Henry V, king of England, 875
heresthetics, 164–65
heritability, see genetic theories
Herman Miller furniture, 199, 221
heroic leadership, 580–81
Hersey and Blanchard:
critique of, 519–20
efforts to improve, 520–21
life cycle theory of leadership, 59
and managerial grid, 519–20
popularity of, 522
prescriptions in, 516–17
situational leadership theory (SLT), 511, 516–22
Herzl, Theodore, 605
Hesburgh, Father Theodore, 657–58
Hewlett-Packard, 728, 787, 856, 902, 1109
hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), 73
hierarchy of effectiveness, 1192
High School Characteristics Index, 755
Hillman, Sidney, 736
Hindenburg, Paul von, 193
Hirohito, emperor of Japan, 193
historiometric approach, 71
Hitler, Adolf, 10, 56, 131, 177, 193, 233, 281, 331, 339–40, 385, 593, 605, 710, 822
Hofstede indexes, 984–86, 1025–26
Holocaust, 609
homosexuality, 978
Hong Kong:
collectivism in, 1010
economic development of, 993, 996, 1000
long-term orientation in, 1012
management practices in, 995
Hoover, Herbert, 579, 620, 705, 713
Hoover, J. Edgar, 869n
hope, 1070
Hopkins, Ann, 935
Hopkins, Harry, 704
hostile takeovers, 887
Houghton, James, 221
HSBC, 699
hubris, 234
Hughes Aircraft, 459
humanism, 294
humanity, 221
humanizing, 1165–66
human moment, 857
human relations, 294
Hunt’s Paragraph Completion Test, 434
Hurricane Katrina, 341, 832, 1188
Hussein, Saddam, 231, 234, 440, 622, 883, 894, 993
Hutchins, Robert, 597
Hutchinson, Thomas, 33
hypercompetitiveness, 698
hypervigilance, 820
hypocrisy, 232
hypothesis testing, 1172–73
Hyundai, 996
Iacocca, Lee, 49, 210, 440, 597, 605, 973
assessment and appraisal in, 1125, 1129, 1149, 1151
and downsizing, 737
teleworkers, 856–57
as Theory Z firm, 728
turnaround of, 409–10, 451, 458
Work Values Survey, 983, 984–86, 1026
idealists, 621
idealized influence (II), 581, 620, 1191
ideal leader, 398, 547–49, 923
future research on, 1191
in groups, 767
and personal power, 266–67
process of, 588–90
and stress, 838
identity confusion, 589–90
ideographic leadership, 28
ideological beliefs, 470
idiosyncrasy credit, 379–80
I-E Scale, 187
image building, 615–16
imagination, 116
immediate task demands, 451–52
Immelt, Jeffrey, 459
impersonal leadership, 29
implicit theories of leadership (ILTs), 47–48
impression management, 164, 411–12, 613–16
inactive leadership, see laissez-faire leadership
in-basket tests, 1125
in-basket training, 1074–75
indexes of change, 75
India:
beliefs in, 1013
charismatics in, 594
compensation in, 1004
economic development of, 994
elite class in, 1058
entrepreneurship in, 1011
family control in, 999
leadership in, 1023
management traits in, 1024
multinationals in, 1042
origins of leaders in, 997
overseas family ownership, 989
role conflicts in, 1016–17
wealth as motivator in, 1012
within-country differences, 996
Indian (Asian) Americans, 969
Indians (Native Americans), 969–72
indigenous leaders, 28
individualized charisma, 580
individualized consideration (IC), 622, 1192
individualized leadership, 428, 499
individuation, 129–30
Indonesia, 1022
industrial democracy, 310–16
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), 597, 736
industry, 88
inferiority, 89
influence:
constraints on, 212–13
ethical principles of, 203
tactics of, 163, 336–37, 401–2
upward, 410–15
information:
access and distribution of, 865–66
filtered, 413
informational justice, 225, 226–27
information management, 610–11
information overload, 117
information processing, 67
information revolution, 1164
information technology (IT), see technology
inhibitors, 413
initiation of structure, 540
alignment with objectives, 568–69
differences in function and task, 566
leaders in the middle of, 566–67
national differences in, 1037–38
