Abundance change, 30, 108, 185–87
Chinook Salmon, 46–47
and extinctions. See Extinction
gopher, 186
historical data. See Historical data
mountain beaver, 185–86
mountain quail, 111–12
during Pleistocene–Holocene transition, 185, 186, 187
grassland species, 125–29
small mammals, 185–87
Academic researchers/scientists, partnership with, 3, 12, 105, 137
Adaptation, 166–67, 181–82, 213. See also Evolutionary adaptation
coastal upwelling regions, 55–56
desert birds, 113. See also Birds
distribution shifts, See Range shifts
genetics and life-history diversity, 30, 85
Mediterranean-type ecosystems, 31
phenology shifts, 29
range shifts. See Range shifts
riparian vegetation, 84–85
trophic interactions and asynchrony, 29
Adaptation planning, 1, 2, 6–11, 122, 123–33.
assessing climate-related risks 2–10, 165
case study examples 59–60, 119–20.
constraints and challenges, 8–11, 91, 137–38
fisheries management, 73
management approaches, designing and updating 5–11, 91, 137–39
Adaptive potential, 164, 174, 180, 213
of invasive species, 162–63
and rapid evolution, 163
Adaptive potential, evaluation of, 166–67
gene flow potential assessment, 170
genetically based variability, 168
genetic variation, 168
Adaptive processes, 162–63
Agricultural areas, 34, 158. See also Grazing
Alongshore currents
current velocity, 49
modeling, 48
Alpine meadows. See Meadow ecosystems
Ambrosia dumosa, 119
Ambystoma californiense, 169
Anadromous salmonids, 75–78, 85–86, 213
adaptive capacity of, 76
health of, 86
life history of, 76
genetic diversity of, 76–77
species viability of, 76
taxonomy, 78
Anadromous salmonids, climate change effects on, 75, 76, 77
behavioral response to temperature rise, 81
estuarine habitats, 82–83
river habitats, 79–82
salmonid embryo and juvenile survival, 82
stressors, 78–79
thermal refugia, 81–82
Anadromous salmonids, conservation strategies for, 86, 91–92
coordination of efforts, 91
genetic diversity enhancement, 85
habitat improvement, 83–85
Arid ecosystems
biological responses to climate change in, 109
precipitation in, 32
Average annual temperature. See also Global temperature rise
rise in, 21–22
BCCA (Bias-Corrected Constructed Analogues), 21
BCSD (Bias Correction and Spatial Downscaling), 21
Behavior, and climate change, 30, 166
BICCCA (Biological Impacts of Climate Change in California), 3
Biogeography
definition of, 108
of species, 107
Biological systems, resilience of, 191–92
Birds, association between range edge and temperature, 189
changes in abundance, 111
changes in body mass and wind length, 30
changes in distribution 27, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115, 119
changes in life-history events of, 29
changes in phenology, 29
changes in reproductive success, 43, 46, 113
habitat selection and territoriality, 108
importance of, 115
physiological adaptation, 113
Bumble bees
climate-driven changes in, 94
competition for nest sites, 94–95
as pollinators, 94
population models of montane. See Montane bumble bee communities, population models of
sensitivity to climatic conditions, 95
in Sierra Nevada mountain, 94
communities, population models of montane changes in temperature and season length, 100
climate and weather model, 97–98
community structure and size, 98, 100
early season temperatures and resources, 100
late-emerging species, 100–101
meadows and species pool, 96
model of nest growth, 97
overwinter mortality, 97
size of nest, 97
spatial model of migration, 96
temperature and precipitation patterns, 97–98
Butterfly, change in distribution, 27
host plant asynchrony, 29
California
climatic regions, 17
communities and economy, 17
downscaling applied in, 20–21
fossil sites, 184
precipitation changes in, 32
California, changing climate of, 21–24
extreme events, 23
impact on flora and fauna, 28–31
natural systems vulnerability to, 17–18
precipitation patterns, 22
rise in average temperatures, 21–22
sea level rise, 22–23
severity of, 21
wildfires with, 34
California Climate Change Assessment, 3
California Current System (CCS), 43
calcareous exoskeletons or shells, 55
climatic events and primary productivity of, 44
Euphausia pacifica response modeling.
