.”.

2:2 The Israelites are to camp around the tent of meeting some distance from it. To provide room for the Levites to camp immediately around it (3:23, 29, 35, 38) and to protect themselves from inappropriate contact with it (see note on 1:53). The King (the Lord) is at the camp’s center (the “tent of meeting”). This was the common practice of other ancient Near Eastern kings around this time (e.g., Ramses II, king of Egypt, 1200s BC). The theme of the Lord dwelling among his people goes from Genesis (3:8) to Revelation (21:3) and was perfectly fulfilled when Jesus, the God-man, “made his dwelling among us” (John 1:14). banners. Perhaps a flag or symbol mounted on a pole; these would help bring order to the camp.

2:3 east. A common way to orient oneself in the ancient Near East and thus the natural place to begin a list. Judah. Though not the firstborn, his tribe comes first in keeping with Jacob’s prophetic blessing that placed Judah at the head of his brothers (Gen 49:8, 10; cf. Gen 49:3–4). This blessing would find initial fulfillment in King David, who was of this tribe, and ultimate fulfillment in King Jesus, the Lord of all (Rev 19:16).

2:4 division. Translates a Hebrew word that elsewhere refers to an army (Judg 9:29), demonstrating the camp’s military nature.

2:5–7 Issachar and Zebulun were Judah’s two younger brothers (Gen 29:35; 30:18–20), perhaps explaining why these three tribes are placed together.

2:10–16 Reuben was the firstborn (Gen 29:32), so it is no surprise his tribe leads this grouping. Simeon was Reuben’s younger brother (Gen 29:33), and Gad was Reuben’s half brother from Leah’s servant Zilpah (Gen 30:10–11).

2:17 Levites. In this case, the Kohathites, who carry the holiest objects. This verse simply describes those who march in the heart of the camp, while 10:14–21, 33 gives a more specific order (see “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel.”).

2:18–24 These tribes descended from Rachel’s sons, Joseph and Benjamin (Gen 30:22–24; 35:16–18). Ephraim and Manasseh were sons of Joseph. Ephraim, like Judah, was not the firstborn, and his tribe, like Judah’s tribe (see note on 2:3), may come first in keeping with Jacob’s prophetic blessing (Gen 48:13–20).

2:25–31 Dan, Asher, and Naphtali were the remaining children of Leah’s and Rachel’s servants, Bilhah and Zilpah (Gen 30:5–8, 12–13). Dan may come first because he was the firstborn of those servants or because of the leadership role given him in Jacob’s prophetic blessing (Gen 49:16).

2:32 603,550. See Introduction: Interpretive Issues.

2:34 See note on 1:54.

3:1—4:49 The Censuses of the Levites and Their Tabernacle Responsibilities. This elaborates on the details that 1:47–53 summarizes. It describes the Levites’ numbers, placement in the camp, and responsibilities. Here, as elsewhere, the Lord structures his people, giving everyone a certain role for the common good (cf. 1 Cor 12:4–7) and expecting everyone to respect the roles of others, especially that of the leaders (cf. Heb 13:17).

3:1–51 The Tribe of Levi. This tribe consisted of priestly Levites (Aaron and his family) and non-priestly Levites (males not in the family of Aaron; in Numbers, the term “Levites” often refers to this second group in particular). After a brief census of the priestly Levites (vv. 1–4), ch. 3 describes the non-priestly Levites (vv. 5–13), reports a census of them (vv. 14–39), and explains how to reconcile their total number and the total number of firstborn Israelite males (vv. 40–51).

3:1 Aaron and Moses. Brothers (Exod 6:20); they camp in the same place (v. 38).

3:2 sons of Aaron. They lead the Levites (vv. 9, 32; 4:28, 33).

3:3 anointed . . . ordained. See note on Exod 30:22–38.

3:4 Nadab and Abihu. Aaron’s oldest sons. died before the LORD. See Lev 10:1–3 and notes. Recalling this incident here emphasizes the importance of treating the Lord and his holy tent with utmost respect (see note on 1:47–53; see also 3:10, 38; 4:15, 18–20; cf. 16:1–35; 2 Sam 6:6–7). While the Lord’s presence among his people is to fill them with joy, they must not forget to revere him as their holy King (Acts 5:1–11; 1 Cor 10:6–11).

3:5–10 In the tribe of Levi, only the priests (Aaron and his sons) could present sacrifices or go into the tent of meeting to minister (v. 10). There was other work to be done at the tent, but lay Israelites were not ceremonially pure enough to work in such a holy place (for ceremonial purity and impurity, see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). The Lord therefore required the non-priestly Levites to go through a special cleansing ceremony (8:5–22) that enabled them to assist the priests on behalf of the whole community.

3:11–13 By sparing the Israelites’ firstborn during the last plague on Egypt (Exod 12:23–32), the Lord set them apart for himself. From that point on, every firstborn human or animal was dedicated to him (Exod 13:1–16). For firstborn children, this would mean serving in the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sam 1:11, 22–28). However, instead of disrupting families like this, the Lord states that the Levites will serve in place of the firstborn. This leads to a counting of both the Levites (vv. 14–39) and the firstborn (vv. 40–43) to make sure there are enough Levites to serve as substitutes (vv. 44–48).

3:15 families. Verse 17 lists the three major ones. clans. Subgroups within these large family groupings (vv. 18–20).

3:21–37 See “Levite Numbers and Responsibilities” and “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel.”

3:32 Eleazar. Mentioned with the Kohathites since he had special responsibilities among them (cf. 4:16) and perhaps also because that was his tribal family (Exod 6:18, 20).

3:38 east of the tabernacle. Its entrance (see “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel”), enabling them to guard it to prevent illicit entry. care. Or perhaps more generally, the “obligations.” put to death. The penalty for lay people who tried to perform priestly duties (see notes on 1:50–53). With Moses and Aaron and his sons on the east—and with the other Levites on the north, south, and west—priests and Levites encircled the tabernacle (see “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel”), acting as a protective barrier to prevent Israelites from illicit contact with the holy items (1:53).

3:39 22,000. The numbers in vv. 22, 28, 34 total 22,300, not 22,000. It seems likely that v. 28 contains a scribal error and should read 8,300 (as in other ancient translations; see NIV text note), not 8,600. In Hebrew, there is just one letter difference between the words for three and six.

3:40–51 There are 273 more firstborn Israelites (v. 43) than Levites (v. 39), and these must be redeemed (v. 46), which in this context refers to transferring them from the ownership of one party (the Lord) to that of another party (the parents; see note on vv. 11–13). This redemption is made by payment of money (vv. 47–48).

3:41 livestock. Perhaps unclean animals, which were redeemed instead of sacrificed (18:15).

3:43 22,273. See Introduction: Interpretive Issues.

3:48 Aaron and his sons. The Lord’s representatives, who would use the money for the service of the tabernacle (Exod 30:16).

4:1–20 The Kohathites. In ch. 3, all the Levites were counted to see if there were enough of them to substitute for the Israelites’ firstborn. In ch. 4, the Levites from 30 to 50 years old are counted to see how many are available for tabernacle service (vv. 34–45), especially for transporting the tabernacle (vv. 1–33). The Kohathites were counted first. Kohath was not the firstborn, but the Kohathites are mentioned first because they transported the tabernacle’s most holy things (see “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel”; see also “Levite Numbers and Responsibilities”). Only those who were ceremonially holy (Aaron and his sons) could handle the holy things and therefore pack them (vv. 5–15; for ceremonial holiness, see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). Anyone else who touched (v. 15) or saw them (v. 20) showed great disrespect for the Lord’s holiness and would die (see note on 1:53; cf. 1 Sam 6:19; 2 Sam 6:6–7). The Gershonites and Merarites did not need the priests’ help in packing because the items they transported were not the most holy items (vv. 21–33; see “Levite Numbers and Responsibilities”).

4:3 thirty to fifty. Men strong enough to transport the tabernacle and mature enough to care for such holy items. serve. Like the Israelites in 1:3, 20. All the tribes were obligated to serve the Lord in one way or another.

4:4–14 Aside from the bronze altar and its utensils (vv. 13–14), all items came from within the tabernacle. For descriptions, see Exod 25:10–40; 26:31–35; 27:1–8; 30:1–10. Most items received two coverings, but the ark and table received three, perhaps due to their holier nature. The coverings’ colors (blue, scarlet, purple) are associated elsewhere with royalty (2 Sam 1:24; Esth 1:6; Ezek 23:6); the covered items belonged to the divine King. The ark’s outer covering differed from the rest (v. 6; cf. vv. 8, 10–12, 14). The ark, the holiest item of all, was the footstool of the divine King (1 Chr 28:2) and required special attention.

4:15 carrying. With poles (vv. 6, 8, 11, 14) or a frame (v. 12).

4:21–28 The Gershonites. Their duties focused on the tabernacle’s fabrics (see “Levite Numbers and Responsibilities”).

4:29–33 The Merarites. Their duties focused on the tabernacle’s structural elements (see “Levite Numbers and Responsibilities”).

4:34–49 The Numbering of the Levite Clans. Having described their tabernacle duties (vv. 1–33), a census is now taken of those old enough to perform these duties.

4:34 leaders. Listed in 1:5–16.

4:48 8,580. The number of Levites old enough for tabernacle service.

4:49 Emphasizes the theme of obedience (see note on 1:54).

5:1—6:27 Laws Related to the Camp’s Purity and the Priests’ Roles. These laws address themes from chs. 3–4. There are five main laws: the first four are for the Israelites (5:2, 6, 12; 6:2), and the fifth is for the priests (6:23).

5:1–4 The Purity of the Camp. Because the holy Lord dwelled among his people, he required their ceremonial purity (see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]).

5:2 send away. Lest those suffering from one of three major ceremonial impurities spread them through the camp and defile the Lord’s tent (Lev 15:31). They were not necessarily sent alone (2 Kgs 7:3). defiling skin disease. Ceremonially defiling (see NIV text note; see also note on Lev 13:3). discharge. Any abnormal genital discharge requiring sacrifice for cleansing (see note on Lev 15:1–33). dead body. Highly defiling (see note on 19:1–22).

5:5–10 Restitution for Wrongs; Priestly Portions. This summarizes the law in Lev 6:1–7 about stealing from others and then swearing a false oath, but it adds a new detail: restitution sometimes went to the priest (v. 8). Other priestly portions or sacred contributions were food items presented to the Lord, who then gave them to the priests and their households (vv. 9–10; 18:19). This freed the priests to lead the people in the things of God (cf. 1 Cor 9:13–14; Gal 6:6). Shepherds cannot care well for the sheep if their needs are not met (cf. Neh 13:10–11).

5:10 The Hebrew here is difficult. Some understand the second half of the verse to be emphasizing the first half: “Sacred things belong to their owners [i.e., to the priests]; what is given to the priest will belong to the priest.”

5:11–31 The Test for a Wife Suspected of Adultery. Before paternity tests and with no witnesses, the only way to confirm adultery was to ask for divine aid. In a similar case in ancient Babylon, the woman had to throw herself into a river. If she lived, she was innocent (the gods had spared her); if she died, she was guilty. Naturally, many innocent wives died. Our passage poses no such risk for the innocent. What the wife drank was no more harmful than what swimmers at the beach swallow (vv. 17, 23–24). If there was guilt, it was the Lord (not the water) that would bring harm (v. 21; cf. 1 Kgs 8:31–32). Indeed, this ritual was not primitive magic but an acted-out prayer that asked the Lord to rule directly. This assured accurate justice, and if the wife was innocent, her reputation was cleared before her husband and the public.

5:13 impurity. Sexual immorality, which resulted in a deep moral defilement and the Lord’s judgment (see Lev 18:24–30 and context; cf. Rev 22:14–15). It was to have no place among the Lord’s holy people (cf. 1 Cor 5:9–13).

5:14 feelings of jealousy. These may have been accurate (“she is impure”) or inaccurate (“she is not impure”). Either way, this law prevented the husband from taking matters into his own hands; he was to let the Lord act as judge.

