Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations.
Abgar VIII, 177
Abraham, 209
Accius, 37
Achilles Tatius, 140
Actium, battle of, 113
Aeneas, 29
Aeneid (Vergil), 29, 110, 125, 136, 212
Against Celsus (Origen), 148, 160
agora, 46
agriculture, 12, 14, 138, 175; armies supported by, 8, 67, 83; land shortages and, 52; religion linked to, 37; rituals and, 39; slavery and, 121; wartime disruption of, 84, 164
Agriculture, On (Cato), 81
Agrippina, 132
Alaric, 196
Alexander the Great, 4, 76, 98, 112, 126, 132
alphabet, 18
Alps, 12
Altar of Victory, 169
amicitia, 26
Ammianus Marcellinus, 6, 180–81
Amores (Ovid), 126
Anatolia, 16
Anglo-Saxons, 198
Annals (Ennius), 82
Antiochus III, 77
Antiochus IV, 149
Apennines, 12
Apicius, 120
apocalypticism, 10, 149, 150, 155, 157
Appian, 6
Appius Claudius Caecus, 60
Appius Claudius Caudex, 72
Arabia, 185
Aramaic language, 151
architecture, 15, 80, 125, 140–41, 143, 171
arenas, 9
Arianism, 184
Arius of Alexandria, 184
Armenia, 185
Ars Amatoria (Ovid), 126
art, 4, 16, 68, 80, 105, 108, 139
Asclepius, 38
Asia Minor, 76, 77, 79, 89, 98, 165; Caesar’s campaign in, 102; Christians persecuted in, 154; Sulla’s campaign in, 94, 95, 96; tax collection in, 100
assimilation, 44–46
Athaulf, 200
Athens, 46
attendants, 59
Attila, 194
auctoritas, 24
Augustine of Hippo, 169, 183, 185–86, 214
Augustus (Octavian), 10, 55, 143; achievements of, 3, 4, 110–11, 115–16, 118–20, 127; Caesar’s adoption of, 89, 103; death of, 129; emperor worship under, 133–34; historical writings on, 4, 6, 116–17; iconography of, 114–15, 116, 126; Justinian likened to, 207; as literary patron, 125; power consolidated by, 5, 9, 109, 113–14; religions persecuted by, 149–50, 158; ruthlessness of, 126, 140; in Second Triumvirate, 110, 111
Aulus Fulvius, 28
Aurelian, 165
Bacchus (Dionysus), 38
barbarians, 73, 90, 141, 148, 162, 190–201, 203, 207
Basil (“the Great”) of Caesarea, 188
baths, 9, 118–19, 143, 164, 171
Benedictine Rule, 189
Benedict of Nursia, 189
beneficia, 26
“better people,” 144
brick making, 31
bronze, 15
Brutus, Lucius Junius, 42, 48, 104
Byzantine Empire. See eastern empire
Caecilius Metellus, 80
Caesar, Julius: assassination of, 9, 89, 103, 104, 105, 109, 115; background of, 100–101; civil war precipitated by, 89, 101–2; in First Triumvirate, 89, 100; in literature, 4, 105; Pompey vs., 99, 101, 102; power consolidated by, 55, 103; writings of, 6
calendar, 103
Caligula, Gaius, 128, 129, 131, 132
Callimachus, 105
Calpurnia, 144
Campania, 12
Campus Martius, 53
capital punishment, 35, 121, 123, 144, 177, 186
Capitolium, 34
carpenters, 62
Carthage, 75, 183; conquest of, 66, 70–73; destruction of, 78, 79; rebuilding of, 103
Cassiodorus, 212–13
Cassius Dio, 6
Catilina, Lucius Sergius, 89, 99
celibacy, 157
Celsus, 160
census, 59
Centuriate Assembly, 61, 62–63
Cestius, Caius, 165
chariot racing, 35, 115, 123, 145, 203
Chariton, 140
childbearing, 144–46
child labor, 32
children: barbarian, 194; Carthaginian sacrifice of, 73; education of, 21, 32–33, 53, 124–25; legal status of, 28, 31, 45; portraits of, 108; rearing of, 24, 30, 31, 33, 83; societal role of, 120, 144–45