organizational contingencies on, 565–66
situational factors in, 554–55
training in, 1104–5
initiative, 87
inner circle vs. outer circle, 284
innovation, 116, 643–44, 655, 793–94, 801–2, 1185–86
Inouye, Daniel, 968
inspirational leadership, 580, 624
behavior of, 606–8
charismatic leadership compared to, 606–17
future research on, 1190–91
Golem effect, 613
image building, 615–16
impression management by, 613–16
information management by, 610–11
intellectual stimulation, 616–17
management of meaning by, 608–9
molding followers’ expectations, 611
Pygmalion and Galatea effects, 612–13
vision, 616
inspirational motivation (IM), 620
institutions, see organizations
instrumentality, 755
instrumental leadership, 368, 501–2, 628
instrumental values, 167
integrated cognitive and behavioral models and theories, 66–67
Integrated Voice Response (IVR), 858
integrative style, 340
intellectual stimulation, 616–17, 620–22, 787, 1191–92
and ability, 99
creative, 111
general, 110
optimal, 116–17
practical, 110–11
social, 123–24
interaction, leadership as effect of, 21
interactional justice, 225, 226–27
interaction and social learning theories, 60–63
interaction potential, 840
Interaction Process Analysis, 957–58
interdependence effects, 276
interests, use of term, 220–21
interlocking company directorates, 726
International Personality Item Pool (IPIP), 634
International Red Cross, 980
International Research Group on Democracy in Europe (IDE), 1031–32
international strategic alliances, 1042
interpersonal attractiveness, 848
interpersonal competency, 118–20
interpersonal relations, 486–87
intraclass correlation, 73
intrapreneurs, 338
introversion-extroversion, 86–87, 121
Inuits, 969–72
Inupiat, 971–72
inventors, 30
Iran, U.S. hostages in, 334, 713, 824
Iran-Contra affair, 285
Iranian-Iraqi war, 387
Iraq, war in, 208, 231, 234, 285, 339, 380, 410, 715, 796, 894, 993–94
Iriarte, Heinrich, 22
Irish potato famine, 229
Iroquois people, 969
Isabella of Spain, 899
Islamic concepts, 990–91
Israel:
entrepreneurship in, 1011
government agencies in, 732
immigrants to, 767
and Mideast conflicts, 331, 616, 1159
military leadership in, 12, 602, 612, 613, 754, 835
Yom Kippur War, 835
issue management, 1166
Italian Americans, 972–73
Italy:
leadership in, 1021
management traits in, 1024
multinationals in, 1042
need for achievement in, 1011
postwar changes in, 999
within-country differences, 996
women in, 1001
in World War II, 710
jackass theory, 384–85
Jackson, Andrew, 158, 704, 706, 708, 711
Jackson, Jesse, 331, 593, 950, 952
Japan:
collectivist society of, 759, 1007–8
communication surveys in, 1020–21
compensation in, 1004
economic development of, 108, 995, 1000
lifetime employment in, 1009
long-term orientation in, 1012
loyalty in, 1009
management practices in, 995
management traits in, 1024
origins of leaders in, 997
participation vs. direction in, 1033–34
personal traits surveyed in, 1016
relations-oriented and task-oriented leadership in, 1036–37
role concepts in, 1008–9
teams in, 758–59
traditionalism vs. modernity in, 1002
transformational leaders in, 641
and Type Z organizations, 754
and World War II, 710, 819, 1009
Japanese Americans, 967–69
interned in World War II, 829, 968
Jefferson, Thomas, 33, 49, 158, 160, 221, 607, 619, 639, 704, 708, 711, 1056
Jenkins Activity Survey, 197
JetBlue airlines, 698
Jewish Americans, 951, 973–75, 997
Job Choice Decision-Making Exercise (JCE), 181
job reengineering, 786–87
Job-Related Tension Index, 816
job rotation, 1090–91
job satisfaction, 305, 956, 1044
job simplification, 799
job specialization, 728
Job Stress Survey, 814
John Paul II, Pope, 379, 440, 892
Johnson, Andrew, 712
Johnson, Lyndon B., 12, 143, 319, 339, 440, 598, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 711, 714, 853, 874, 1056