5:15 not pour olive oil . . . incense. Forbidden perhaps because this was not to be an “aroma pleasing to the LORD” (Lev 2:2; cf. Lev 2:1–3). reminder-offering. A way of asking the Lord to act on any wrongdoing (Jer 14:10).

5:18 loosen her hair. May symbolize (1) shame or mourning (not because she was necessarily guilty, but because she had been accused of great wrong and was suffering socially) or (2) that she was not trying to hide anything. bitter. Perhaps not in taste as much as the result for the guilty (it “brings a curse”).

5:21-22 womb . . . abdomen . . . abdomen . . . womb. Matches the place of the crime: sinning with her womb and (potentially) conceiving in her abdomen. She would be unable to have children (v. 27).

5:21 become a curse. See NIV text note. Not having children was a severe consequence to an ancient Israelite woman (Gen 30:1).

5:22 Amen. So be it. Shows her agreement to the curse (cf. Deut 27:15–26).

5:29–31 Though this law focuses on the woman, Israelite law is clear that both parties to an affair were to be punished (Lev 20:10; Deut 22:22). If the guilty man kept his sin hidden from the human court, it would not be hidden from the Lord (cf. Ps 90:8), and he should expect that his sin would find him out (cf. 32:23).

5:31 innocent. It was not wrong for him to ensure his wife’s faithfulness. bear the consequences. If she was guilty.

6:1–21 The Nazirite. Someone became a Nazirite by taking a special vow (v. 2). Though a few people were lifelong Nazirites (Samson, Samuel, John the Baptist), a person usually vowed to be a Nazirite for a short period of time. Like priests, it seems Nazirites became ceremonially holy (v. 5) and thus visually reminded the Israelites to live as “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod 19:6; cf. Rev 5:9–10; for ceremonial holiness, see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]).

6:1–8 The three rules for a Nazirite vow: no alcohol (vv. 3–4), no cutting of their hair (v. 5), and no contact with a dead body, which caused them to become unclean (vv. 6–8).

6:2 dedication . . . Nazirite. Share the same root word in Hebrew. Nazirites set themselves apart to the Lord in a special way.

6:3–4 Alcohol was forbidden to priests on duty so that it did not prevent them from properly doing their job (Lev 10:9–11). Nazirites were like priests who were perpetually on duty, so they must refrain from any fermented drink or anything that came from the grapevine.

6:5 head. Represents the entire person. hair grow long. Indicates their dedication to the Lord.

6:6–8 Nazirites were prohibited not from being sad but from mourning rites that made them ceremonially unclean (for similar prohibitions for the high priest, see Lev 21:10–11). This was incompatible with their holy status. Dedication to God took priority over every earthly loyalty (cf. Matt 10:37).

6:9 dies suddenly in the Nazirite’s presence. Thus, the Nazirite did not mean to sin by being in the presence of a dead body (v. 11). Nonetheless, atonement was necessary for unintentional sins (cf. Lev 4:27–28, 31b).

6:13–20 At the vow’s completion, the Nazirite offered sacrifices.

6:14 year-old. Younger animals may have been more valued because of the tastiness of their meat (like today’s veal). without defect. See note on Lev 1:3; cf. Lev 22:18–25.

6:15 grain offerings . . . drink offerings. See notes on 15:4–5; see also “Grain and Drink Offerings That Accompany Animal Sacrifices.”

6:18 put it in the fire. To destroy what was holy (cf. Lev 7:17), express full dedication to the Lord, or both.

6:19 The ram’s shoulder and the loaves were given to the priest in addition to the priest’s regular fellowship offering portion of the right thigh and the breast (see Lev 7:28–34 and notes; see also note on Lev 9:21). Thus, the Nazirite received less of the sacrifice than an offerer normally received, perhaps emphasizing the vow’s costliness.

6:20 wave. A ritual action by which something was dedicated to the Lord by waving it back and forth (see Lev 7:30, 31 and notes). wave offering. See note on Lev 9:21.

6:22–27 The Priestly Blessing. Blessings were spoken prayers (2 Chr 30:27). In vv. 24–26, each verse identifies two aspects of blessing. The repetition of the divine name (“the LORD”) throughout makes clear that the source of all blessing is God. He created people for blessing (Gen 1:27–28), entered into covenant relationship to bless (Gen 12:1–3), and sent Jesus to bring ultimate blessing to the world (Acts 3:26; Gal 3:14). (A form of the blessing in vv. 24–26 was found on two small silver scrolls in a burial cave near Jerusalem. The burial dates to ca. 600 BC; the scrolls were written 50–100 years earlier. This is the earliest copy yet of a biblical text.)

6:24 bless. Show good favor in every sphere of life (Lev 26:4–12). keep. Protect from harm of any kind (Ps 121:3–8).

6:25 Cf. Ps 67:1. shine. “Beam” with delight, showing you special favor (Pss 4:6; 31:16; 80:19; cf. Prov 16:15). gracious. Mercifully help you and hear your prayers (Gen 33:5; Pss 25:16–18; 111:4–5; 116:5–6).

6:26 turn his face toward. Pay attention to you and your needs (Ps 34:15). peace. Not only the absence of evil (war, sickness), but also the presence of good (well-being, health) and ultimately fellowship with God (Lev 26:3–12). It is the state of favor for which people were created and that is definitively established by Jesus (John 14:27; Phil 4:7; Col 1:20). See “Shalom.”

6:27 put my name on. Identify them as the Lord’s and thus those who will receive his blessing (Deut 28:9–10). bless. And so be faithful to all his covenant promises to those who embrace his covenant from the heart (cf. Lev 26:3 with 26:4–13). The Hebrew emphasizes the word “I,” again showing that the source of all blessing is the Lord. Such blessing also had a missional goal: the nations were to see it and be drawn to Israel’s God (Ps 67).

7:1—9:14 The Tabernacle’s Dedication and Related Matters. The events of this section take place the month before the events of chs. 1–6 (cf. 1:1 with 7:1 and Exod 40:2–11). Chronologically, this section belongs closer to Exod 40 than to Num 1–6, but thematically, it fits well here. See notes on 7:1–89; 8:1–4, 5–26; 9:1–14.

7:1–89 Offerings at the Dedication of the Tabernacle. The next major event in Numbers is the departure of the Israelites from Sinai (10:11). Before that happens, the Levites dismantle and move the tabernacle, and they need carts and oxen to do so. Ch. 7 describes how the Israelites provide these carts and oxen, along with many other precious items, at the tabernacle’s dedication.

7:1 anointed and consecrated. With the holy anointing oil (see note on Exod 30:22–38).

7:2–8 The Gershonites and Merarites used carts to transport most of the tabernacle’s (heavy and bulky) fabrics and structural elements (4:24–26, 31–32).

7:9 The Kohathites did not use carts to transport the tabernacle’s furniture, for the pieces were not only lighter but also most holy and thus worthy of special care. on their shoulders. With poles and frames (4:4–15).

7:10–88 Describes the offerings that each of the 12 tribes gave at the tabernacle’s dedication. (Israelites used the altar to present offerings to the Lord. It was therefore at the heart of their worship and probably represented the entire tabernacle.) The nearly identical descriptions may strike modern readers as tedious, but the repetitions make an important point: all tribes participated equally in worshiping the Lord and providing for the tabernacle’s ministry (cf. 1 Cor 9:3–14). The details show that their worship was costly, an appropriate response to the divine King’s gracious redemption (cf. Rom 12:1).

7:13-14 plate . . . bowl . . . dish. To use in tabernacle matters (cf. Exod 25:29; 27:3).

7:13 grain offering. Often accompanied burnt and fellowship offerings (15:8–10; see notes on Lev 2).

7:15-16 burnt offering . . . sin offering. To atone for sin and impurity (see notes on Lev 1:3–17; 4:1—5:13).

7:17 fellowship offering. To celebrate their covenant fellowship with the Lord (see notes on Lev 3). The large number of animals was necessary to provide enough meat for the tribe (or its representatives) to eat.

7:89 The Lord indeed came to dwell in this newly built and consecrated tabernacle (cf. Exod 25:22). atonement cover. See note on Exod 25:17. ark. See note on Exod 25:10–22.

8:1–4 Setting Up the Lamps. Describes what Aaron did when the tabernacle was set up (ch. 7 describes what the tribes did).

8:2 area in front. The entire Holy Place (see “Tabernacle Floor Plan”). lampstand. See Exod 25:31–40 and note. It was to be kept burning continually (Exod 27:20–21), probably signifying the Lord’s continual presence among his people (when the lights are on, someone is home). Jesus is the ultimate expression of this presence (John 1:14; 14:9), and he assures his disciples he is always with them (Matt 28:20; cf. Rev 1:12—2:1).

8:4 Emphasizes obedience (see note on 1:54; cf. Exod 25:31–40).

8:5–26 The Setting Apart of the Levites. Describes how to set the Levites apart to ceremonial purity, so they could take part in tabernacle service (see 3:5–10 and note; for ceremonial purity and impurity, see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). This prepares the Levites for moving the tabernacle (10:11). The ceremony occurs in three main stages: (1) an initial purification through sprinkling, shaving, and washing (v. 7); (2) presenting the Levites to the Lord on the Israelites’ behalf (vv. 9–11; vv. 13–14 probably summarize the same event); and (3) a final purification (vv. 12, 21). The section concludes by discussing age restrictions for the Levites working at the tabernacle (vv. 23–26).

8:7 Sprinkle. Often associated with cleansing or consecrating (19:19; Lev 8:11, 30; 16:14–19). water of cleansing. Likely the water described in 19:1–10. shave. Closely scraping the skin symbolizes a very complete cleansing. wash their clothes. Symbolizes cleansing.

8:10 the Israelites. Perhaps Israelite leaders in particular. lay their hands on them. In this way identifying the Levites as their substitutes (cf. vv. 16, 18).

8:11 wave offering. Aaron may have simply waved his hands over them to indicate they were dedicated to the Lord (see 6:20 and note).

8:16–19 The rationale for this ceremony (see notes on 3:5–10, 11–13).

8:19 make atonement for them. By serving at the tabernacle on the Israelites’ behalf and thus rescuing them from defiling the Lord’s holy property and thereby experiencing his wrath (see note on 1:53). plague. See note on 16:46.

8:20–22 Emphasizes obedience (see note on 1:54).

8:24 twenty-five. In ch. 4, which records events that happen after events in ch. 8 (see note on 7:1—9:14), the age is 30 (4:3, 23, 30). Why was the age raised? Perhaps (1) it was not raised but a five-year apprenticeship began at age 25 or (2) it was raised in response to the actions of Nadab and Abihu (Lev 10:1–3) to emphasize the maturity needed when handling the holy things. work at the tent of meeting. Possibly the heavy work of tearing down and setting up the tent.

8:26 duties at the tent of meeting. Possibly less heavy work (see note on v. 24) done at the tent when it was set up.

9:1–14 The Passover. For details on the Passover, see Exod 12:1–11, 43–50 and notes. This law fits here chronologically: Num 7:1 mentions the setting up of the tabernacle, which happened on the first day of the first month (Exod 40:2); the Passover was to be celebrated on the fourteenth day of that same month (9:3, cf. Exod 12:2, 6). This was the second Passover, held here at Sinai one year after the first Passover was held in Egypt (Exod 12). The Passover was a time for the Israelites to remember how the Lord spared them from judgment and brought them out of the land of slavery (Exod 12:25–27, 42). The ultimate Passover sacrifice is Jesus (1 Cor 5:7), whose death delivers us from the Lord’s judgment (1 Thess 1:10) and brings us out of sin’s slavery and into adoption as God’s children (John 1:12; Eph 1:5; cf. Exod 4:22). See “Sacrifice.”

9:1-3 first month . . . fourteenth day. The Passover’s date (cf. Exod 12:2, 6).

9:5 Emphasizes the Israelites’ obedience (see note on 1:54).

9:6–12 Two practical issues might cause someone to miss the Passover: being ceremonially unclean (in which case they could not eat sacrificial meat [Lev 7:20–21]) or being away on a journey.

9:6 on account of a dead body. See 19:11.