See Euphausia pacifica modeling in CCS
regional modeling studies of, 44
warmer atmospheric conditions, 55
California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 73, 179–80
California Tiger Salamander, 169
Captive breeding, 173
Carbonate concentrations and coral reefs, 33
Carbon cycling and storage, 142, 143, 146, 151–58
Carbon dioxide, atmospheric increased, 32. See also Greenhouse gases, atmospheric
climate sensitivity 19
impact on California Current System (CCS), 54
impact on vegetation, 32–33
and ocean chemistry, 33
uptake by ocean and land ecosystems, 20
water-use efficiency and, 32–33
Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization, 32–33
Carbon pools and fluxes, 142–45
Carbon sink, 20
Carbon storage. See Carbon cycling and storage
Cattle. See Grazing
cDNA (complementary DNA) microarray, 63, 213
conservation strategies, 85
estuarine residency, 83
risk factors for, 165
survival of, 82
temperatures critical to survival of, 80
Chinook Salmon Sacramento Index, 46
Climate change, 18
adaptation to. See Adaptation
effect on California’s natural systems, 17–18
and emission scenarios. See Emission scenarios impact on ecosystems, 27–28
Climate change effects, 27–28, 184. See also Specific species
on anadromous salmonids, 75–82. See also Anadromous salmonids
abundance 183, 184, 190, 191. See also Abundance changes
arid ecosystems, 109
asynchrony of life-cycle events, 29
on bird distributions. See Birds
on bumble bees. See Bumble bees
categories, 184–85
coastal upwelling regions, 44–45, 55–56
distribution shifts. See Range shifts
elevational shift. See Elevation shifts
estuarine habitats of salmonid, 82–83
on Euphausia pacifica. See Euphausia pacifica
extinction. See Extinction
on grasslands. See Grasslands, California
making decisions to address, 2
on meadow ecosystems. See Meadow ecosystems
morphologic change, 188–89, 190
phenology changes. See Phenology
planning adaptation for. See Adaptation planning
on purple sea urchin. See Purple sea urchin
range shift, See Range shifts
on red sea urchin. See Red sea urchin
river habitats of salmonid, 79–81
speciation, 189–90
trophic interactions, 29
Climate change, incorporating into natural resource management. See Natural resource management
Climate change projections
downscaling. See Downscaling
factors influencing, 18
Climate-induced extirpations and extinctions. See Extinction
Climate models, 18, 19, 34, 55, 96–97, 129
precipitation patterns, 22
rise in average annual temperature, 22
Climate-related trait variation, 167
Climatic driving forces, 28, 34–35
atmospheric carbon dioxide, increased, 32–33
fire. See Fire
precipitation changes, 31–32
sea-level rise, 33
snowpack and runoff, 33–34
temperature change. See Temperature change, species response to
Clouds, 20
Coastal ecosystem, California 23, 67
management regions, 73
near-shore, 69
Coastal food web, 55–56
Coastal ocean simulation, 45
Coastal upwelling regions, 43, 62, 68
fish catch in, 44
nutrients, 44
productivity of, 44
surface waters within, 44
upwelled nutrients, 44
upwelling-favorable winds, 53, 55
wind strength in, 44
Coastal upwelling regions, climate change impact on, 44
food web response, 55–56
ocean ecosystem response, 55
prey species, 45
species-specific response, 55
Coho salmon
life history, habitat used, and habitat characteristics of, 76–77
temperatures critical to survival of, 80
Collaborations for climate change management, 12
adaptive management approach, 4
challenges of, 4
dealing with bias, 4
need for, 3–4
resource management plans, 4
Communication skills and partnerships, 3
Community change, 190. See also Abundance change
climatic drivers of, 28–34
management approaches, 91–92
within meadows. See Meadow restoration
Community dynamics, 93
changes with temperature, 97–98, 100
community structure and size, 98, 100
grasslands, 128–34
late-emerging species, 100–101
meadows and species pool, 93, 95, 96