John XXIII, Pope, 892
joint consultation, 312–13
Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC), 643, 1076
Joseph, Chief (Nez Percé), 969
Jowett, Benjamin, 229
and predictive validity, 1143–47
reserving, 340
Julius II, Pope, 160
junk bonds, 723n
Kaiser Permanente Medical Care, 1093
Kansas Community Leadership Initiative, 1117
Kellogg Foundation, 1067, 1113, 1117
Kennedy, John F., 12, 51, 116, 158, 193, 230, 578, 591, 605, 618, 620, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 711, 714, 853, 1053, 1087
Kennedy administration, and Bay of Pigs, 300
Kenyatta, Jomo, 599
Kerry, John, 1087
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 49, 52, 203, 386, 465, 577, 586, 591, 593, 616, 950, 952, 958
Kierkegaard, Søren, 201
Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory, 116
acquisition of, 349
management of, 656
technical, 113–15
Kohl, Helmut, 715
Korea:
chaebols in, 996
collectivist society of, 759
Confucianism in, 995–96
management practices in, 995
multinationals in, 1042
South, economic growth of, 993, 996, 1000
South, long-term orientation in, 1012
Korean Americans, 967–69
Korn/Ferry International survey, 689, 1024
Kozlowski, Dennis, 231
Kravis Institute, 13
Kroc, Ray, 751
Kuder Interest Inventory, 1141
laboratory experiments, 71, 1169–70
labor unions:
African American membership in, 951, 955
agreements with, 737–38
and autocratic leadership, 446
and channels of influence, 746
charismatic leaders in, 593, 597
and conflict, 332–33, 334–35, 342
corruption in, 209
and industrial democracy, 311
leadership research in, 736
leadership training in, 1114–16
and relations-oriented leadership, 506
and right to work laws, 1116
and situation effect, 718
transformational leadership of, 641
Lacroze de Fortabat, Maria, 940
La Guardia, Fiorello, 973
laissez-faire (inactive) leadership, 29, 142–49, 444n, 460n, 464, 624, 710
antecedents of, 144
and delegation, 149
and empowerment, 310
measurement of, 144
national differences in, 1038
and subordinate autonomy, 148–49
Land, Edwin, 885
language, evolution of, 900n
Lassalle, Ferdinand, 11
Latin America, 992–93
collectivism in, 1009
cultural differences within, 995
family influence in, 999
leadership in, 1021
management traits in, 1024
personal traits surveyed in, 1015
latitude, 74
Laurier, Sir Wilfred, 708
Law of Requisite Variety, 720
Law of Small Numbers, 1170–71
Lawrence, Harding, 691
Leader Adaptability and Style Inventory (LASI), 517, 518, 520
Leader Behavior Analysis (LBA), 520–21
Leader Empowering Behavior Questionnaire (LEBQ), 309–10
leader-environment-follower interaction theory, 54
leader-follower transactional exchange, 379, 431–33
leader-group exchange, 424
LeaderLab, 1109
leaderless group discussions (LGDs), 255–56, 1125–26
leader-managers, 653–54
three-stage model for, 663–64
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, 63, 226, 259, 379n, 419–28
critique, 424
future research on, 1186
group vs. dyadic analysis, 424–26
inner vs. outer circle, 419–20
life-cycle model, 420
measurement of, 420–21
training in, 1103–4
and transactional leadership, 626
WABA results, 426–28
leader-role theories, 60
leaders:
changes in, 830
cohesion of, 779
as communicators, 403
competence of, 787–90
conflicts between, 324
conformity of, 773
as culture builders, 749–50
as culture transmitters, 750
deviations of, 773
downward influence tactics of, 401–2
early histories of, 4
effectiveness of, 628
effects of culture on, 754–55
external, 782–83
feedback from, 402–3
as foci of group processes, 16–17
gender of, 932–33
identification with, 22, 588–90, 592
individual differences in, 740
influence exercised by, 18–19, 401–8