9:7 Israelites longed to be with their covenant family when they were celebrating the Lord’s mighty acts of deliverance.

9:11–12 See note on Exod 12:46.

9:13 fails to celebrate. Refusing to eat the Passover was equal to denying what it celebrated: the Lord’s salvation and deliverance. Jesus instituted communion as the new covenant meal celebrating his salvation (Mark 14:12–26), and the NT emphasizes the importance of properly partaking in it (1 Cor 11:23–30). cut off. Removed from the covenant community, either through exile or death (see note on Lev 7:20, 21).

9:14 Non-Israelites wanting to celebrate the Passover had to apply the covenant sign (circumcision) to all the males in their household (Exod 12:48). This showed they were embracing the Lord’s covenant. The presence of this requirement also shows that the blessings God promised Abraham and Israel were indeed to spread to “all peoples on earth” (Gen 12:3).

9:15—10:10 Transition: Getting Ready to Depart for the Promised Land. This addresses two matters related to Israel’s departure from Sinai: the Lord’s guidance in their travels by means of the cloud (9:15–23) and the silver trumpets that will help them break camp in an orderly way (10:1–10).

9:15–23 The Cloud Above the Tabernacle. No person could see the Lord directly and live (Exod 33:20), so God concealed his glorious presence in a cloud whenever he descended among his people. The cloud first appeared as the Lord led his people out of Egypt (Exod 13:21) and appeared again as he descended on Mount Sinai to give Moses the covenant law (Exod 19:16—31:18). After the tabernacle was set up, the Lord descended there in the cloud to show that he was now dwelling among his covenant people (Exod 40:34–38). The tabernacle was now like a portable Mount Sinai since the Lord gave his law there (Lev 1:1, “tent of meeting”), while the cloud that covered it was the means by which he once again guided Israel in the wilderness. The Israelites could march forward with bold confidence, knowing their covenant Lord dwelled among them. The passage before us is fairly repetitious, which gives it a poetic feel and, most important, emphasizes again that the people are obeying the Lord (see note on 1:54). The NT alludes to the cloud passages when it describes Jesus as the one who “made his dwelling among us” and showed us his “glory” (John 1:14). Jesus was the ultimate expression of the Lord among us.

10:1–10 The Silver Trumpets. These served two functions. First, they directed the Israelites in the camp (vv. 1–7). Trumpet signals were a common way to communicate with large groups of people. Some signals called the whole community or the heads of the clans of Israel to the tent of meeting (vv. 3–4), perhaps to receive instructions (1:16) or to participate in worship or special services (8:9). Other signals indicated the order in which the tribes were to set out (vv. 5–6). Second, the trumpets were blown at times of battle (v. 9) as well as over the Israelites’ offerings at various festivals (v. 10) as a way of offering a musical prayer to the Lord that requested his favor and care. The priests, the Lord’s representatives, blew the trumpets (v. 8), indicating that the Lord was ultimately the one leading his people.

10:2 trumpets. No description is given, though an Egyptian trumpet from this general time period has been found; it was a slender tube, almost two feet (0.6 meters) in length, with a flared end.

10:9 remembered. The language of remembrance describes the Lord’s favor and care toward his people (Gen 30:22; Ps 20:2–3; see note on Lev 26:42).

10:11—25:18 Rebellion Against the Lord and the Death of the Exodus Generation. After spending almost a year at Mount Sinai (see note on 10:11), the Israelites now depart for the promised land. Disaster quickly strikes. The Israelites are faithful to the Lord in 1:1—10:10, but they are unfaithful to him in 10:11—25:18 (see note on 1:1—25:18). In particular, their refusing to enter the promised land results in a punishment that fits the crime: they will die before reaching it (ch. 14). Their disobedience stands as a strong warning to believers of the danger of hardening their hearts to the Lord and turning away from him (see note on 14:1–45; cf. Ps 95:7–11; 1 Cor 10:1–13; Heb 3:6—4:13). By the end of this section, the exodus generation has died and the next generation is camped on the plains of Moab, opposite Jericho, ready to march into the land (26:1–4).

10:11–36 The Israelites Leave Sinai. They march toward the promised land (see map). They begin their journey obediently (10:11–36) but soon show disbelief (11:1–20, 31–35; 12:1–16).

10:11 second month. Sometime in April or May. The Israelites depart 10 months and 19 days after arriving at Sinai (see “The Israelites’ Location: Where and How Long”).

10:12 Summarizes the journey that 10:11—12:16 describes (cf. 12:16).

10:13–28 The marching order follows the pattern set forth in ch. 2 (see “The Camp of the Tribes of Israel”). Among the Levites, the Gershonites and Merarites (who carry the tabernacle’s structural elements) set out first so they can set up the tabernacle before the Kohathites arrive with the objects that go inside it (vv. 17–21).

10:29 Hobab. Moses’ brother-in-law. Reuel. Moses’ father-in-law Jethro (see note on Exod 3:1). promised. Moses’ deep faith in the Lord’s promises (see also v. 32) sharply contrasts with the Israelites’ actions in chs. 11–12; 14.

10:31 Hobab was familiar with the desert and could provide practical advice related to camping in the best spot (e.g., finding pasture or springs near the camping site). He apparently agreed to go (cf. Judg 1:16).

10:33 While the rest of the tabernacle furniture was in the middle of the march (v. 21), the Lord’s ark led the march. The Israelites’ covenant King was leading them and would fight for them.

10:35 Rise up, LORD! It is he who fights for Israel (Ps 68).

10:36 countless thousands. The Lord’s covenant promises to Abraham have begun to be fulfilled (Gen 22:17; cf. Gen 24:60).

11:1—12:16 Initial Acts of Unbelief. The three stories in this section introduce the themes of 11:1—25:18: the Israelites’ unbelief and rebellion.

11:1–3 Fire From the Lord. Though short, this section emphasizes the dangers of rebelling against the Lord.

11:1 complained. They did not trust the Lord for guidance and provision (Ps 78:21–22). fire from the LORD. Elsewhere, a sign of his judgment (16:35; Lev 10:2). outskirts. But not within the camp—a merciful warning to an unfaithful people.

11:2 Moses, the people’s mediator, frequently appeases the Lord’s just wrath against the people (14:13–20; 16:22; Exod 32:11–14). Jesus acts as a far greater mediator on our behalf (1 Tim 2:5–6).

11:3 Taberah. See NIV text note.

11:4–35 Quail From the Lord. There is a contrast here between the Israelites’ sinful complaint about having no food and Moses’ earnest request that the Lord help him provide meat and bear the burden of this people.

11:4–9 The Lord previously provided quail for the people (Exod 16:3, 12–13). Instead of asking for more in faith, they complained about the Lord’s current provision (manna) and implied that life in Egypt was far better (vv. 4–6). This blasphemously rejected the Lord and his deliverance (v. 20; cf. Pss 78:20b–22; 106:13–15).

11:4 rabble. See note on Exod 12:38. again. See vv. 1–3 and perhaps also Exod 16:3.

11:5 fish . . . cucumbers . . . garlic. Rich variety when compared to the manna (v. 6). What they do not mention is the severe hardship that went along with these things (Exod 2:23).

11:7 manna. First described in Exod 16:13–15, 31, it was a miraculous and wonderful provision from God. Jesus applied this image to himself: “it is my Father who gives you the true bread from heaven . . . I am the bread of life . . . Whoever eats this bread will live forever” (John 6:32, 35, 51).

11:8 like something made with olive oil. Thus, rich and tasty (cf. Exod 16:31; Ps 78:24–25).

11:10–15 Moses complains in the face of the hardship he experiences as a leader, but unlike the people, he brings his complaints to the Lord in an earnest plea for mercy and help.

11:16 seventy. The same number (though not necessarily the same elders) represented the people in Exod 24:1.

11:17 I will take some of the power of the Spirit. Just as the Lord had given Moses a special anointing of his Spirit for service, he would do the same for these elders.

11:18–20 In a punishment that fits the crime, the people will come to loathe the very meat they crave.

11:18 Consecrate yourselves. See Exod 19:10–15 and notes. This command implies that the Lord is about to perform a miracle.

11:20 rejected the LORD. See note on vv. 4–9.

11:21–22 Moses is hesitant to announce such an amazing provision of food.

11:23 arm. The very one with which he redeemed Israel in power (cf. Exod 3:20, where the same Hebrew word is translated “hand”). too short. Unable to achieve what it is trying to do (cf. Isa 50:2; 59:1). what I say. Or “my word” (cf. Isa 55:11).

11:24–25 See vv. 16–17 and notes.

11:25 prophesied. Perhaps by giving ecstatic expression in word or deed, thus showing that the Spirit rested on them (see note on 1 Sam 10:5–6). did not do so again. Implying that they did not continue in a prophetic role; their prophesying on this one occasion served to establish them as leaders empowered by the Spirit and enabled to help Moses.

11:26–30 Demonstrates Moses’ great humility (cf. 12:3). While Joshua, Moses’ aide (Exod 33:11), wanted to guard Moses’ prestige, Moses’ greatest desire was for all the people to experience this special anointing for the Lord’s service. The Lord’s greatest leaders always look for ways to spread his glory, not their own (see John 3:22–30).

11:34 Kibroth Hattaavah. See NIV text note.

12:1–16 Miriam and Aaron Oppose Moses. This chapter introduces a form of unbelief that is one of the themes of 10:11—25:18: rejecting the leadership structure the Lord set in place (see also chs. 16–17).

12:1 Miriam. Moses’ and Aaron’s sister (26:59). It is rare to list a woman’s name first; this suggests that she was the chief complainer (and thus bore the chief penalty, vv. 10–15). Cushite wife. Mentioned only here. Possibly (1) Zipporah from Midian (Exod 2:16–21; Cushan may refer to Midian [Hab 3:7]) or (2) a second wife (Cush refers elsewhere to Sudan, see Gen 10:6 and note). The text does not say why Miriam and Aaron complained about her, though it suggests this was simply an excuse for their real complaint in v. 2.

12:2 A complaint that Moses was selfishly taking the lead. through us. Miriam was a prophet (Exod 15:20), and the Lord had elsewhere addressed Aaron directly (see Lev 10:8 and note; 11:1; 13:1).

12:3 humble. Moses was not proud and did not seek his own glory; he recognized the Lord’s greatness and sought to follow him in dependence and with meekness (cf. Prov 18:12; 22:4; Zeph 2:3). This comment, perhaps made by a final editor (see Introduction: Author), makes clear that Moses had not sought out this leadership position. The complaint of Miriam and Aaron was simply wrong.

12:4–5 The divine King summons them to his tent, where he holds court and issues decrees (cf. 16:16–18), and calls forward the guilty parties (Aaron and Miriam).

12:7 faithful in all my house. Just as a servant may be trusted as a faithful manager of a household (cf. Gen 39:4), so Moses is the trusted and faithful manager of God’s household, the people of Israel. Moses is therefore to be heeded (v. 8). With Jesus, it is even more so, since he is not simply a servant “in” the household of the Lord’s people but a son “over” it (Heb 3:1–12).

12:8 face to face . . . sees the form of the LORD. Moses hears from the Lord directly (cf. Exod 33:11). This does not mean that he sees God completely as he is; that is impossible (Exod 33:20). Moses has special access to, and intimacy with, the Lord (as the elders did in Exod 24:9–11). Others should listen to such a servant as the master’s representative. riddles. Parables (see, e.g., Ezek 17:2–10). Most prophets hear from the Lord in visions or dreams (v. 6).

12:10 leprous. See NIV text note. white as snow. Either because of the skin’s color, or because it was flaking off, or both.

12:11 Please, my lord. Aaron’s language now acknowledges Moses’ chief leadership role.

12:14 spit in her face. Implies that a father might do this when his child wronged him (cf. Deut 25:9), in which case the child would bear disgrace “for seven days,” as Miriam does here (v. 15). The point is that Miriam must respect the Lord’s leader, Moses.

12:15 brought back. Presumably the Lord healed her (otherwise she could not have returned). She would need to go through the cleansing procedures of Lev 14.