model of, 97
nest growth, 97
climate and weather model, 97–98
spatial of migration, 96
nest size, 97
overwinter mortality, 97
Conservation and management priorities
carbon storage, 158
and climate change information, challenge in linking, 137–38
disturbance and perturbation, restricting, 120
evolutionary considerations, 180–82
and plans, 138–39
for salmonids, 83–85
strategic planning decisions for, 137
Coral reefs, 33
Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary (CBNMS)
goals of, 59
working group, 60
Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary, climate change impact on
hindrances to manage, 60
Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ), 59–60
regional ocean community, 59
responding to, 60
Cross-shelf current
surface current velocity, 49
modeling, 48
Cylindropuntia bigelovii, 119
Dams and climate change, 83–85
“Decision-critical” science, 2
Decision-makers and scientists, 3
Deep Canyon Transect, 109–10, 120
Demographic constraints, 164
Desert Bighorn sheep, 169
Desert species, elevational shifts of, 113. See also Arid ecosystems; Range shifts
Diel vertical migration, 48, 214
Distributions. See Range shifts
Domesticated fishes, 214
Dosidicus gigas. See Jumbo squid
Downscaling, 20–21
Droughts, 8, 20, 22, 23, 109, 113, 119, 123, 143, 151–52
and precipitation, 31–33
Easements, 138–40
Ecological responses to climate change, 122, 137
Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management (EBFM), 53–54
Ecosystems
arid. See Arid ecosystems
coastal. See Coastal ecosystem
key vulnerabilities of, 119–20
management of, 180–81
meadow. See Meadow ecosystems
non-climate human-caused influences on, 28
Ecosystem-scale assessments, 53
Elevational shifts, 119. See Range shifts
cumulative elevational distributions, 112
Deep Canyon Transect, 109–10
in southern California desert region, 107
mountain quail, 111
short-term climate fluctuations, 115
species abundance, 112
species categorization, 111
temperature and precipitation data, 112–13
Emission scenarios
Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP), 18–19
temperature responses to, 19–20
Encelia farinosa, 119
Estuarine habitats of salmonid, climate change effect on
eutrophication, 82
saltwater intrusion, 83
Euphausia pacifica, 44–46, 51, 53
modeling in California Current System (CCS). See Euphausia pacifica modeling in California Current System (CCS)
role in food web, 44
Euphausia pacifica modeling in California Current System (CCS), 45–53
Eutrophication, 214
Evolution, 214. See also Evolutionary adaptation and biodiversity, 162
factors influencing rate of, 173
morphologic, 189
rapid, 162–63
of temperature increase, 19
Evolutionarily minded management, 164
Evolutionary adaptation, 161, 172, 174
case studies, 169–70
importance of, 162
invasive species, 162–63
long-term studies on, 162
risk factor assessment, 165
to climate change, 164
Evolutionary adaptation, constraints to, 164, 180
behavioral responses, 166
demographic, 164
mating system and life history, 166
Evolutionary adaptation management approaches
adaptive potential evaluation, 166–68, 170
captive breeding, 173
climate-related traits, identifying variation in, 167
future responses evaluation, 166–67
gene flow and migration, 171–73
population restoration, 173
prioritizing populations, 171
species hybridization, 174
Evolutionary processes
adaptive, 113
constraints to, 166
techniques for estimating, 168
theoretical and quantitative underpinnings of, 162
usage in climate change management, 174–75
Evolutionary traps, 166
Extinction, 27, 28, 31, 32, 70, 77, 79, 82, 162, 164, 190, 199, 205
global extinction of lizards, 31
Extreme events, 23
Fire, 21, 32, 34, 120, 167, 199–200
Fisheries management, 53–54, 73, 85
Fishery seasons, 55–56
Food limitation and krill population, 51
Food web response, 55–56
Forest Service, 91–92, 105–6, 119–20, 180–81
Fossil record.