integrated concerns of, 779
intelligence and experience of, 828–29
internal, 782
intervention by, 776
latitude of, 744
managers vs., 652–57; see also managers
national differences in, 996–99
opinionated, 477
in path-goal process, 805
as personalities, 16
persuasiveness of, 17–18
pluralistic, 980
professional, 29
prototypical, 397–98
reality defined by, 17
recognized as such by followers, 22
replacement of, 350
situations changed by, 719
styles and patterns of behavior, 41–44, 466–67
superiors of, 470
superleaders, 405–6, 782, 783–84, 872
as symbols, 17
tasks of, 28–29
two, 324
of virtual teams, 862
LeaderShape, 1059
leadership:
as art of inducing compliance, 19–20
attempted, 19
as attribution, 16
common themes of, 44
cross-cultural, see globalization
defining, 15–23
as differentiated role, 22
early principles of, 4–5
as effect, 20–21
E-leadership, 860–62
evolving concepts of, 24–25
as exercise of influence, 18–19
as figment of imagination, 9–10
in formal organizations, 651–53
full range of, 624
future research on, 1189
indirect effects of, 13
individualized, 428
as initiation of structure, 18
integrated model of, 44
and management, 23–24
meanings of the term, 14–15
measurement of effectiveness of, 11
modern study of, 6–7
multiple, 784
multiple styles of, 466–67
national requisites of, 1021
nature vs. nurture in development of, 1051–52
of organizations, 11–12, 58–60, 726–36
passive, 795
personal factors of, 1184
as persuasive behavior, 17–18
as power relationship, 21
proxies for, 868–71
as purposive behavior, 17
roles of, 22, 28–29, 39–41, 1184–85
“romance” of, 9, 66, 587–88, 594, 633
satisfaction with role of, 190–93
situation effects on, 718–19
as social exchange, 366–68
sociometrics of, 847
and stress, 820–26
as subject of inquiry, 13–14
substitutes for, 868, 869–70, 871
theories of, see leadership theories of thought, 17
too much rehashing about, 14
traits of (1904–1970), 81–102; (1970–2006), 103–35
transition of, 893–94
universality of, 7–15
vices of, 229–36
written concepts of, 5–6
Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), 426, 465, 511, 540–71, 1171
alternative and additional scales, 543–47
antecedents and correlates of, 549–55
business studies of, 556–58
causal effects, 570–71
contingencies, 564–70
cross-lagged analyses, 570–71
development of, 539
and disabled workers, 976
and discretionary leadership, 358
educational studies of, 357, 518, 559–61
experimental effects, 571
Form XII (LBDQ-XII), 155, 540–46, 549–53, 555, 557–64, 567–68, 571
gender differences in, 923
general effects of, 556
and globalization, 981
health organization studies, 561
ideal leader described in, 547–49
on individualized consideration, 628
instrumentation of, 564–65
in libraries, 734–35
meta-analyses of, 562–64
military studies of, 558–59
organizational contingencies, 565–66
other not-for-profit-organization studies, 561–62
psychometric properties of, 540–43
on situation approach, 718–19
training in, 1104–5
on vision, 631
Leadership Effectiveness and Adaptability Description (LEAD), 517, 518, 520
Leadership Motive Patterns (LMP), 138–39, 578–79
Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ), 543, 549–52, 558, 561, 924, 1082, 1104
Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI), 625
Leadership Scale for Sports, 735–36
leadership theories, 46–78
attribution, 65–66
biological-genetic, 48–49
charismatic-transformational, 50–51
contingency, 61–62
cue-behavior-reinforcement, 63–64
evolution of, 14
exchange, 63
explicit, 1022–23
good vs. bad, 46–47
grounded, 48
integration of, 14
interaction and social learning, 60–63
open-systems, 68–69
of organizations, 58–60
perceptual, 64
person-situation, 53–55
political, 57–58
problem orientation vs., 7–8