12:16 Desert of Paran. Kadesh in particular (13:26; see map).

13:1—14:45 Arrival at Kadesh, Full-Scale Rebellion, the Lord’s Judgment. The Israelites should be marching into the promised land with full faith in the Lord. Instead, they continue in disbelief (chs. 11–12) with a full-scale revolt against the Lord. Those who reject the Lord’s covenant promises will not enjoy his covenant blessings (cf. 1 Cor 10:1–13; Heb 3:7—4:13).

13:1–25 Exploring Canaan. The Lord promised a land “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod 13:5; Lev 20:24): having everything necessary and desirable for abundant living (Deut 8:7–10). He commands Moses to send 12 spies into the land in order to confirm his promise (cf. v. 27) and collect information helpful for waging war.

13:2 land of Canaan. See map. Egyptian sources at this time also speak of “the land of Canaan.” I am giving. A reminder of God’s promise (cf. Gen 12:7).

13:3–16 Emphasizes Israel’s unity: the spies represent all 12 military tribes. The Levites were not a military tribe (see note on 1:47–53).

13:8, 16 Hoshea. Means “he saves.” In v. 16 Moses gives him the name Joshua, which means “the LORD saves.” Salvation comes from the Lord alone (cf. Pss 3:8; 37:39; Hos 13:4). See NIV text note on Matt 1:21 (cf. Acts 4:10–12).

13:17–20 Moses’ questions focus on the land (Is this indeed a land flowing with milk and honey?) and the people (Who is it we are up against in the coming battles?).

13:20 season for the first ripe grapes. Sometime in July, roughly two to three months after leaving Sinai (see note on 10:11).

13:21 The spies’ route took them from the very south to the very north of the land (see map).

13:22 Hebron. The site of Abraham’s only property (Gen 23:17–20) and where the patriarchs were buried (Gen 25:9; 35:27–29; 50:13). It was a foretaste of the Lord’s promise to give this land to Israel and should therefore encourage them to march into it boldly. descendants of Anak. Known for their height (Deut 2:10).

13:23 The land was incredibly fruitful.

13:26–33 Report on the Exploration. The majority of the spies acknowledge the land’s fruitfulness (v. 27) but focus on the people’s strength, cities, and size (vv. 28–29). They claim that the Israelites face an impossible task (v. 31).

13:26 Kadesh. Also called Kadesh Barnea (32:8; see map). Desert of Paran. Perhaps bordering Kadesh southward. The Desert of Zin also bordered on Kadesh (13:21; 20:1; see map).

13:30 Caleb. One of two spies who has faith that the Lord can give the Israelites the land. Joshua is the other (14:6–9). Caleb does not deny the difficulty before them but has faith that the Lord is even greater. The Lord rewards Caleb’s deep faith (14:24; Josh 14:6–15).

13:31–33 The unfaithful spies give a “bad report” (v. 32), focusing on (and exaggerating) the inhabitants’ strength.

13:32 All. Earlier they said that only some were “descendants of Anak” (v. 28; see note on v. 22).

13:33 Nephilim. Renowned warriors. See Gen 6:4 and note.

14:1–45 The People Rebel. The Israelites’ disbelief climaxes: they completely reject the Lord and his promises and decide to return to the land of slavery (Egypt) rather than enter the land of promise (Canaan). With a punishment that fits the crime, the Lord declares that those who have rejected the land he has promised will die without receiving it. Heb 3:7—4:13 uses this as a strong warning: Do not reject Jesus and thereby fail to enter the eternal promised land awaiting those who follow him.

14:1–4 Because of the faithless spies’ report, the people are convinced that entering the land will result in the men dying and their wives and children being taken as plunder (v. 3). They decide to go back to Egypt (v. 4), which is to reject the promise of the covenant (Gen 12:7) and thus the covenant Lord (cf. v. 11).

14:5 fell facedown. Perhaps in prayer, asking the Lord immediately for help (cf. 20:6).

14:6 tore their clothes. A sign of deep grief (Gen 37:29).

14:7 exceedingly good. The opposite report of the faithless spies (cf. 13:31–33).

14:8 If the LORD is pleased with us. A statement not of doubt (see also v. 9b) but of respect: the Lord sovereignly does whatever he pleases. milk and honey. Absent in the faithless spies’ “bad report” (13:32; cf. 13:27).

14:9 rebel. As against a king (2 Kgs 18:7). we will devour them. Contrast 13:32. the LORD is with us. Therefore they need not fear to obey him and fulfill his kingdom mission. Cf. Matt 28:18–20.

14:10–12 The people respond to Joshua and Caleb, and the Lord responds to the people (cf. Exod 32:7–10).

14:10 stoning. Has judicial overtones (cf. 15:36), as though Joshua and Caleb are guilty of a crime. the glory of the LORD appeared. Probably means that the cloud at the tent lit up with fire (cf. Exod 24:15–18), an event so spectacular it demonstrated the Lord was worthy of being glorified (cf. 1 Kgs 18:36–39).

14:11 believe in me. Accept his word as true and obey it (cf. Jas 2:17–26). signs. Even miracles fail to penetrate hearts hardened in unbelief (cf. v. 22; John 11:43–48).

14:12 The Lord said similar words after the people rebelled with the golden calf (Exod 32:10). destroy. Disinherit; they will no longer be the Lord’s people. make you into a nation. And thus become the new Abraham.

14:13–19 Moses’ response to the Lord is in two parts: (1) If the Lord destroys Israel, the nations will conclude he is a weak god who cannot keep his promises (vv. 13–16). Moses prays instead that the Lord bring Israel into the land so the nations will see the Lord’s strength (v. 17; cf. Isa 48:9, 11; Ezek 36:22–23). (2) The Lord’s love is great, so he can forgive his people yet again (vv. 18–19).

14:18 Summarizes Exod 34:6–7. punishes the children. See note on v. 33.

14:20–35 The Lord responds to Moses in summary form (vv. 20–25) and more detail (vv. 26–35). The punishment fits the crime (v. 28): they will die in the wilderness (v. 29), just as they wished (v. 2). Ironically, their children will not be plunder (v. 3) but will enjoy the land (v. 31).

14:20 I have forgiven them. The Lord will not carry out the deserved punishment: immediate death and disinheritance as his people (v. 12).

14:21 Nevertheless. There will still be discipline. as I live. People swear by the Lord (Judg 8:19) because he is greater than they are; the Lord swears by himself (Gen 22:16) because “there [is] no one greater for him to swear by” (Heb 6:13). glory . . . fills the whole earth. A reference to the Lord’s mighty work, which causes those who see it to give him glory (cf. Ps 72:18–19; Rev 15:3–4).

14:22 ten times. Perhaps a way of saying “many” (cf. Gen 31:7). Cf. “dozen” in the phrase “I’ve told you a dozen times.”

14:24, 30 See Josh 14:6–15; 19:49–50.

14:29, 32 See 1 Cor 10:5; Heb 3:17.

14:33 Because families are so interconnected, even the children suffer when their parents’ unfaithfulness is punished (cf. v. 18b, but see also v. 31).

14:37 God holds those in positions of authority to higher account for their sin (cf. Luke 12:47–48; Heb 13:17; Jas 3:1). plague. See note on 16:46.

14:40 we have sinned! Recognizing their wrong, the people decide to enter the land. Ironically, this is now a disobedient act (v. 41; cf. v. 25) and will not work because the Lord is not with them (v. 42).

14:44 Moses . . . the ark of the LORD’s covenant. Both represent the Lord’s presence.

14:45 Hormah. Means “destruction”; located south in the land and west of the Dead Sea. See map.

15:1–41 Further Laws, Emphasizing Especially the Need for Covenant Faithfulness. The next generation will receive the land that the Lord promised (vv. 2, 18; cf. ch. 14), but they must be faithful to the covenant (vv. 30–41).

15:1–21 Supplementary Offerings. Israelites often thought of sacrifices as meals (see notes on v. 3; Lev 3:1, 11). The offerings of vv. 1–16 made the “meal” complete by adding bread (a grain offering) and wine (a drink offering) to the meat (the animal sacrifice). The size of these offerings increased with the size of the animal sacrificed.

15:2 After you enter the land. Coming after the rebellion of ch. 14, this is a wonderful affirmation that the Lord has not abandoned his promises to Israel (see v. 18).

15:3 aroma pleasing to the LORD. Not because the Lord was “hungry” (Ps 50:12–13) but because these offerings were like meals by which the Israelites honored him (see note on Lev 3:17) or confirmed their covenant relationship with him. burnt offerings. See Lev 1:3–9 and notes. sacrifices. Fellowship offerings (cf. v. 8; see Lev 3:1–5 and note on 3:1). special vows. See note on Lev 27:2. freewill offerings. Brought voluntarily, not because of a vow. festival offerings. See Lev 23:4–38 and notes.

15:4 grain offering. See Lev 2:1–16 and notes.

15:5 drink offering. Poured out on the altar (Exod 29:41; cf. Exod 30:9), perhaps over the animal sacrifice.

15:14–16 This is one way that God will fulfill his promise to bless the nations through Abraham’s descendants: foreigners will be joining their ranks to worship the Lord (Gen 12:3). This promise reaches its final fulfillment as the nations put their faith in Abraham’s ultimate descendant, Jesus (Gal 3:8).

15:17–21 By presenting these offerings, the Israelites gratefully acknowledge that the Lord has blessed them with the crops they need to survive (Deut 26:10).

15:20 from the first. The firstfruits are the harvest’s best (18:12). Giving them to the Lord displays that he is worthy of one’s very best.

15:22–31 Offerings for Unintentional Sins. The King of heaven graciously provides an automatic means of atonement for those who break his laws unintentionally—sacrifice (vv. 22–29). But for those who commit outright treason against him, he describes a penalty: being cut off (vv. 30–31; see note on 9:13).

15:22–26 Requires more sacrificial animals than Lev 4:13–20, perhaps to emphasize the costliness of community sin in light of ch. 14.

15:22 as a community. A possible example is Josh 9:3–15. unintentionally fail. Because one is either (1) unaware of a law or (2) aware of a law but unaware they are breaking it (Gen 20:2–7).

15:27 just one person. A possible example: an individual not realizing they are ritually unclean and eating the meat of the fellowship offering (cf. Lev 7:20).

15:30–31 A strong warning never to commit defiant sin (cf. Heb 10:26–31). defiantly . . . blasphemes . . . despised . . . broken. Apostasy: high treason against the heavenly King.

15:31 cut off. See note on 9:13. In some cases, defiant sin could be forgiven after a mediator acted on the sinner’s behalf (14:13–20; cf. Exod 32:11–14; see 1 Tim 2:5–6 for Jesus as both mediator and sacrifice). But the discipline that followed could be severe (14:22–23).

15:32–36 The Sabbath-Breaker Put to Death. These verses illustrate the seriousness of what is said in vv. 30–31. The Sabbath was like a wedding ring: it symbolized the covenant relationship between Israel and the Lord (Exod 31:13–17). To break it was to reject the covenant partner (like throwing away your wedding ring). This was rank apostasy, and God punished it as such.

15:37–41 Tassels on Garments. They were to contain blue (v. 38), a royal color (Esth 1:6; 8:15), and were therefore associated with the heavenly King’s home (the tabernacle [Exod 26:1]) and his servants (the priests [Exod 28:6, 8, 33]). The tassels were thus a good reminder for the Israelites to be a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod 19:6) and to obey all the King’s commands.

15:39 The Lord elsewhere requires visual reminders of his commandments (cf. Deut 6:8–9 and note).

16:1—18:32 Challenging the Authority Structure Established by the Lord. The people rebel against the Lord’s leaders (ch. 16; cf. chs. 12; 14), and the Lord responds with judgment (ch. 16), a miraculous sign (ch. 17), and instruction (ch. 18), making it clear that he himself has chosen these leaders.

16:1–50 Korah, Dathan and Abiram. Korah’s rebellion focuses on the priesthood (vv. 10–11), and Dathan and Abiram’s rebellion focuses on Moses (vv. 13–14). In both rebellions, the Lord’s leader is rejected.