Christians, Christianity, 37; Arian, 184; Constantine’s conversion to, 11, 168, 169, 177, 187; diffusion of, 11, 166, 168–69; divisions within, 184–86, 204; influence of, 6; monastic, 187–89; official support for, 179–84; origins of, 149–52; pagans vs., 151, 152, 154, 176, 180, 181, 182; persecution of, 10, 147, 152–57, 160, 167, 168, 169, 176–77, 179, 204
Christmas, 37
Christogram, 178
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 30; Catiline vs., 99; Jupiter viewed by, 35; as orator, 6, 33–34, 48, 107, 124, 213; as philosopher, 9; Verres prosecuted by, 83
Cimbri, 90
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, 25, 42, 59
circumcision, 151–52
Circus Maximus, 35
citizenship, 44, 68, 103; for freed slaves, 42, 45, 48; for Italians, 86, 93–94; taxation and, 148, 164
City of God (Augustine), 185
civil engineering, 18, 46, 119–20, 125, 141
civil law, 53
civil war, 5, 9, 10, 21, 128, 148, 164; under Augustus, 115, 116; under Caesar, 55, 88, 89, 101–2; after Caesar’s death, 105, 109, 111; after Nero’s death, 132; population diminished by, 165; during Principate, 161; under Sulla, 95, 97
Civil Wars, The (Appian), 6
clanship, 200
Claudians, 127
Claudius (emperor), 129, 131–32
Claudius (tribune), 87
Claudius Pulcher, 72
Cleopatra VII, 102, 110, 111, 112, 113, 125, 158
climate, 11–12
clothing, 32, 49, 144, 187, 192, 198, 200, 203
Clovis, 201
codex, 213
cohorts, 92
coins, 23, 93, 178; debasing of, 162–63, 174; as historical source, 4; as propaganda tool, 112, 114–15, 117
Cologne, 138
coloni, 175
comedy, 80–81
Comedy of Errors, The (Shakespeare), 80
Commentaries on the Civil War (Caesar), 6
Commentaries on the Gallic War (Caesar), 6
Commodus, 163
Confessions (Augustine), 186
Conspiracy of Catiline, The (Sallust), 6
Constantine, 172, 174, 178, 179, 184; conversion to Christianity of, 11, 168, 169, 177, 187; eastward shift of, 190, 192; tetrarchy abolished by, 191–92
Constantinople, 169, 179, 183; Nika Riot in, 191, 208; scholarship in, 212–13; size and splendor of, 192, 203; Turkish conquest of, 4
Constantius II, 212
consuls, 42, 62, 64; attendants of, 59; under Dominate, 171; duties of, 54, 58; limits on, 63; new breed of, 88–89; social status of, 56
corruption, 61, 82, 83, 86, 87, 205–6
costumes, 17
councils, 28
Crassus, Marcus Licinius, 89, 99, 100, 101
crucifixion, 144, 148, 151, 152
Cyprian, 167
Cyril, 182
Dalmatian coast, 207
Damascius, 214
death masks, 108
death penalty, 35, 121, 123, 144
Decius, 167
democracy, 6
Democritus, 108
demons, 179–80
dialectic, 125
dictators, 59
Digest (of laws), 211
dignitas, 24
Diocletian, 10, 168, 169, 171–77, 185, 191–92
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 5, 14, 16, 36, 45
Dionysus (Bacchus), 38
divination, 18, 36–37, 58, 181–82
Domitian, 6, 128, 134, 141, 161, 172
Donatism, 185
Donatus, 185
earthquakes, 165
eastern empire (Byzantine Empire): barbarians in, 194, 196, 198, 199; corruption in, 205–6; cultural diversity of, 203–4; formation of, 172, 190; military ambitions of, 207–8; religious persecution in, 177, 204, 209, 211; stability of, 3–4, 11, 139–40, 191–92, 202–3