psychoanalytic, 55–57
schemata, 65
servant leaders, 51–52
situational, 52–53, 511, 518, 520
League of Nations, 702
learning organization, 1108–9, 1200
least preferred coworker (LPC), 498, 522–37, 1101, 1171
alternative meanings of, 526–28
of followers, 536
measurement development, 522
measurement properties of, 522–26
and situational favorability, 530
weighting of, 528–29
Lebanon, U.S. soldiers in, 346, 410
lectures, as training method, 1071–72
Lee Kuan Yew, 260
legitimate power, 270, 271, 272, 282–86, 287–89
legitimization:
in business and industry, 344–45
conditions affecting, 346–51
meaning attached to, 343
in public and community settings, 344
of a role, 343
stability of, 349
and status, 347–48
Lend-Lease Act (1940), 710
Lenin, V. I., 10, 49, 177, 178, 193, 467, 578, 598, 719, 1056
Leonardo da Vinci, 71
Levi, Edward, 712
Lewis, John L., 597, 736, 1115–16
liability, 360
liberalism or conservatism, 89
libraries, 734–35
life cycle theory of leadership, 59
Life History Survey, 1054
Life Insurance Agency Management Association, 739
lifestyles, 171
Lightner, Candy, 595
likeability, 256
Likert scales, 185
Lilienthal, David, 646
Limbaugh, Rush, 233–34
Lincoln, Abraham, 49, 51, 53, 56, 116, 158, 203, 221, 353, 355, 704, 708, 711, 874
linguistic competence, 127
location, physical, 842, 880–81
Lockheed Aircraft, 1140
locus of control (LOC), 187–88, 636, 637
long-linked technologies, 796
Looking-Glass simulation, 673, 1075–76
Lorenzo, Frank, 230
Los Alamos National Laboratory, 629, 776
loss, dealing with, 829–30
Lotus Notes, 861
Louis XII, king of France, 160
dual loyalties, 332–33
national differences in, 1009–10
Luther, Martin, 56, 465, 577, 584, 1024
Luxemburg, Rosa, 899
MacArthur, Douglas, 49, 55, 153, 167, 712, 878, 1056
Machiavelli, Niccolò:
The Prince, 5–6, 21, 49, 160–62, 200
Machiavellianism, 160–65, 182, 230, 287, 338–39, 579, 707–8, 762, 812, 1013
macro-and microlevels, 68–69
Macy’s, 1150
Madison, James, 711
Madonna, 331
maintenance, and PM leadership, 147
Major, John, 715
maladaptation, 881–82
malevolence, 235
management:
awareness of, 700
corruption in, 206–10
customer conflicts with, 328
eupsychian, 59
in formal organizations, 651–53
functions of, 651–53
high-involvement, 305
and leadership, 23–24
manipulation by, 753
middle, 702
planning change, 316–18
popular books about, 6–7
research methods in, 659–65
women in, 901–2
management by exception (MBE), 143, 149, 372, 376, 624, 628, 1041, 1192
management by walking around, 413, 609, 622
management development programs, 1109–10
Management Matrix, 1074
Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ), 661
Management Skills Profile (MSP), 1133
Management Style Survey, 729
managerial grid, see Blake and Mouton
Managerial Practices Survey (MPS), 625, 662, 663
Manager-Leadership Practices Inventory, 916
Manager Profile Record, 1142
managers, 29
African American, 964
and computerization, 680
differences among organizations, 678–79
economic interests of, 724–25
effectiveness of, 673
ethical role of, 202–3
general, 678–79
hierarchical levels of, 675–78
international, 1043
intuitive-feeling, 747
intuitive-thinking, 747
leaders vs., 652–57; see also leaders
as linchpins, 653
motivation of, 139–42
planning, 672–73
position profiles of, 661–62
professional, 231
promoting individual relationships, 679–80
rank and salary information on, 1139
rate of advancement, 482
religious affiliations of, 725
roles of, 139, 662–63, 670–72, 1184–85
sense-feeling, 747
sense-thinking, 747
as stewards, 171
stress of, 813
studies of work done by, 667–70
of technology, 307
use of time by, 665–67
values of, 176–77
Mandela, Nelson, 229, 615, 616, 627, 628
manipulation, 288
manipulative leadership, 464