16:1 Korah. The group’s leader (cf. v. 5).

16:2 leaders. Had great influence in the community.

16:3 The whole community is holy . . . the LORD is with them. They mistake the Lord’s grace to live among his sinful people as a sign that anyone could approach him as a priest. Cf. 3:10, 38; 4:5–15. set yourselves above. Ironically, Moses tried to refuse his leadership role (Exod 3). This leadership arrangement was the Lord’s doing (cf. Heb 5:4).

16:4 fell facedown. Perhaps to pray (see note on 14:5), after which he knew what to do (vv. 5–11).

16:5–7 Aaron, Korah, and Korah’s followers will perform a priestly duty (presenting incense) to see whom the Lord accepts in this role (cf. v. 40; 2 Chr 26:16–20).

16:10 Korah was claiming that anyone—or at least any Levite—could be a priest.

16:11 against the LORD. Because he had set the priests apart.

16:13–14 Dathan and Abiram blasphemously (1) call Egypt the “land flowing with milk and honey” (thus describing their former slave house as the promised land), (2) claim that Moses brought them out of Egypt to kill them (cf. 14:13–19), and (3) assassinate Moses’ character as a deceptive promise-breaker.

16:15 not taken . . . a donkey. As a bribe (cf. 1 Sam 12:3).

16:19 glory of the LORD. See note on 14:10.

16:22 Moses and Aaron plead for the Lord to focus his justice on the rebellion’s leaders, not on the entire people.

16:24–27 The rebels are isolated from the covenant community.

16:31–33 The judgment was so miraculous it was clearly the Lord’s doing (cf. vv. 29–30).

16:32 and their households. Due to the interconnectedness of families, the parents’ sin affects their children (see note on 14:33). While there is not strong hope for the eternal destiny of the parents (who are presented as apostates), the same is not true of their covenant children (who are not apostates; cf. Luke 18:15–16). those associated with Korah. Not the 250 men (cf. v. 35) or Korah’s entire household (cf. 26:11), but others who stood with him in support.

16:35 fire . . . consumed. Just as it did for others who presented an illicit incense offering (see Lev 10:1, 2 and notes; cf. Jude 11).

16:38 altar. For burnt offerings; every Israelite would see the altar when coming into the tabernacle courtyard (see “Tabernacle Floor Plan”). sign. A visible reminder (v. 40) that only priests could do priestly work. (For “signs” as reminders, see Exod 31:13; Deut 6:8; Josh 4:7.)

16:41 Moses and Aaron. The very ones who saved them earlier (vv. 21–22) and will save them again (vv. 46–50). You have killed. Cf. vv. 28–30, 35; it was clearly the Lord’s judgment.

16:42 glory of the LORD. See note on 14:10.

16:46–47 The Lord accepts Aaron’s incense, confirming Aaron’s role as priest (cf. v. 35).

16:46 Wrath. The Lord’s just anger against rebellion (see note on 1:53). plague. An unidentified but deadly punishment (vv. 47–49).

16:47 Another instance of a mediator atoning for the people by means of intercession (see note on 11:2).

17:1–13 The Budding of Aaron’s Staff. The Lord had already clearly shown Aaron to be his chosen priest (ch. 16), but he gives another sign to rebellious Israel to prove it: Aaron’s budding staff.

17:2 staffs. This word in Hebrew is also translated “tribe” (e.g., 1:4) and “scepter” (e.g., Ps 110:2). A staff represents authority to rule and is the perfect symbol to show which tribe should lead.

17:4 in front of the ark. In the Most Holy Place (cf. Exod 16:33–34), the Lord’s throne room (see notes on Exod 25:10–22; 26:1–37).

17:5 the man I choose. To serve God as priest and enter into God’s throne room (like that man’s staff). sprout. Often a metaphor for those who flourish because of the Lord’s favor (Ps 92:12; Prov 11:28; Isa 27:6). myself . . . you. Their grumbling against Moses was grumbling against the Lord (cf. 16:11, 30).

17:8 produced almonds. A miracle: budding or blossoming might happen in a night, but not this. The Lord’s choice of Aaron is clear. almonds. Translates a Hebrew word that sounds like the Hebrew word for “watch” or “guard,” perhaps symbolizing Aaron’s duty to guard the Lord’s tent from improper entry (18:1; cf. the same play on words in Jer 1:11–12 [see NIV text note on Jer 1:12]).

17:9 They looked at them. To confirm that these were the same staffs put in the tent the day before.

17:10 sign to the rebellious. Just like the plating for the altar (see 16:38 and note). In this case, the sign is a reminder that the only ones who may enter the tent are those belonging to the one whose name was on the staff: Aaron. Cf. Heb 10:19–39.

17:12–13 The Israelites, finally convinced they may not be priests, conclude that they will die if they even go near the tabernacle. This is not the case as long as they follow the proper guidelines (18:1–7).

18:1–7 Duties of Priests and Levites. Four guidelines: (1) Aaron, his sons, and his family (perhaps the Kohathites) must guard against people having improper contact with the sanctuary (or perhaps “the holy things,” 10:21). They are responsible for any offense (v. 1a). (2) Aaron and his sons must guard against other people doing priestly duties (vv. 1b, 5, 7). They are responsible for any offense (v. 3). (3) The Levites must assist Aaron and his sons with tabernacle matters (vv. 2–4, 6) but must not perform priestly duties (v. 3b). (4) No one else (whether Levite or layman) may do priestly duties, lest they be put to death—presumably by the priests (vv. 4, 7). By following these guidelines, the Israelites may come and worship without fearing the Lord’s wrath (v. 5). (For the difference between priests and Levites, see note on 3:1–51.)

18:8–32 Offerings for Priests and Levites. Since the priests and Levites did not inherit large tracts of land for farming, these offerings provided for their practical needs and let them focus on matters related to leading in the Lord’s worship at the tabernacle. The NT carries on the principle of providing practically for the leaders of the Lord’s people (1 Cor 9:13–14; Gal 6:6). When this does not happen, the Lord’s worship suffers (Neh 13:10–11).

18:8–20 Most of the Israelites’ gifts and offerings to the Lord were not completely burned up on the altar; this section explains what portions belonged to the priests and their families. These portions were all considered holy or most holy and were to be eaten only by the priests, or in some cases, by those in the priestly household.

18:9 most holy. See notes on Lev 2:3; 27:28.

18:10 male. Priests, who were ceremonially holy and could therefore partake of “most holy” food (cf. v. 11; for ceremonial holiness, see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]).

18:11 wave offerings. See notes on Exod 29:24; Lev 7:30.

18:12 finest. See notes on 15:17–21; Lev 3:17.

18:13 firstfruits. See Deut 26:1–11 for the ceremony in which they were presented.

18:14 devoted. See NIV text note; see also notes on Lev 27:28, 29.

18:15 first offspring. See note on 3:11–13. redeem every firstborn. See note on 3:40–51. unclean animals. Such as a donkey (Exod 13:13), which could not be sacrificed.

18:19 covenant of salt. “Everlasting” and therefore permanent (see note on Lev 2:13).

18:20 I am your share and your inheritance. The priests experience this by serving at the Lord’s tabernacle and eating his food (vv. 1–18). The priests thus serve as a sign that a person’s ultimate inheritance is the Lord (cf. Ps 73:25–26). The NT uses the language of “inheritance” to describe eternal life in God’s kingdom through faith in Jesus (Eph 1:13–14; Heb 9:15; 1 Pet 1:3–5; see also Introduction: Theological Themes [The Land, 1]).

18:21–24 The Israelites were to give the tithes of their harvest to the Levites (Lev 27:30), in this way providing for the Levites and their households (cf. v. 31).

18:25–32 The tithe given to the Levites counted as their wages (v. 31), so the Levites had to tithe as well, with their tithe going to the priests (v. 28). Tithing acknowledged that the Lord provides (Gen 28:22) and owns (Lev 25:23) all one has.

18:28 to Aaron the priest. And thus to his whole family (cf. vv. 1, 8), in this way helping to supplement the priests’ income and diet.

19:1–22 The Water of Cleansing. People must not defile the Lord’s tabernacle (vv. 13, 20; cf. 18:1, 7, 22). Those who touched corpses (vv. 11–13, 16) or came into a tent where a human corpse was (v. 14) became ceremonially unclean with a major uncleanness (for ceremonial purity and impurity, see Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). This type of uncleanness appears to have defiled the sanctuary from afar (v. 20), though this was not held against the Israelites if they properly cleansed themselves (and thus the sanctuary as well). This chapter explains how to go about such cleansing. If the Israelites did not follow this cleansing procedure, they showed total disrespect to the Lord’s holy tabernacle and therefore the Lord himself.

19:1–10 A person with a major uncleanness was normally expected to offer a sin offering (see Lev 12:6–8; 15:13–15; see note on Lev 4:1—5:13). However, when a whole family became unclean through contact with the body of a deceased loved one, it would have been a severe financial burden if each person had to offer a sacrifice. The Lord therefore describes how to prepare the water of cleansing, central to which were the ashes of a female animal without defect, the very type of animal required for an individual’s sin offering (cf. Lev 4:28; a heifer is perhaps used in Numbers instead of a goat in order to provide the maximum amount of ashes). The water thus had the same result as a sin offering when sprinkled on the unclean: cleansing them of their ceremonial defilement. The NT contrasts this with Jesus, who by his sacrifice cleanses us from moral defilement (Heb 9:13–14; 1 John 1:7).

19:2 red. Central to this rite, perhaps because it was a reminder of blood, the most powerful cleansing agent in ancient Israel. without defect. See note on Lev 1:3; cf. Lev 22:18–25. never been under a yoke. And therefore not used for common purposes (cf. Deut 15:19).

19:4 seven times. Symbolizes complete cleansing (see note on 29:12–34; cf. Lev 16:19). toward . . . the tent of meeting. Perhaps to indicate the rite’s purpose (maintaining the tent’s purity) or to set apart the animal for holy use.

19:6 cedar wood, hyssop and scarlet wool. See note on Lev 14:4.

19:7-8, 10 Cf. Lev 16:26–28.

19:9 water of cleansing. Sprinkled on the unclean to cleanse them. purification from sin. Or a “purification offering” (v. 17; see 8:8 and NIV text note), which purified them from their ceremonial uncleanness.

19:11–22 The uncleanness lasted seven days (vv. 11, 14, 16), the standard length of a major uncleanness (cf. Lev 14:8–9; 15:13). A ceremonially clean person would sprinkle the unclean with the water for cleansing on the third and seventh days (v. 19). Those being cleansed would then wash their clothes and bodies and be clean on the evening of the seventh day (v. 19).

19:12 purify themselves. Probably by following the instructions in vv. 17–19.

19:13 defile the LORD’s tabernacle. See note on vv. 1–22. cut off. Removed from the covenant community, either through exile or death (see note on Lev 7:20, 21). In this case, the latter method may be in view (cf. Lev 15:31).

19:14–15 The impurity is like a gas that fills the room and defiles everything in it.

19:17 fresh. The Israelites may have considered this water especially purifying; it is called for only in the context of major impurities (Lev 14:5–7, 50–52; 15:13). them. The ashes.

19:18 hyssop. See note on Lev 14:4 (cf. Exod 12:22). sprinkle. Often associated with cleansing (Lev 4:5–6; 8:11).

19:19 wash . . . bathe. Typical cleansing rites, along with waiting until evening (Lev 15:5; 17:15).

19:21 Cf. Lev 16:26–28.

20:1—21:35 Further Rebellions, Initial Victories. These chapters begin a transition. This is the 40th year (see note on 20:1), so most of the exodus generation has died. The next generation begins their journey to the promised land and ends up in sight of it (22:1). Along the way, various victories anticipate the victories they will have in the promised land.

20:1–13 Water From the Rock. This is the story of two rebellions, one by the Israelites (vv. 2–5) and one by Moses and Aaron (vv. 9–12).

20:1 first month. Of the 40th year (cf. vv. 22–29 with 33:38–39). Desert of Zin . . . Kadesh. See note on 13:26.