economy, 9–10, 11, 99, 148, 161–64
Edict of Milan, 177
Edict on Maximum Prices, 174
education, 21, 32–33, 53, 124–25
Egypt, 102, 111, 113, 115, 165, 185, 187, 189
Egyptian religion, 157–58
elections, 31, 43, 101; under Augustus, 113–14; under Caesar, 103; for pontifex maximus, 37; rhetoric important in, 33
engineering, 18, 46, 119–20, 125, 141
epic poetry, 82
Epicurus, 108
epidemics, 146, 148, 165, 191, 208
equestrians, 144; economic troubles facing, 99; as jurors, 86–87, 96; Marius backed by, 91; as tax collectors, 94
equity, 143
ethics, 9, 15, 107, 151, 158–59
Ethiopia, 185
Etruria, 15
Etruscans, 2, 15–18, 43; engineering work by, 46; Fabians’ attack on, 42, 51; Roman victory against, 66; Rome attacked by, 50
Eumenes, 77
Eusebius, 177
executions, 35, 121, 123, 144, 177, 186
families, 20, 28–34; religion in, 38–40; status and, 25
fasces, 59
Faunus, 180
fertility, 37
fides, 22
Fides, 23
Field of Mars, 141
Five Good Emperors, 128, 135–36
flooding, 120
food supplies, 9, 85, 86, 117, 120, 143, 165, 198
Fortuna Primigenia, 37
Franks, 201
Frederick III, 4
freedmen, freedwomen, 45
frescoes, 80
From the Foundation of the City (Livy), 5
Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A, 80–81
Galileo, 214
Gallic War, 89
Gaul, Gauls: Caesar in, 89, 100, 101; cultural interactions in, 139; Frankish conquest of, 201; in northern Italy, 75, 88, 103; pacification of, 136; Rome sacked by, 66, 68, 75; Transalpine, 132; Vandals in, 191, 198, 202; Visigoths in, 196–97
Genoa, 199
geography, 11–14
Germanic languages, 194
Germanic tribes, 10, 11, 134, 148, 161, 200; as auxiliary soldiers, 162; defenses against, 165; migrations of, 190, 195
Golden Ass, The (Apuleius), 140, 158
Gospels, 150
Gracchus, Gaius, 31, 66, 85–87, 88, 93
Gracchus, Tiberius, 31, 66, 85–87, 88
graffiti, 118
grain, 85, 86, 103, 120, 123, 174
graves, 14
gravitas, 24
Great Persecution, 176–77, 185
Greece: Caesar’s campaign in, 102; geography of, 14; as Roman province, 66, 79; Roman trade with, 15
Greek language, 140, 151, 203, 204, 214
Greeks, 2, 8, 43, 66; citizenship restricted by, 44; cultural influence of, 16–17, 68, 79–80; Flaminius’s declaration to, 76–77; legal code of, 53; religion of, 18, 34, 38; as rhetoricians, 33
group voting, 61–62
Hadrian, 128, 135, 136, 141, 182
hand-to-hand combat, 72
Han dynasty, 136
harbors, 12
Herod Antipus, 150
Herodotus, 16
Herod the Great, 149
Hillel, 151
Histories (Polybius), 5
Histories (Tacitus), 6
History of the Wars (Procopius), 6
Holy Roman Empire, 4
homosexuality, 211
hoplites, 18
Horace, 125
Horatius, 49–50
hospitals, 188
housing: in eastern provinces, 139; for the masses, 99, 118, 120; for the well-to-do, 26, 119
humanitas, 107
“humbler people,” 144
Huns, 10, 191, 193–94, 196, 198
Ignatius, 155
Iliad (Homer), 214
Indo-European languages, 14
infanticide, 28
infantry, 67–68
inflation, 9, 162–63, 164, 169, 174
inheritance, 84; taxation of, 70, 114, 164
inscriptions, 4
Institutes (textbook), 213