ancient DNA (aDNA) studies, 187–88
methods to examine, 186
morphologic change, 188–89
range shifts, 189
significance of, 183–84
speciation within, 189–90
Fragmentation. See Habitat fragmentation and disturbance
Gene clones, 214
Gene expression, 214
purple sea urchin. See Purple sea urchin gene expression
Gene flow, 170, 214. See also Evolution; Natural Selection
General Circulation Models (GCMs), 17, 18
development of, 19
downscale projection of, 20–21
Genetic change. See also Evolution; Natural selection
ancient DNA (aDNA) studies, 187–88
definition of, 187
Genetic load, 214
Genetic variation, 170, 214. See also Evolution; Natural Selection
Global temperature rise, 1, 18, 20–23, 27, 29–30, 34, 35, 62–70, 80, 91, 95, 108–9, 113, 119, 164, 167, 169, 189, 191, 201. See also Average annual temperature
anthropogenic warming, 18–20, 35
atmospheric water vapor, 19
distributional patterns, 108. See also Range shifts
elevation-based studies, 108–9. See also Elevational shifts
emission scenarios, 19–20. See also Emission scenarios
extinctions. See Extinction
impacts of, 18, 20, 22, 23, 27, 28, 32, 54
species responses. See Temperature change, species responses
Gopher, abundance change in, 186
Grasslands, California
biological diversity, 123, 126, 129–32
characteristics of, 122
composition of, 123, 126, 128, 130–32
economic and cultural importance of, 122
exotic-dominated systems, 123
landowner challenges, 138–39
linking information on future climatic conditions to, 137–38
native and exotic species, 123, 133, 138–39
management and monitoring of, 123, 137–38
patterns of succession, 123
physiology-based mechanisms, 123
plant species richness, 134
primary production of, 123, 127–30
rainfall effects on, 123, 125–30
Grasslands, restoration of California, 153–54
benefits and approaches, 157–58
impediments to, 157
prioritization of sites, 157–58
Grazing, 138–40
Greenhouse gas concentrations, atmospheric. See also Carbon dioxide, atmospheric
climate sensitivity, 19
emission scenarios, 18
and global temperature, 19–20
projections of, climate, oceans and terrestrial systems, 18
Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary (GFNMS), 60
Habitat fragmentation and disturbance, 6, 28, 30, 35, 62, 70, 179
bees, 100
Chinook salmon, 165
fish, 84
urbanization of desert, 115
Historical data, 109–12, 199–200
components of, 201
contemporary monitoring using, 207–8
importance of access to, 209–10
phenological data, 209
potential for bias, 206
repeatability of, 208–9
sampling gradients of variation from, 209
significance of, 197–98
storage, 210
systematic occurrence, 203
work on American pika, 198
Historical data, considerations for using
information content, 206
occupancy modeling, 207
presence and non-detection data, 206
“presence-only” data, 206
resurvey studies, 204–5
unbiased inference, 206–7
Historical data, sources of
baseline data, 198
field notes, 202
historical land-use and land-cover data, 203–4
monthly grids, 203
museum-based specimens, 201–2
original surveys, 201
weather monitoring stations, 202–3
Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), range shifts between, 189
Hybridization, 173
Inbreeding depression, 168
Individual-based model
growth pattern, 45
POPCYCLE structure, 47
population biology simulation, 45
seeding, 48
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 9–10, 18–19, 23
Fifth Assessment Report, 23
range for climate sensitivity, 19
Special Report on Emission Scenarios, 18
Intertidal species, factors affecting distributions of, 70
Invasive species, 4, 7–8, 11, 30, 138, 139, 153, 157, 180
adaptive potential of, 162–63
biological invasions, 133, 134
historical data, 199–200
plant composition, 141–54
rapid evolutionary change and, 163, 174
Joshua tree, 169
Jumbo squid, 59
Klamath Basin Coordinating Council, 91
Klamath Basin Restoration Act of 2010, 91
Klamath River basin, salmonid in. See Anadromous salmonids
Krill. See also Euphausia pacifica
bioenergetics, 45
life stages and currents, 45, 48
population biology, 45
starvation location, 51–52
Land-cover change by biological invasion, 142
Landscape-scale ecological research, 133
Land-use and land-cover change, 142
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), 188
and Holocene, range shifts between, 189
Leases and conservation easements, 138–40
Litter productivity, 145–47
Mammals, influence of climate change on, 184
biotic change, 190
extinction, 190
genetic change, 187–88
morphologic change. See Morphologic change
during Pleistocene–Holocene transition, 185, 186
Management approaches, designing and updating 5–11, 91, 137–39
Management, evolutionary, 164
alternatives, 161
evolutionary considerations into, 180–82
issues and agencies, 181
perspectives and tools, 174–75
Managers. See Natural resource managers
Marine ecosystems, California
biogeography, 73
environmental complexity of, 69–70
ocean acidification impact on, 73
physiological effects, 69
Marine ecosystems, ocean warming impact on California’s
purple sea urchin. See Purple sea urchin gene expression