20:2–5 The Lord had provided in a similar situation (Exod 17:1–7), but instead of looking to him in faith, the Israelites “gathered in opposition” against his leaders (cf. 16:3, 42). These trials were meant not to harm the Israelites but to strengthen their faith (Deut 8:3, 16; cf. Jas 1:2–4).

20:6 fell facedown. In dependent prayer (cf. 16:22).

20:9 staff from the LORD’s presence. Most likely a reference to the staff that budded (17:8–10); using it emphasizes the authority of the Lord’s leaders (see notes on 17:2, 10).

20:10 must we bring you water. Moses focuses the peoples’ attention on himself and Aaron, not the Lord. Cf. Ps 106:32–33.

20:11 raised his arm. Emphasizes the rebellious nature of Moses’ action because this translates the same Hebrew words that 15:30 renders “defiantly.” struck the rock. But did not “speak” to it, as commanded (v. 8; cf. Exod 17:6), thus making his disobedience clear.

20:12 did not trust in me. The same Hebrew phrase describes the rebellious Israelites in 14:11; Moses and Aaron are imitating them: to disobey is to disbelieve and rebel (v. 24; cf. Deut 9:23). honor me as holy. Acknowledge the Lord’s greatness through obedience. Instead, they honored themselves (see v. 10 and note). you will not bring this community into the land. Moses and Aaron joined in the Israelites’ rebellion and so will share in their punishment. Cf. Luke 12:47–48; Heb 13:17; Jas 3:1.

20:13 Meribah. Means “quarreling,” the same name given to a different location 38 years earlier (Exod 17:7). quarreled. Cf. 16:3–11; 17:1–5. proved holy. By providing water, by judging Moses and Aaron, or by both. See note on Lev 10:3.

20:14–21 Edom Denies Israel Passage. The Israelites are headed to the promised land and will enter it from northeast of the Dead Sea. The quickest way there was by taking the King’s Highway through Edom’s territory. Because Edom denied Israel passage, Israel had to take a longer route, skirting Edom to the east (Judg 11:18; see map for possible route taken).

20:14 brother. A general term for a relative. The Edomites were descendants of Esau (Gen 36:1), the brother of Jacob/Israel, the Israelites’ forefather (cf. Gen 32:3, 28).

20:16 angel. See Exod 14:19; 23:20; 32:34.

20:21 The Lord forbade the Israelites from engaging Edom in battle (Deut 2:4–5); his focus of judgment was on the horrendous sins of the Canaanites (Gen 15:16; Lev 18:24–25).

20:22–29 The Death of Aaron. Like the passing of a crown to a new king after the death of the old king, Aaron’s garments pass to his son so that all the people know that Eleazar is now the high priest. Unlike Aaron, Jesus’ priestly intercession for his people continues to this very day, for he lives forever (Heb 7:23–25).

20:22 Mount Hor. See map.

20:24 both of you rebelled. See vv. 10–12 and notes.

20:29 mourned for him thirty days. Indicating that he was a leader of great importance to them (cf. Deut 34:8).

21:1–3 Arad Destroyed. This is the Israelites’ first victory over the Canaanites. It strongly contrasts with their first defeat 38 years earlier—also involving a place called Hormah (14:45). This victory signifies to the next generation that as they look to the Lord in faith, he will deliver all the Canaanites into their hands.

21:1 An unprovoked attack initiated by the king of Arad.

21:2 totally destroy. See NIV text note. This is what God will command the Israelites to do with all the Canaanites (Deut 7:1–2). See Introduction to Deuteronomy: Themes and Theology (Holy War).

21:4–9 The Bronze Snake. In previous rebellions, the Israelites complained first against the leaders (14:2; 16:2–3, 41–42; 20:2); here they complain first against God (v. 5). To make matters worse, they combine many of their previous complaints into one (cf. 11:4–6; 14:2–3; 20:3–5). As in previous episodes, the Lord’s judgment comes (v. 6), Moses intercedes (v. 7), and the Lord responds with mercy (vv. 8–9; cf. 11:2–3; 14:11–20).

21:4 go around Edom. See note on 20:14–21.

21:8–9 While this strikes many moderns as some form of ancient magic, the text is clear that it is actually the Lord’s solution and works only because of his power. By having the Israelites look at the very symbol of their judgment, the Lord is having them acknowledge, “This is the judgment that you, Lord, have justly brought upon us, and only you can deliver us from it.” Jesus uses this event to explain his death on the cross (see John 3:14–15 and note).

21:10–20 The Journey to Moab. Many of the places mentioned in this passage are hard to identify with certainty (cf. note on 33:1–56). See map for possible route.

21:14 Book of the Wars of the LORD. Not mentioned elsewhere. Its name implies it was a record of the Lord’s victories over Israel’s enemies (cf. 32:21) and was perhaps a collection of songs (note the poetic nature of vv. 14–15).

21:20 Pisgah. Perhaps a mountain range of which Mount Nebo was a part (Deut 34:1). This was the place from which Balaam would bless Israel (23:14) and Moses would see the promised land (Deut 34:1–4).

21:21–35 Defeat of Sihon and Og. Verses 21–32 focus on Sihon and vv. 33–35 on Og. These battles happened on the way to “the valley in Moab” (v. 20). They are a foretaste of the victories the Lord will give the Israelites in Canaan itself. After the battles are over, the Israelites possess land on the east side of the Jordan that extends from the Arnon River in the south to the area of Mount Hermon in the north (see map; cf. Deut 3:8–10; Josh 12:1–6). This land will belong to the Reubenites, Gadites, and half-tribe of Manasseh (Josh 12:1–6).

21:27–30 This poem recounts Heshbon’s history. Moabites had controlled it until Sihon, king of the Amorites, captured it.

21:29 Chemosh. A god the Moabites worshiped.

21:33–35 See Deut 3:1–11.

22:1—24:25 The Story of Balak and Balaam. Because the Moabites and Midianites fear the Israelites, they seek help from Balaam, a pagan from Mesopotamia (Deut 23:4, see NIV text note). It is true that he speaks God’s word (23:5; 24:2–3a) and at times sounds holy (22:18, 38; 23:12), but a careful reading of this section shows that he is presented very negatively as a money-hungry seer who does his work using ways that the Lord clearly prohibited and whose donkey is more morally upright than he is (see notes on 22:7, 8, 18, 22, 29, 30, 37; cf. 2 Pet 2:15–16). Later verses make clear he was an enemy to Israel (31:8, 15–16; cf. Rev 2:14). Although Balaam was paid to curse the Israelites, the Lord causes him to bless them instead (Deut 23:4–5), repeating over them the Abrahamic promises and blessings (see especially 24:3–9). If God is for Israel, no one can stand against them.

22:1–20 Balak Summons Balaam. Balak wants Balaam to curse the Israelites so he can defeat them in battle.

22:1 plains of Moab. The Israelites arrive here after leaving the “valley in Moab” (21:20). From here they could see the long-awaited promised land (see map). They remain here for the rest of Numbers (cf. 36:13).

22:2 done to the Amorites. See 21:21–32.

22:3 so many people. See 23:10. The Lord’s promise that Abraham would have many descendants has begun to be fulfilled (Gen 13:16; 15:5; 22:17).

22:4 Midian. Midianites lived east of the Jordan in the same general area as the plains of Moab (cf. Judg 6–7).

22:7 divination. Seeking secret knowledge. It is often associated with magic, using supernatural power to do something (such as call down supernatural curses on someone). To use divination or magic is to take the place of God, who therefore strictly forbids it (Deut 18:10–11).

22:8 the LORD. Balaam refers to God by his personal name and later speaks of “the LORD my God” (v. 18) as if to say that he really knows God. The narrator uses the more general term “God” (vv. 9, 10, 12, 20) as if to say that Balaam does not know “the LORD.” This indicates Balaam’s deceitful character.

22:12 blessed. By the Lord; therefore they may not be cursed (cf. Gen 12:2–3).

22:18 Balaam acts as though he cares not about money but only about what “the LORD my God” commands. The surrounding context suggests this is not at all the case (see note on 22:22).

22:21–41 Balaam’s Donkey. The Lord uses the donkey as a living parable to warn and rebuke Balaam for his wrong (see notes on vv. 28–30).

22:22 very angry. If God permitted Balaam to go (v. 20), why was he angry when Balaam went? Verse 35 provides the clue: Balaam must “speak only what” the Lord tells him, which suggests that Balaam had been ready to do whatever Balak paid him to do (cf. 2 Pet 2:15). angel of the LORD. Carried out the Lord’s judgment (cf. Exod 33:2). For his identity, see note on Exod 3:2.

22:23 Ironically, while Balaam claims to know the Lord (see note on v. 8), only the donkey can see the Lord’s angel. Balaam’s donkey is more spiritually discerning than he is.

22:28 the LORD opened the donkey’s mouth. A miracle. Every Israelite knew that donkeys do not talk.

22:29 You have made a fool of me! By disobeying Balaam’s commands—the very thing Balaam was about to do concerning the Lord’s command to him (cf. v. 20). I would kill you. The appropriate penalty for those who play the fool with a master and the very thing the Lord’s angel is getting ready to do to Balaam. Balaam has pronounced his own sentence.

22:30 The donkey is a picture of what Balaam should be: faithful to his master’s commands.

22:35 speak only what I tell you. The real issue: God requires absolute obedience.

22:36 To be greeted by a king was a great honor. at the edge of his territory. A royal reception at the border guaranteed this foreigner’s safety.

22:37 reward. Balak again mentions financial reward (v. 17).

22:38 Balaam has apparently learned his lesson (cf. 23:12, 26; 24:12–13). Sadly, this does not stop him from later acting as Israel’s enemy (31:8, 15–16; cf. Rev 2:14).

22:41 Bamoth Baal. Location unknown, but presumably in the mountain range at the northeastern end of the Dead Sea near Pisgah (cf. 23:14; see note on 21:20). The name means “the high places of Baal,” which puts these activities in a negative light. outskirts. Not the whole camp (cf. 23:13), which emphasizes how numerous the people are; the Lord’s promise to give Abraham many descendants has begun to be fulfilled (Gen 13:16; 15:5; 22:17).

23:1–12 Balaam’s First Message. Balaam’s message focuses on the Israelites’ great numbers (v. 10) and the favor the Lord shows them (v. 8), both of which were part of the Abrahamic promises (Gen 12:1–3). The story has five sections: preparing to receive the message (vv. 1–3); receiving the message (vv. 4–5); delivering the message (vv. 6–10); Balak’s response (v. 11); and Balaam’s counter-response (v. 12). The next two stories follow the same pattern (vv. 13–26; 23:27—24:14) and will have the same theme: the Lord will indeed bless the Israelites and fulfill his covenant promises to them (see note on 24:3–9).

23:1 seven altars. Apparently a standard way at that time for some pagans to approach a deity.

23:3 Stay. Perhaps to pray while Balaam went to do his work. A pagan diviner from Mesopotamia would normally use divination to receive a message from God (cf. 24:1).

23:7 Aram. Another name for the area of Mesopotamia where Balaam is from (see Deut 23:4 and NIV text note).

23:8 God is not opposed to Israel, an important point in light of the divine punishment of the adults of the exodus generation. Verses 9–10 make clear that God has in fact blessed Israel (cf. v. 20).

23:9 The Israelites themselves understand that God has set them apart (cf. Exod 19:4–6; Deut 7:6–8).

23:10 dust. Israel’s vast numbers are a beginning of the fulfillment of the Lord’s promises to Abraham (Gen 13:16; 15:5; 22:17). righteous. They are in right relationship with God. may my final end be like theirs. Cf. Gen 12:3. Sadly, Balaam will not join Israel’s faith so that this may occur (cf. 31:8, 16).

23:11 Balak believes that he can manipulate the gods to do whatever he wants as long as he has the right person (Balaam) to do the manipulating. He is therefore angry that Balaam has done the opposite of what Balak asked him to do.

23:12 Balaam has learned that the Lord is a sovereign God whom people cannot manipulate (cf. v. 26; 24:12–13).