Institutions (Cassiodorus), 212–13
Ireland, 198
Italy, 13, 51, 69; agricultural advantages of, 8, 12, 13, 66; Caesar’s entrance into, 89, 101–2; Carthaginian invasion of, 73, 75; emperor worship disdained in, 134; Greek cities in, 15, 16, 68; Justinian’s recapture of, 207, 208; migration to, 14, 16, 42; Octavian’s control of, 111, 113; Roman conquests in, 65–68, 70, 73, 75, 79; Roman tensions with, 93; slave revolt in, 98; as trading partner, 12, 15
Janus, 38
javelins, 92–93
Jerusalem, 6, 89, 98, 128, 134, 135
Jesus Christ, 10, 147, 182, 183, 209; Arianist view of, 184; crucifixion of, 148, 151, 152; iconography of, 213; as teacher, 150
Jewish War, The (Josephus), 6
Jews, Judaism: asceticism and, 187; Christianity rooted in, 10, 149–52, 154; rebellion of, 128, 134, 135; restrictions on, 182–83; under Roman rule, 147
John Philoponus, 214
John the Baptist, 150
John the Lydian, 205
Josephus, 6
Judea, 147
judicial system, 27
Julio-Claudians, 127–29, 131, 136, 140
Jupiter, 17, 34–35, 80, 136, 157
Justin, 154
Justinian, 3; historical writings on, 6; legal reforms of, 209, 211; military victories of, 206–8; religious reforms of, 208–9, 214; reunification sought by, 1, 10, 191; wife’s influence over, 204–5
“ladder of offices,” 56, 57, 58. Cf. “cursus honorum” land reform, 85, 86
language, 142; Aramaic, 151; Germanic, 194; Greek, 140, 151, 203, 204, 214; Indo-European, 14; Latin, 44, 66, 68, 137, 138, 204, 214
Lares, 38
latifundia, 84
Latin language, 44, 66, 68, 137, 138, 204, 214
Latium, 44
Leo I, Pope, 194
Letters (Cicero), 6
Leucippus, 108
libraries, 103
lictors, 59–60
literature, 105, 107–8, 143, 191; under Augustus, 125–26; Greek, 15, 68, 140; Greek influence on, 66, 80; as historical source, 4; preservation of, 212–14; teaching of, 33
liturgy, 189
Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Suetonius), 6
Livia, 127
Livy, 5, 14, 43, 45, 52, 125–26
Lucian, 140
Lucius Aurelius Hermia, 145
Lupercalia festival, 37
Lydia, 16
Lysippus, 126
Manius Curius, 83
marble, 80
Marcellus, 181
Marcus Atilius Regulus, 83, 160
Marcus Aurelius, 128, 135, 136, 161
Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, 31–32, 78
Marius, Gaius, 89, 90–92, 93, 94, 95
Mark Antony, 110, 111, 112, 113, 125
markets, 58
marriage, 39, 120, 186; arranged, 100, 145; children as aim of, 144; homosexual, 211; “power of the father” and, 30; slavery and, 45, 121
Martin of Tours, 188–89
Masinissa, 78
mathematics, 125
medicine, 144–45
Meditations (Marcus Aurelius), 160
Mehmet the Conqueror, 4
mercenaries, 67
Merovech, 201
Merovingians, 201
Mesopotamia, 135, 136, 163, 208
Metamorphoses (Ovid), 126
Middle East, 1
Midrash, 183
Milan, 173
military: as career, 137; Christianity in, 181; cost of sustaining, 161–64, 174; divination used by, 36–37; expansion of, 9; organization of, 18; praetors in, 58; status attached to, 24; superiority of, 8, 67; upper class dependent on, 21, 53
mill work, 121
Milvian Bridge, battle of, 169, 177
mining, 121
Mithradates VI of Pontus, 89, 94, 96, 97, 98
Mithraism, 157–58
Mithridatic Wars, 94