spatial patterns of environmental variation, 62–63
Marine protected areas (MPAs), 55, 70
temperature gradients for, 73
Marine spatial planning and policy, climate change consideration for, 73
Marine systems, distribution shifts in, 30. See also California’s marine ecosystems; Coastal upwelling regions
Mating system, 166
Meadow ecosystems, 93
conifer encroachment, 105
degradation and bumble bee communities, 95
factors guiding restoration priorities for, 105
montane
elevational shifts of, 113
phenology and bees, 95
with restored hydrology, 94
stream incision impact on, 94
Meadow restoration, 94
bumble bee community dynamics and migration, 95–101
importance of, 101–2
vulnerabilities and priorities for conservation, 105–6
Mediterranean-type ecosystems, global temperature rise impact on, 31
Miocene horse lineage, speciation within, 189
Monitoring using historical data, 207–8
Monitoring plans, climate change, 138–39
Montane meadow systems. See Meadow ecosystems
Morphologic change, 188–89
Mountain beaver, abundance change in, 185–86
Mountain quail, 111
National Park Service, 143, 180–81
Natural resource management, 2, 6, 86, 120, 198. See also Collaborations for climate change management; Natural resource managers; Conservation and management priorities
and carbon storage. See Carbon cycling and storage
California’s coastal, 44, 53–55, 59
constraints in, 91
disturbance and perturbation, restricting, 120
evolutionary considerations into, 180–82
and plans, 138–39
and research communities, bridge between, 3–4, 91–92
restoration component of, 133
for salmonids, 83–85
strategic planning for, 137
vulnerable ecosystems, 120
Natural resource managers, 5, 208. See also Natural resource management
comments by, 59–60, 73, 91–92, 105–6, 119–20, 137–39, 157–58, 180–82
conservation efforts, 86, 161, 163–64
and conservation practitioners, 3, 101
intra-annual flexibility for, 138
roles and responsibilities of, 92
Natural selection, 163, 164, 166, 174–75, 214. See also Evolution
Net primary production, 33, 124, 151
“No-analogue” communities, 29
Non-climate human-caused influences, 28
Nonnative grass invasion, 29, 142
carbon pools and fluxes, comparison of, 142–50
causes of, 142
drop in ecosystem carbon storage with, 143, 150
land-cover change and, 142
managing soil carbon loss with, 153–54
Nutrient-Phytoplankton-Zooplankton-Detritus (NPZD) model, 45
Occupancy modeling, 207
Ocean chemistry
and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 33
ocean acidification, 33, 60, 73
Ocean ecosystem response, 55
Ocean warming impact on marine species assumptions, 62
purple sea urchin. See Purple sea urchin gene expression
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. See Chinook salmon
Opuntia basilaris, 119
Ovis canadensis nelsoni, 169
Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ), 59–60
Pacifastacus fortis, 169
Pacific salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.), climate change impact on, 76
Paleoclimate change, biotic responses to, 184
abundance change, 185–87
categories, 184–85
extinction, 190
genetic change, 187–88
morphologic change, 188–89
overall biotic change, 190
range shift, 189
speciation, 189–90
Partnerships and communication skills, 3
Phenology, 34, 122, 126, 162, 197
data, 209–10
and ocean conditions, 55
plant groups, 132
pollinators and plants, 101
responses to climate change, 29
Phenotype, 215
Phenotypic plasticity, 167, 168, 215
Photic zone, 215
Pleistocene–Holocene transition, abundance change during, 185
gopher, 186
mountain beaver, 185–86
outcome within individual species, 186
Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, 190
Pollinators
benefits to, 106
and plant phenologies, 101
Population change, 28–34, 185–87, 190. See also Abundance change
Populations, active management of, 192
Prairie annual plant genetic variation, 166
Precipitation changes, 21, 22, 31, 119, 138–39
in arid systems, 32
desert species response to, 109–15
and droughts, 31–32
ecological changes and, 137
experiments and rainfall amendment, 124–34
extreme events and, 23
impact on ecosystems, 31
impact on grasslands, 123–33
in Northern Sierra, 97–98
and salmonid embryo, 82
snowpack and runoff with, 33
Prey species and climate-driven ocean conditions, 45, 53
Ptychoramphus aleuticus. See Cassin’s auklet
Purple sea urchin
algal grazing by, 64
biogeographic range of, 63–64
genetic relatedness of, 69
importance of, 61
response to climate change, 69–70
Purple sea urchin gene expression, 61–62
across area around Point Conception, 69
cDNA microarrays for, 63
“climate envelope” model and, 68
coastal upwelling role in, 68
environmental variation impact on, 64, 67, 69
Fogarty Creek, 67
geographic patterns of, 66–68
habitat temperatures and, 66–68
and Mytilus californianus mussels, 68
similarity of, 69
tissue collection and field temperature data, 65
Purple sea urchin gene expression, custom cDNA microarrays for
construction of, 64–65
microarray hybridization, 65–66
relationships among, 66–67
Rainfall seasonality, variation in, 138. See also Precipitation changes.