Mao Zedong, 54, 57, 178, 467, 577, 594, 595, 596, 632
marathon groups, 762
Marcus Aurelius, 4
marginal workers, use of term, 950n
market culture, 754–55
marriage, effects of, 933
Marriott, 305
Marshall Plan, 712
Marx, Karl, 21
Marxism-Leninism, 57
masculinity-femininity (MAS), national differences in scores, 1014, 1025–26
masked intentions, 235
Maslach Burnout Inventory, 812, 835
Maslow, Abraham:
needs hierarchy of, 183, 249, 603, 619, 1016, 1191
on self-actualization, 619
theory of eupsychian management, 59
Massachusetts General Hospital, 699
mathematical modeling, 1182–83
matrix organizations, 739, 747
Matsunaga, Spark, 968
maturity-immaturity theory, 58–59
Maximilian, Emperor, 160
maximum leadership, 581
Mayo brothers, 1054
mayors, U.S., see public officials
McCarthy, Joseph, 331
McDonald’s, 751
McKinley, William, 162, 706, 709
McNamara’s fallacy, 77
McPherson, Aimee Semple, 899
meaning, management of, 608–9
Meany, George, 736
mechanistic organizations, 30, 636, 721–22, 740
meetings, 776–77
Mehrabian achievement scale, 909
Meir, Golda, 901
memory, 111–12
men, roles of, see gender differences
Menino, Thomas, 973
mentors, 39, 936–37, 941, 1091, 1092–96
Merck Pharmaceutical, 737
mergers, 830
merit rating system, 301
Merkel, Angela, 901
Merrill Lynch, 207–8
meta-analyses, 74–75
Metharme effect, 613
micro-macro linkage, 1192–93
Microsoft Corporation, 751
Mideast conflicts, 331, 616, 1159
military:
careerism in, 1067
on-the-job training in, 1088
outdoor training for, 1081
situational patterning in, 718
war games in training for, 1076
military academies, 1061
military leadership:
accountability in, 361
and authority, 358
autocratic, 445–46
character in, 219–20
cohesion of, 779
contingent motivation in, 374
counterculture in, 752
democratic, 448–49
effects of leadership style, 455
emergence of, 52
esteem of peers in, 254–55
executive effectiveness, 687–88
formal vs. informal organization in, 342
generational conflict in, 332
and heroism, 835
importance of, 12
inspirational leaders in, 607
and intellectual stimulation, 620
on killing in wartime, 201, 203
laissez-faire, 146
LBDQ studies of, 558–59
leader deviation in, 773
leader-managers, 654
and legitimacy, 284, 343, 346, 347
linkages in, 406
MLQ scores of, 637
persistence in, 876
political-military type, 29
and role conflicts, 327–28, 332
role of, 27
and stress, 813, 817, 828, 830–31, 833–34
subordinate-supervisor ratings of, 584
successful vs. unsuccessful, 276
and terrorism, 980
training for, 1111–12
traits of, 34
transactional, 640
transfer to civilian life, 878–79, 1066
transformational, 634–35, 640–41, 643
militias, extremist, 233
Mill, John Stuart, 201
Miller, J. Irwin, 199
Miller Analogies Test, 1142
Miller-Monge meta-analysis, 483
Miner Sentence Completion Scale (MSCS), 139
critique of, 142
Form T, 142
international scores on, 1038–39
and power motivation, 157, 158
training for, 1105
validities, 140–42
minimal critical specification, 800
minimum managers, 581
Mink, Patsy, 968
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 1137
minorities, 943–79
affirmative action for, 943–44
African Americans, 943, 949–64
criteria of, 943
disabled, 975–76
gays and lesbians, 978
Italian Americans, 972–73
Jewish Americans, 951, 973–75, 997
leadership awareness of, 1114
marginality of, 947
Native Americans, 969–72
older workers, 976–78
rising status of, 944
Mintzberg’s managerial roles, 670–72, 676
mirror imaging, 334
“missionary” type of leader, 499
mission statement, 630
Mitchell, Billy, 643
Mitsubishi, 1042
Mitsui, 699
Mitterrand, François, 193
Model A and Model B, 494
modesty, 89
molecular biology studies, 105
Mondragon, Spain, 311
monitoring, 676
Monroe, James, 711
moods, 90
Moog, 753
Moon, Rev. Sun Myung, 589