“mixed constitution,” 5–6
monarchy: elected officials and voting assemblies during, 54–64; elimination of, 2, 8, 41; foundation of Rome and, 43–50; paucity of sources on, 3, 5; social status and political power during, 50–54; timeline of, 42
monotheism, 147
Montanus, 157
mosaics, 4, 122–23, 153, 206–7, 209, 213
mos maiorum, 22
Musonius Rufus, 160
Naevius, 80
natural law, 107
Nero, 121, 122, 129; Christians punished by, 153; fire during reign of, 132, 148; suicide of, 128
Nestorius, 184–85
New Testament, 150
Nicomedia, 173
North Africa, 1, 70, 75, 79, 97, 207; Caesar’s campaign in, 102; cultural life in, 78, 139; emperor worship in, 134; Vandals in, 198
nuns, 187–88
oblations, 189
officia, 26
Old Testament, 152
oligarchy, 6
On the Nature of Things (Lucretius), 89, 107–8
On the True Doctrine (Celsus), 160
Opimius, 87
Orations (Cicero), 6
original sin, 185
Origins, The (Cato), 81
Orosius, 6
orthodoxy, 156, 160, 184, 204, 211
Osiris, 158
Ottoman Empire, 4
Paestum, 16
paganism, polytheism, 38, 147, 167, 208; asceticism in, 160–61, 187; Christianity vs., 151, 152, 154, 176, 180, 181, 182; Constantine’s concessions to, 177, 179; diversity of, 157; literary traditions of, 212–14; moral codes in, 158; persistence of, 11, 182; as state religion, 10, 169; suppression of, 169, 211
Pantheon, 141
papacy, 183–84
Parallel Lives (Plutarch), 6
Parthenon, 182
Parthians, 101
patriarchy, 28
patricians: plebeians vs., 42, 52, 63, 69–70; political offices sought by, 55, 56, 58–59; social status of, 50, 52, 53
patron-client system, 21, 77; characteristics of, 25–27; deterioration of, 89, 92; imperial finance rooted in, 138; in military, 8–9, 96–97, 117; in political realm, 117
Paul of Tarsus, 148, 151, 156, 157
pax deorum, 36
Penates, 38
Pergamum, 76
Perpetua, 148
Perseus, 77
Peter (apostle), 183–84
Pharsalus, battle of, 102
Philip V, king of Macedonia, 75, 76
pietas, 24
Pietas (personified), 35
Plato, 160, 182, 191, 213, 214
Plautus, 80
plebeians, 50; assembly of, 61, 63, 85; economic status of, 51; in military, 53; patricians vs., 42, 52, 63, 69–70; political offices sought by, 55, 58–59; secession of, 52, 63
plebiscites, 63
Pliny (provincial governor), 148, 154
Pliny the Younger, 144
Plotinus, 160
polytheism. See paganism, polytheism
Pompey, Gnaeus, 89, 97–98, 100; Caesar vs., 99, 101, 102
Pontius Pilate, 151
Po River, 12
Porphyry, 180
Porta San Sebastiano, 165
Praetorian Guard, 110, 114, 128, 131
praetors, 58, 59–60, 62, 64, 73
prefects, 137
prenuptial agreements, 30
price controls, 174
Principate, 9, 110, 113, 129, 168
prisoners of war, 122
promagistrates, 58
property, 28; census of, 59; lawsuits over, 27, 33, 53; marriage and, 30–31; military rank dependent on, 62; as qualification for office, 55
prostitutes, 22; at banquets, 18; in cities, 84, 204; male, 211; slave, 121; stigma attached to, 31; taxation of, 131, 175
provinces, 78, 92, 128; administrators of, 82, 136, 144; under Augustus, 110, 113; corruption in, 82, 86, 87; emperor worship in, 133–34; military control of, 110, 114, 136; rebellions in, 94, 132; Romanization of, 138–39; tax revenue from, 9, 68, 72–73, 79, 87, 94, 98, 100, 136, 137, 164