23:13–26 Balaam’s Second Message. This focuses on the Lord’s faithfulness to bless his people (vv. 19–20), his presence with them (v. 21), and the strength they have because of him (vv. 22–24). For the story’s structure, see note on 23:1–12.

23:13 not see them all . . . outskirts. See note on 22:41.

23:14 top of Pisgah. See note on 21:20.

23:19 lie . . . change his mind. Contrary to what Balak thinks, the Lord is not like pagan gods, who are comparable to capricious and fickle human beings and who could therefore be asked to break their promises. Does he speak and then not act? The Lord does what he says, which in this case is to bless Israel (v. 20). He is always faithful to his covenant promises (cf. Titus 1:2).

23:21 God is with them . . . the King is among them. This is the basis of all that follows: their redemption from Egypt (v. 22), their immunity to pagan divination and omens (v. 23), and their success in battle (v. 24).

23:27—24:14 Balaam’s Third Message. This message focuses on several Abrahamic promises (see note on 24:3–9). Balaam receives this message differently (24:1–2), and there is a new focus on its prophetic nature (24:3–4). For the story’s structure, see note on 23:1–12.

23:27 Perhaps. Completely ignores the Lord’s message in vv. 19–20, 23.

24:1 turned his face toward the wilderness. Set out to see Israel’s encampment (perhaps to bless them).

24:2 the Spirit of God came on him. Not to indicate he was now redeemed but to give him a prophetic message.

24:3–9 The first two messages describe present realities; this one describes future realities. It focuses on five elements of the Abrahamic promises: (1) the fruitfulness of the people (cf. Gen 13:16; 15:5; 22:17), who are like well-watered gardens and mighty cedars (v. 6; cf. Pss 1:3; 92:12; Isa 58:11; 61:3); (2) their king’s might (v. 7; cf. Gen 17:6; 49:10; see note on v. 17); (3) the strength of their kingdom (v. 7)—Israel will defeat all their enemies with God’s help (vv. 8–9; cf. Gen 22:17); (4) Israel’s relationship with God (v. 8; cf. Gen 17:7); (5) blessing comes to those who bless Israel and cursing to those who curse them (v. 9; cf. Gen 12:3; 27:29). Balak has been warned. He would be wise to bless this people and worship their God.

24:7 Agag. Not mentioned elsewhere but apparently known for his great power. The Agag in 1 Sam 15:32–33 comes later. In the ancient Near East, multiple kings used the same name (e.g., five different Assyrian kings are named Shalmaneser).

24:10 Balak utterly rejects Balaam and his message. He is not thankful for learning the truth. struck his hands together. Perhaps as an act of derision or scorn (cf. Lam 2:15).

24:11 Balak (perhaps mockingly) throws Balaam’s explanation back in his face: “Blame the LORD, not me, that you’re not getting paid!” (cf. 22:38; 23:12, 26).

24:15–19 Balaam’s Fourth Message. While the previous three messages focused on the blessings that will come to Israel, the next four focus on the ruin that will come to other nations (vv. 15–24). This suggests that these are nations that will not bless Israel (v. 9).

24:17-18 Moab . . . Edom. See map.

24:17 star . . . scepter. Language that describes a king (cf. Gen 49:10; Isa 14:12). Jacob. Forefather of the nation of Israel. Israel’s king would come from Judah (Gen 49:10), suggesting that this prophecy finds the beginning of its fulfillment in David (cf. 2 Sam 8:2, 14) and its final fulfillment in Jesus (Rev 5:5; 22:16; see note on Rev 5:5). Jesus is the far greater Davidic King, who rules over all people (Acts 2:29–36; Phil 2:9–11; Heb 1:3).

24:20 Balaam’s Fifth Message. This message concerns the people descended from Amalek. See map.

24:20 first among the nations. In status, chronology (Exod 17:8–16), or both. end will be utter destruction. For trying to destroy Israel (Exod 17:8–16). See also 1 Sam 15:1–33; 30:1–18; 1 Chr 4:42–43.

24:21–22 Balaam’s Sixth Message. This message concerns the Kenites, who were apparently a tribal group that lived in the general region that Judah would inherit (Judg 1:16; cf. 1 Sam 15:6; see map).

24:22 Ashur. Perhaps a people who lived nearby in the north Sinai region (Gen 25:3, 18).

24:23–25 Balaam’s Seventh Message. This message appears to refer to a people coming from the west (perhaps the Sea Peoples who invaded Canaan ca. 1200 BC) who will defeat others and then be defeated.

24:25 Although Balaam departs here, he will play a part in the events of ch. 25 (see 31:16; see also note on 31:8).

25:1–18 Moab Seduces Israel. While staying on the plains of Moab, the Israelites commit sexual immorality with foreign women and worship foreign gods (vv. 1–5). The Lord brings a plague that kills many of the people and is stopped when a priest shows zeal for the Lord’s honor by performing an act of judgment against the sin (vv. 6–18).

25:1 Shittim. On the plains of Moab where Israel is encamped (22:1). They will depart from here for the promised land (Josh 3:1; see map). sexual immorality. Sex outside the marriage covenant. The Hebrew word used here also describes a severe form of covenant unfaithfulness to the Lord: idolatry (Jer 3:6–9). Here the sexual immorality and idolatry seem related.

25:3 yoked themselves. In a double yoke: Israel on one side and Baal on the other. Israel should have been “yoked” to the Lord alone (cf. Matt 11:28–30). Baal of Peor. Apparently a local nature spirit of the region of Peor who was thought to control its fertility (Judg 2:12b–13). the LORD’s anger burned against them. Idolatry was a very serious sin (cf. Deut 4:3–4; Ps 106:28–29).

25:4 leaders. Involved in the idolatry (or at least approving of it). They are held to a higher standard and therefore singled out for judgment (cf. Luke 12:47–48; Heb 13:17; Jas 3:1). in broad daylight. A shameful way to die (cf. 1 Sam 31:8–13).

25:5 judges. Responsible for executing judgment (Exod 18:21–26). put to death. Cf. Exod 32:27.

25:6–15 Like his grandfather Aaron, Phinehas the priest makes atonement for the Israelites and stops a plague among them (vv. 7–9; cf. 16:47–49).

25:6 brought into the camp. For sex (see v. 8 and note). Midianite woman. The Midianites lived in this region (22:4, 7). before the eyes. Publicly, with no shame. weeping. Perhaps because of the Lord’s pronouncement (v. 4) and the plague (v. 9).

25:8 tent. Not the tent of meeting; this translates a different Hebrew word. drove the spear into both of them. Perhaps suggesting they were having sex; they died together in their rebellious act. plague. See note on 16:46.

25:11 as zealous . . . as I am. Phinehas did what God called priests to do: protect God’s honor and reflect his holy character to the world (Ps 106:30; cf. John 2:13–17).

25:12 covenant of peace. A promise of life and peace that flows from being in relationship with God (cf. Isa 54:10; Ezek 37:26; Mal 2:5).

25:13 lasting priesthood. The Lord would watch over the life and peace of Phinehas’s descendants (cf. Ps 106:30–31). made atonement. Fulfilling his priestly duties and thereby showing his worthiness of the priestly office. Sadly, atonement was not made here by slaughtering an animal for sinners but by slaughtering the sinners themselves.

25:14–15 The man and woman involved were people from leading families of these nations (cf. 31:8); this emphasizes the gravity of the sin.

25:16–18 From the beginning, the Midianites were involved with the Moabites in trying to harm Israel (22:4, 7). The punishment the Lord commands for them fits the crime: they treated the Israelites as enemies, purposely deceiving them into a harmful situation by leading them astray into idolatry (e.g., Kozbi [25:15]). They will now get what they asked for: they will be treated as enemies by the Israelites (see ch. 31; Judg 6–8).

26:1—36:13 The Next Generation: A New Start for Israel on the Border of the Promised Land. The story of Israel’s exodus generation began with censuses (chs. 1–4) and then further preparations for marching into the promised land (5:1—10:10). The story of the next generation also starts with a census (ch. 26) and then further preparations for marching into the promised land (chs. 27–36). While the exodus generation was characterized by disobedience to the Lord’s commands and was shut out of the promised land (see note on 10:11—25:18), the next generation is characterized by obedience (31:7, 31; 36:10; see note on 1:54) and is now at the border of the promised land awaiting the Lord’s command to enter it (see note on 36:13).

26:1–65 The Second Census. With the faithless exodus generation now dead (26:64–65), the faithful next generation takes their own military census as they prepare to do battle in the promised land.

26:1 After the plague. See 25:9. Eleazar. Replaced Aaron (cf. 1:3; see 20:22–29).

26:2 serve in the army. See note on 1:3. The conquest of the promised land is directly ahead.

26:3 plains of Moab . . . Jericho. See map. Jericho is the first city in which they will do battle in the promised land (Josh 6).

26:4–51 For each tribe, a standard formula is used: the tribe, its main clans (see note on 3:15), and its total number (see “The Census Results”; see also Introduction: Interpretive Issues). “Clans” are perhaps mentioned because of their role in the land allotments (vv. 52–57 cf. Josh 19:1, 10).

26:8–11 Recalls the story of ch. 16. Since Dathan and Abiram were Reubenites, their story fits here logically. It also explains why their lines did not continue.

26:10 warning. If any of the Israelites act like them, they will have no part in Israel.

26:11 line. Perhaps they survived because they disagreed with their father’s actions and did not stand with him in support (see note on 16:32).

26:14 22,200. Down from 59,300 (1:23). Perhaps this tribe was especially involved in the sin at Shittim (cf. 25:14) and was therefore decimated by the plague (25:9).

26:19 Er and Onan . . . died. See Gen 38:7–10.

26:22 76,500. The largest number, in keeping with the earlier blessing-prophecy of Judah’s future success (Gen 49:8–12). From this tribe came King David and the far greater Davidic King, Jesus (Matt 1:2–16).

26:33 Prepares readers for 27:1–11.

26:34 52,700. Up from 32,200 (1:35). The reason for the large increase is not known.

26:46 Serah. Perhaps mentioned because she, like Zelophehad’s daughters (v. 33), will inherit land (cf. ch. 27).

26:52–56 The land is to be divided proportionately (vv. 53–54), so the census numbers are very important. There is also an emphasis on distributing the land by lot (vv. 55–56; cf. 33:54; Josh 14–19). Since the lot’s decision is from the Lord (Prov 16:33), no tribe can complain about their inheritance. See note on 18:20 for the NT use of inheritance language.

26:57–62 The Levites are not listed with the rest of the Israelites because they will not receive large plots of land, only cities to live in (35:1–8), and because they will not take part in battle (see note on 1:47–53).

26:58–61 Further details on the all-important priestly line.

26:61 See Lev 10:1–3. Presumably this helps explain why their descendants do not carry on in Israel. It is also enshrined in the priestly genealogy as a warning to all priests.

26:62 no inheritance. See note on 18:20.

26:63–65 The Lord’s judgment indeed came to pass (see 14:20–35 and note).

26:65 except Caleb . . . and Joshua. Cf. 13:30; 14:6–9, 24, 30; Josh 14:6–14; 19:49–50.

27:1–11 Zelophehad’s Daughters. Num 26:52–56 mentions dividing the promised land among the Israelites. In Israelite society, the man who was head of a family unit received the land. After his death, the land passed to his sons who would carry on his line. Daughters could also receive inheritance in the form of a dowry, a wedding gift from their father (Gen 29:24, 29; Judg 1:13–15). This story answers the question, If a man has daughters, but no sons, and then dies, to whom does the land go at his death? The text affirms that the daughters should indeed inherit the land (Num 27:7). It also makes clear how to keep family land within the clan and tribe if a man has no surviving children (vv. 8–11), thus maintaining equity among the tribes in terms of property holdings.

27:3 not among Korah’s followers. So his name should not be blotted out from Israel (see note on 26:8–11). died for his own sin. He was part of the rebellious generation of ch. 14, whose descendants would nonetheless inherit the land.