morale, and participation, 477
moral exemplars, 205–6
moral leadership, theories of, 201–3
Mosconi, George, 973
Moses, Robert, 1056
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), 595
motivation:
of African Americans, 956
and authority, 357
carrot-and-stick, 385
collective, 1191
conscious, 180–81
contingent, 374
of entrepreneurs, 142, 1113–14
gender differences in, 917–18
in groups, 777
inspirational, 620
and leadership style, 484–85
to learn leadership, 1108–9
of managers, 139–42
measurement of, 140–42
national differences in, 1038–39
in professional organizations, 142
and social distance, 846–47
and stress, 817–18
training for, 1105
of women, 938
motivational hierarchy, 527
motivational research methods, 1179–80
Motivation Questionnaire (MQ), 180
Motivation Sources Inventory (MSI), 180–81
motives, 178–82
Motives, Values, Preferences Inventory (MVPI), 169
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 620
Muhammed, 990–91
multiculturalism, 948, 980; see also globalization
multidimensional scaling, 1181
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), 128–29
and burnout, 835
on charismatic leaders, 580, 582, 591, 593–95, 599, 602–4, 605, 623
and conflict, 332
and contingent reinforcement, 398
and contingent reward, 623–24
and empowerment, 309–10
gender differences in, 922–23
inflated scores on, 1144
on intellectual stimulation, 616–17, 620
on laissez-faire leadership, 144
LBDQ-XII correlated with, 553
and leadership development, 1054
national differences in, 1037, 1039–40
and organizational culture, 748
and race, 958
and self-schemas, 185–86
teams, 764
transformational and transactional scores on, 181, 217–18, 223, 623, 634–35, 636, 640–47, 1144
and U.S. presidents, 708
multinational corporations (MNCs), 1041–47
approaches to management in, 1042
conflicting national values in, 1046
cultural differences in, 1042–43, 1044
decision making in, 1043–44
future research on, 1161–62, 1204–5
growth of, 1041–42
international managers for, 1043
international strategic alliances, 1042
parent, host, and third-country nationals in, 1043–47
repatriation in, 1046
socialization process in, 1046
staffing, 1047
uniformity in, 1044–45
multiple cutoffs, 1140
multiple levels approach, 69, 72–75, 406–7
multiple-linkage model, 62
multiple-screen or cognitive resources model, 62–63
multitasking, 797
Murray, Philip, 736
Mussolini, Benito, 193, 593, 614, 710, 835
mutual attractiveness, 252
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 36, 169, 469, 634, 635, 814, 815, 916
Napoleon Bonaparte, 49, 54, 230, 234, 595, 626
Napoleon III, 193
Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), 232
Nation, Carrie, 899
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 146, 693
National Basketball Association (NBA), 1053, 1089
National Council on Alcoholism, 596, 597
National Industrial Conference Board, 1118
National Intergroup, 474
national security, 1162–63
Native Americans, 969–72
nature-nurture theories, 48–49, 1051–52, 1203
Necker, Jacques, 1056
negative transfer, 878, 881–82
negotiation, ethics in, 204
negotiation of equity, 380–81
negotiative leadership, 464
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 578, 703, 1053
Nelson, Horatio, 461, 614, 626
NEOAC Big Five factors, 634
Neocharismatic Leadership Paradigm (NLP), 626, 645
NEO Personality Inventory, 634, 708
nepotism, 236–37
Nestlé Corporation, 204
Netscape, 857
network connections:
Bavelas-Leavitt, 864
in communities, 1117
electronic, 855–62
information access and distribution in, 865–66
and leadership style, 866
of minority managers, 947
“old-boy,” 935
operational, 868
and organizational leadership, 367
personal factors in, 866–67
uses of, 867
of women, 941
network preferences, 853