Ptolemy XIII, 102
public works, 58, 60, 86, 103, 126, 138, 175
Punic Wars, 66, 71–72, 78, 83, 84
rainfall, 12
ravens, on warships, 72
relics, 187
religion, 11, 17, 20, 21, 24, 34–37; agriculture linked to, 37; apocalyptic, 10, 149, 150, 155, 157; under Augustan, 115; censors and, 59; under Diocletian, 176–77; in early Empire, 147–67; Egyptian, 157–58; in the family, 38–40; in the provinces, 138, 139; Senate control over, 55. See also Christians, Christianity; Jews, Judaism; paganism, polytheism
Remus, 43
Republic, 2–3; emergence of, 8, 42, 48; expansion during, 74, 106; marriage under, 30; patron-client system under, 27; paucity of sources on, 5; “restoration” of, 105, 109, 110, 127; wars under, 8, 65–87
Res Gestae (Augustus), 115–16
Rhodes, 75
roads, 60, 68, 69, 115, 138, 202
Roman Antiquities (Dionysius of Halicarnassus), 5
“Roman Constitution,” 41–42, 52, 54, 59, 64, 100
Roman Empire: emergence of, 3, 9, 105, 109, 110; expansion of, 130; patron-client system under, 27; shrinking of, 1; sources on, 6
Roman History (Ammianus Marcellinus), 6
Roman History (Cassius Dio), 6
“Romanization,” 138–40
Roman law, 26; class distinctions and, 27, 53, 143–44; codification of, 209, 211; influence of, 143, 201; patriarchal cast of, 28; in the provinces, 138
Romulus, 1, 42, 43, 44; intermarriage proposed by, 45–46
Russia, 4
Sabines, 46
sacrifices, 35, 36, 82, 180; under Augustus, 119; banning of, 169, 181; of Carthaginian children, 73; forced, 154, 155, 167; under Vespasian, 132–33
sacrosanctity, 63
Saguntum, 73
St. Peter’s Basilica, 169, 179
Sallust, 6
Samnites, 95–96
sanitation, 118–19
Sasanian Empire, 148, 164, 171, 202, 208
Saturnalia festival, 37
Saxons, 198
Scipio Aemilianus, 78
Scipio Nasica, 86
Scotland, 163
scribes, 213
sculpture, 16, 80, 105, 108; under Augustus, 125, 126
secession, of plebeians, 52, 63
Secret History, The (Procopius), 6, 205
sella curulis, 64
Senate, 32, 36, 83; advisory role of, 28, 54, 63, 64; under Augustus, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 127, 128; Caesar vs., 101, 102; dictators chosen by, 59; under Dominate, 171; enlargement of, 54–55, 103, 132; equestrians vs., 87; food supply overseen by, 85; foreign policy role of, 90–91, 94; imperialism aided by, 79; influence of, 55–56, 96; in “ladder of offices,” 42, 90; Pompey’s disregard of, 98; under Principate, 113–14; during Punic Wars, 72, 73, 75, 78; Republican restoration sought by, 131–32; senators’ avoidance of prosecution, 86
Seneca, 159
Septimius Severus, 122, 148, 163
Seven Books of History against the Pagans (Orosius), 6
sewage, 118
Sicily, 12, 15, 66, 70–73, 88, 97, 207
Sidonius Apollinaris, 197
silk trade, 203
silver mining, 75
Simplicia, 186
Sirmium, 173
slaves, 18; Christianity and, 148, 156, 186; defeated peoples as, 68, 96, 136–37; as farm workers, 84; freed, 27, 45, 48, 121–22, 132; houses cleaned by, 119; legal status of, 28, 144; as private tutors, 32; revolts of, 88, 121; rituals involving, 39; at Saturnalia, 37–38; women’s oversight of, 30, 83