Range shifts, 27, 29, 30, 62–63, 108–9, 111, 112–15, 189, 199, 205
Rapid evolution
and adaptive lessons from invasive species, 163
to changing conditions, 162
response to climate change, 69–70
Regional Circulation Models (RCMs)
dynamic and time-varying inputs, 20
Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) emission scenarios
range of, 18
vs. Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) emission scenarios, 18
Resource managers. See Natural resource managers
Restoration
populations, 173
prioritizing locations in grasslands, 157–58
River habitats of salmonid, climate change effect on changes in water temperatures, 79–80
exacerbation, 80
stream and river sections along coast, 80
streamflow pattern alteration, 81
water temperatures and flows in streams, 81
Rockfish populations and OMZ, 59–60
Rooftop restorations, 158
Salmonids. See also Chinook Salmon; Coho Salmon
anadromous. See Anadromous salmonids
conservation strategies, 83–85
habitats and climate change, 79–83
suitability of rivers for supporting, 76
Savanna, 133
Science and values, integration of, 2
Scientists and decision-makers, partnership barriers, 3
Sea level rise
causes of, 22–23
effects on California, 33
and estuarine habitats, 82–83
extremes in, 23
factors influencing magnitude of, 23
with warmer temperature, 33
Seasonal temperature, 22
Shallow subtidal species, 68
factors affecting distributions of, 70
Shasta Crayfish, 169
Single-species techniques, 53
Smoltification, 215
Snowpack and runoff
in alpine systems, 34
mountains in Northern California, 34
with precipitation changes, 33–34
Soil
carbon pool storage, 143, 145, 146
collar, 215
differences in soil properties, 149–50
litter productivity, 145–47
moisture, 149–50
temperature, 152
Sonoran Desert, 119
Special Report on Emission Scenarios, 18
Speciation, 189–90
Species, 162. See also Specific names
abundance, changes in. See Abundance change
adaptations to changes. See Adaptation; Evolution.
distributional patterns and climate change. See Range shifts
extinctions. See Extinction
extirpations. See Extinction
hybridization. See Hybridization
invasion. See Invasive species
tolerance to environments, 162
Species range change. See Abundance change; Range shifts
Spring temperatures, 22
Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) emission scenarios
range of, 18
vs. Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) emission scenarios, 18
temperature responses to, 19–20
Statistical downscaling, 20–21
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. See Red sea urchin
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. See Purple sea urchin
Structured decision-making, 2
Surface waters
phytoplankton in, 44
primary productivity in, 44
within upwelling regions, 44
Sustainable Fisheries Act (SFA) of 1996, 54
Temperature change, species response to, 17–18, 28, 91, 95, 164, 167, 169. See also Global temperature rise; Temperature change, warming
behavior and genetics, 30
California’s marine ecosystems, 62–70
distribution shifts, 28–30
elevational shifts. See Elevational shifts
emission scenarios, 19–20
Mediterranean-type ecosystems, 31
phenology shifts, 29. See also Phenology
range shifts, 189
river habitats of salmonid, 79–82
trophic interactions and asynchrony, 29
water, 81
Temperature change, warming, 201. See also Temperature change, species response to
fire, 34
snowpack and runoff, 33–34
Temperature gradients, marine protected areas, 73
Temperature rise. See Global temperature rise
Template for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Management Options (TACCIMO), 91
Thermal refugia, 81–82
Trophic interactions and asynchrony, 29
Uma inornata, 119
University of California Natural Reserve System, 158
Upper trophic level marine populations, dramatic changes to, 46
Upwelling. See Coastal upwelling regions
U. S. Forest Service. See Forest Service
Vegetation
Deep Canyon Transect, 110
historical data, 205
Vegetation composition, changes in
and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 32–33
changes in grasslands, 142, 144–53
ecological change, 137
with elevational shift in breeding birds, 113, 115
and fire, 34
riparian, 84–86
Water-use efficiency and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 32–33
Weather, variability in, 119, 137–38
Wieslander Vegetation Type Mapping Project, 204
Wildfires. See Fires
Wind patterns and physical attributes of water, 44
Wind strength, 44
Winter temperatures, rise in, 22
Yucca brevifolia, 169