27:4 disappear. Come to an end. Give us. Giving property to the daughters presumably prevents the father’s name from disappearing because if the daughters marry (presumably within the father’s tribe, cf. 36:5–10), a grandson can carry on their father’s name and inherit the property (cf. Deut 25:5–6). See ch. 36 for an appendix to this account.

27:12–23 Joshua to Succeed Moses. While Moses could see the promised land (v. 12), he would not lead Israel into it (vv. 13–14; cf. 20:12; Deut 34). Joshua will do so when Moses is gone (vv. 15–23).

27:12 Go up this mountain. Mount Nebo (Deut 32:49), from which the land was visible (see map). Moses fulfills this command in Deut 34.

27:14 disobeyed my command to honor me as holy. They instead sought their own glory (see notes on 20:9–12).

27:16–17 Moses requests a leader for Israel because he cares for and loves the Lord’s people.

27:16 God who gives breath to all. So he knows them intimately and can choose the best leader.

27:17 sheep. Many texts use this image to describe the Lord’s people, sometimes to critique current leaders for not taking care of them (Jer 23:1–3; Ezek 34:1–10; Matt 9:36) and sometimes to describe the Lord’s care for them (see Ps 23:1 and note). Jesus is described as the ultimate good shepherd who loves his sheep so much that he lays his life down for them (John 10:11–15).

27:18 Joshua. Moses’ assistant since Mount Sinai (Exod 33:11); he has proven leadership experience (Exod 17:8–13) and proven faithfulness (Num 14:6–9). the spirit of leadership. Or “spirit,” referring either to courage for leadership (cf. Josh 2:11; 5:1, where “courage” translates the Hebrew word for “spirit”) or to a God-given gift for leadership (cf. Exod 28:3).

27:19–20 The public nature of this event aids the leadership transition by making clear that Joshua is now the one the Israelites are to obey.

27:21 Urim. The Urim and the Thummim were in the high priest’s breastpiece (Exod 28:30) and appear to have been lots used to inquire of the Lord (1 Sam 14:41–42; see note on Exod 28:30).

28:1—29:40 Offerings and Festivals. Chs. 28–29 describe what Israel’s worship should look like in the promised land. This section focuses on the sacrifices required at set times throughout the year as opposed to sacrifices brought to fulfill a vow or as freewill offerings (29:39). It lists the sacrifices by frequency: daily (28:2–8), weekly (28:9–10), monthly (28:11–15), and yearly (28:16—29:38, listed chronologically). Through these offerings and festivals, the people maintain and strengthen their relationship with the Lord and with each other. They acknowledge their need for the Lord’s forgiveness and help, celebrate what he has done for them in the past and what he promises to do for them in the future, and affirm that they are brothers and sisters in one covenant family. See “The Lord’s Appointed Festivals.”

28:1–8 Daily Offerings. See note on Exod 29:38–43. Cf. Heb 7:17; 10:11–14.

28:2 appointed time. Detailed in chs. 28–29. food offerings . . . aroma pleasing to me. See note on 15:3.

28:3 year old without defect. See note on 6:14.

28:5-7 grain offering . . . drink offering. For these offerings, which are mentioned many times in chs. 28–29, see notes on 15:4, 5 and “Grain and Drink Offerings That Accompany Animal Sacrifices.”

28:9–10 Sabbath Offerings. The daily offerings were doubled, setting this day apart as special.

28:11–15 Monthly Offerings. Israel celebrated “on the first of every month” (v. 11), which came at the new moon (v. 14). There were as many offerings at this festival as at the important Festival of Weeks (cf. 28:26–31).

28:16–25 The Passover. See note on 9:1–14.

28:17 festival . . . bread made without yeast. The Festival of Unleavened Bread. This was one of three festivals to be celebrated by all Israelite males at the sanctuary (Exod 23:14–17). As its name implies, only unleavened bread (bread without yeast, Exod 12:15) could be eaten during this time (see note on Exod 12:15). It began the day after the Passover and had the same purpose: to remember how the Lord delivered the Israelites from slavery (Exod 12:17; Deut 16:3). Because Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread took place in the first month (v. 16), the Israelites began their year by declaring and celebrating the Lord’s deliverance and remembering to trust in his power to rescue and save. It is thus appropriate that Jesus’ death and resurrection—the ultimate displays of the Lord’s deliverance and power to save—happened at this same time in the Jewish calendar (cf. Matt 26:17; 27:15–26, 62–66; 28:1–10).

28:18 sacred assembly. The people assembled together and set the day apart as holy to the Lord, especially by stopping regular work and observing any rites connected to the holiday (vv. 25–26; 29:1, 12). regular work. Such as farming; other work, such as food preparation, was allowed (Exod 12:16; cf. Lev 23:3, 28).

28:19 two young bulls, one ram. Reverses the number in Lev 23:18 because of either different traditions or a scribal error in one of the passages.

28:26–31 The Festival of Weeks. So called because it took place seven weeks after the firstfruits of the barley harvest were offered (see note on Lev 23:16; cf. Exod 34:22; Deut 16:9–10). Also known as the Festival of Harvest (see note on Exod 23:16) and as Pentecost (see note on Acts 2:1). Like the Festival of Unleavened Bread, it was also one of three festivals to be celebrated by all Israelite males at the sanctuary (Deut 16:16; Deut 16:11 suggests entire families often went). It was a time to celebrate the Lord’s provision in the harvest and in this way remember that the Lord could be trusted to provide for their physical needs (Deut 26:10; see Ps 145:15–16; Matt 6:19–34; cf. Hos 2:8–9).

29:1–6 The Festival of Trumpets. See note on Lev 23:24.

29:1 sound the trumpets. See note on 10:1–10.

29:7–11 The Day of Atonement. See note on Lev 16:1–34; see also “Sacrifice” for further details.

29:7 deny yourselves. At least by fasting (see NIV text note; cf. Ps 35:13) and possibly by other forms of self-denial such as not using ointments (cf. Dan 10:2–3 with Dan 10:12; see also note on Lev 16:29). Such self-denial was often an outward sign of a humble, repentant heart (cf. 1 Sam 7:6; Dan 9:3–5). This day’s rites mattered little if the Israelites did not acknowledge their sins and turn from them (see Lev 16:29–31 and note on v. 30; cf. Ps 51:3, 17; Isa 1:11–17). do no work. Not even “regular work” (28:18; see note); as on the Sabbath, all work is forbidden (cf. Lev 23:3).

29:8–10 In addition to the offerings in Lev 16.

29:11 sin offering for atonement. See Lev 16:3, 5.

29:12–40 The Festival of Tabernacles. This was a harvest festival also known as the Festival of Ingathering (Exod 23:16b). Like the Festivals of Unleavened Bread and Weeks, it was to be celebrated by all Israelite males at the sanctuary (Deut 16:16; Deut 16:14 suggests entire families often went). The name “Tabernacles” (or “Booths”) comes from the temporary shelters the Israelites would live in during the festival (Lev 23:42), the same type of shelters the Israelites lived in when the Lord brought them out of Egypt (Lev 23:43). By doing this as they feasted on the harvest, the Israelites reminded themselves—and taught their descendants—that the Lord was their powerful redeemer as well as their gracious provider. See Neh 8:13–18 for a narrative example of this festival.

29:12–34 The number seven, which often represents completion or perfection (cf. the complete judgment of Lev 26:18, 21, 24, 28), is central throughout the ceremony, which occurs in the seventh month and is seven days long. The various animal offerings are also divisible by seven (70 bulls, 14 rams, 98 lambs, 7 male goats). These were required from the community as a whole, not from each individual.

29:39 vow . . . freewill. Additional offerings they could make at any point in the year, including at these festivals. These did not replace the offerings that chs. 28–29 require.

30:1–16 Vows. Ch. 30 is a logical place to discuss questions related to vows, not only because 29:39 mentions them but also because someone who vowed to offer a sacrifice might carry it out during one of the festivals of chs. 28–29 (cf. 1 Sam 1:21). This chapter answers whether there are any exceptions to fulfilling vows, especially when the person making the vow is under the authority of someone else.

30:2 vow. A promise to the Lord to perform something, such as a sacrifice. People took vows to emphasize how serious their prayer request was and to ensure they would appropriately express thanksgiving if the Lord answered their prayer (1 Sam 1:11; 2:1–10; Ps 116:14–19). pledge. A promise of some sort to the Lord (see v. 13 and note on 29:7). People took pledges to emphasize the seriousness of their prayer request and their need of the Lord’s help (1 Sam 14:24) and/or to commit themselves to fulfill a task (Ps 132:2–5). Since vows and pledges were very easy to make (it simply involved uttering the vow or pledge), people sometimes made them rashly (v. 6; cf. Prov 20:25). break. Vows and pledges were considered holy because they involved a promise to the Lord. People did not dare break their word to God (Deut 23:21–23; Eccl 5:4–7; Mal 1:14).

30:3–8 In ancient Israel, a father bore ultimate economic responsibility for any promises made by his young, unmarried daughters (vv. 3–5), and a husband bore the responsibility for his wife’s promises (vv. 6–8). These laws allow the men to protect their families economically from any excessive promises while at the same time affirming the women’s right to make promises to the Lord.

30:6 rash promise. Apparently a common problem with vows and pledges (see note on v. 2). If a wife made such a promise, she would undoubtedly consider it a blessing that her husband could nullify it.

30:9 widow or divorced woman. She is not under the authority of another, so there is no one to nullify her promise to the Lord.

30:10–15 Similar to vv. 6–8 except the woman is already married.

30:13 deny herself. See note on 29:7.

30:15 some time after. If a husband wants to nullify his wife’s vow or pledge, he must do so the first time he hears about it, not later (when perhaps he realizes how costly it will be). bear the consequences of her wrongdoing. Her failure to fulfill the vow or pledge will fall on his shoulders, not hers, since he is the one who prevents her from carrying out a promise that has been ratified before the Lord.

30:16 the regulations. Those concerning vows.

31:1–24 Vengeance on the Midianites. The Israelites fulfill the Lord’s earlier command (see 25:16–18 and note). This victory is another foretaste of the victories the Lord will give them in the promised land (see notes on 21:1–3, 21–35).

31:2 vengeance. Not sinful revenge (cf. Rom 12:19) but carrying out the Lord’s punishment on a guilty people (v. 3).

31:3 carry out the LORD’s vengeance. The Lord at times uses one nation to punish another. Sometimes he uses Israel to do this (as here), sometimes he uses a nation to punish Israel (see Habakkuk), and sometimes Israel is not involved (Isa 13:17–22). The people of God today are no longer a national theocracy, so they do not do this as a military body. But they do exercise discipline in the context of the local church (1 Cor 5).

31:6 Phinehas. Known for his zeal for the Lord’s honor (25:11). articles from the sanctuary. Represent the Lord’s presence with Israel.

31:8 Zur. Father of Kozbi (25:15). five kings. In those days a king was often a leader who ruled a small area (cf. Josh 10:1–5). Balaam. Advised Midian on their treacherous strategy (v. 16). He seems to have gone home after advising Balak (24:25), suggesting he later returned to Midian, perhaps to try to make money (see note on 22:1—24:25).

31:13–24 Midian tried to destroy Israel, but the Lord in his justice determined that Midian be destroyed. (The Lord also executed severe punishments on his own people [14:35–37; 16:46–49; 25:9]; his justice shows no favoritism.)

31:16 See 25:1–3.

31:17–18 In the ancient world, sons and the wives who bore them carried on the male line. If a man died without sons, his wife might remarry and the firstborn would then carry on the former husband’s name (Deut 25:5–6.) The Israelites were thus to kill males and wives (lest they propagate more Midianites) but not unmarried girls, who would marry an Israelite and carry on his line (see Deut 21:10–14 for the dignity with which the Israelites must treat these women). When an entire nation is punished, the innocent within it (such as young boys in this case) often suffer as well (see note on 14:33).

31:19–24 Since those who had contact with a dead body experienced a major uncleanness (see note on 19:1–22), the army had to cleanse themselves and all they carried before coming back into the camp (see 5:2 and note; see also note on 5:1–4; for the cleansing procedures, see 19:11–22; Lev 11:32).