slingers, 137
Solomon, 209
Spain, 75, 98, 102, 134, 175, 191, 197, 207
Spice Road, 202–3
spirits, 179–80
Stoicism, 107, 158–60, 161, 180
Struggle of the Orders, 42, 52, 63, 69–70
Suetonius, 6
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius: career ladder regulated by, 56, 58; Pompey vs., 97–98; proscriptions by, 96, 99, 111; ruthlessness of, 90, 94–95; Senate enlarged by, 54–55
Symeon, 187
synagogues, 182
Syrian War, 77
Talmuds, 183
taxation, 11, 207; by Caligula, 131; census and, 59; citizenship and, 148; 174; under “Five Good Emperors,” 136; on inheritances, 70, 114, 164; “in kind,” 174; on land, 137, 174, 175; of male prostitutes, 211; in provinces, 9, 68, 72–73, 79, 94, 87, 100, 136, 137, 164; regulation of, 98; resistance to, 94, 202, 208; on trade, 138; by Visigoths, 197
temples, 16, 17, 36, 60; architecture of, 34–35; closing of, 182; maintenance of, 58; marble, 80; as status symbols, 83
tenant farmers, 175
Ten Commandments, 35
Terence, 80
Tertullian, 154
Teutoburg Forest, 114
Teutones, 90
Theater of Marcellus, 123
Thecla, 157
Theodora, 6, 191, 204–5, 206–7, 208, 209
Theodoric the Great, 199
Theodosius, 169, 181–82, 196, 197
Tiberius, 127, 128, 129, 131, 137
Tiber River, 12
tin, 15
toga, 31
trade, 12, 15, 18, 70, 136, 138, 203
Trajan, 128, 135, 136, 138, 141, 143, 154
Transalpine Gaul, 132
treason, 28
treaties, 68
Tribal Assembly of the People, 61, 64
Tribal Assembly of the Plebeians, 61, 63, 85, 96
tribunes, 63–64
trinitarianism, 184
Triumvirates: First, 89, 100; Second, 110, 111
Trojans, 43
Trojan Wars, 14
Ultimate Decree, 87
upper class, 21, 25, 26–27; Caesar overthrown by, 103, 105; communal well-being sacrificed by, 97; consulships sought by, 54; divisions within, 87–88; economic troubles facing, 99; during Empire, 131; monarchy vs., 44, 48, 49–50; plunder gained by, 70, 73, 79, 83, 84; political dominance of, 42, 49; public service by, 137
urbanization, 8, 18, 68–69, 85, 99, 117–18
Valerius, Publius, 50–51
values, 20–27
Venus, 115
Vespasian, 119, 122, 128, 132–34
Vesta, 36
Vestal Virgins, 36
veto, 63
Veturia, 145
Vibia Perpetua, 155
Victory (goddess), 181
villas, 83
Vipsania, 129
virginity, 186
virtus, 22
voting assemblies, 41; Caesar’s supporters in, 103; complexity of, 43, 61; diminished power of, 89, 114, 131; foreign policy role of, 70, 79; limits on, 62, 63; types of, 61, 64; voting rights in, 68, 94
wage controls, 174
Wales, 198
wall paintings, 17
War with Jugurtha, The (Sallust), 6
“way of the elders,” 64, 88, 97
Wergild, 201
women, 21, 45–46; barbarian, 194; baths for, 119; Christianity open to, 148, 150, 152, 183; Christian subordination of, 156–57; at dinner parties, 18; in eastern empire, 204; expectations for, 22, 24; as gladiators, 122; legal status of, 30–31; as martyrs, 155; political influence of, 31–32; portraits of, 108; sexual restrictions on, 36, 204; as slaves, 121; slaves overseen by, 30, 83; in workforce, 31
Xiongnu, 194
“Year of the Four Emperors,” 132
Zama, battle of, 75
Zenobia, 165
Zeno of Citium, 158