neuroticism, 120–21
New Deal, 707
Newmont Mining, 699
New Zealand, postwar changes in, 999
Ngo Dinh Diem, 1056
Nguyen Van Thieu, 33
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 49, 201, 231
Nigeria, loyalty in, 1010
9,9 style, 14
Nintendo, 699
Nixon, Richard M., 162, 253, 474, 586, 614, 704, 705, 706, 711, 712, 713–14, 715, 1056, 1198
Nomathemba, Wendy Luhabe, 940
nomothetic leadership, 28
nonadaptive cultures, 754
nondiscretionary leadership, 358–59
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 356, 980–81
Nonlinear Systems, 758
nonprofit organizations, 727
effects of leadership style, 455–56
executive effectiveness in, 687
LBDQ studies in, 561–62
transactional and transformational leaders of, 638–40
normative charismatic leaders, 580
Northwest Airlines, 683
Norway, 1021
obedience, 589
obesity, 976
objectives:
achievement of goals, 20–21
alignment with, 568–69
practical, 488
observational studies, 71, 1181–82
obsolescence, avoiding, 1063
Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ), 1142–43
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), 669
Octavian, 52
Oedipus complex, 55
“office charismatics,” 579
office layout, 844
Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 6, 879, 1081, 1148
Ogilvy & Mather, 699
Ohio State Leadership Studies, 539–40
older workers, 976–78
O’Neill, Tip, 711
Ong, Wing F., 968
Opel automobiles, 774
openness to experience, 121
open-systems theory, 68–69
operant model of supervision, 64
operant reinforcement, 373
operator control of machinery, 306–7
operators, 36
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 629–30, 776
optimal intelligence, 116–17
organic organizations, 636, 721–22, 740, 747
organization:
economic theories of, 58
as legal fiction, 9
Organizational Beliefs Questionnaire, 748
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB), 227, 465
organizational climate, 750–51
organizational constraints, 744–45
organizational culture, 746–55
clan, 754–55
countercultures, 751–52
defined, 746–47
descriptions of, 747–48
effects on leaders, 754–55
founders of, 751–52
instrumentality and expressiveness in, 755
of kibbutz, 755
and leadership, 749–51
manipulation by management, 753
market, 754–55
promoting changes in, 752–53
transformational, 748–49
Organizational Culture Inventory (OCI), 748
Organizational Culture Profile (OCP), 748
organizational design, 294–95, 738–39
Organizational Fitness Profiling, 656
organizational function, 472–73
Organizational Leader Authenticity Scale (OLAS), 224
organizational leaders, 28
organizational levels:
conflicts in, 328–29
and delegation, 473
organizational outcomes, leaders critical to, 11–12
organizational philosophy, 727
Organizational Success Questionnaire (OSQ), 163, 1032
organizational support, 744
organizational vision training, 1107–8
Organization Description Questionnaire (ODQ), 748–49
organizations:
adaptive model of, 30
centralized vs. decentralized, 742–43
chain of command in, 746
changing, 743–44
collegial model of, 30
confounds of, 737
differences among, 678–79
effects of leadership style on, 454
as extended families, 729
formal, functions in, 651–53
formalization of, 738
future changes, 1165–66
hierarchy of, 320–22, 405, 668–69, 675–78, 739
individual relationships within, 679–80
leadership of, 11–12, 58–60, 726–36
mechanistic model of, 30, 636, 721–22, 740
new configurations of, 742
objectives and functions of, 730–31, 747
opportunities for women in, 938–39
organic, 636, 721–22, 740, 747
phases and life cycles of, 730
power systems in, 296–99
prior effectiveness of, 504
professional, 142
as rational-structural systems, 729
relations-oriented leadership in, 499–500
reputational capital of, 686–87
social responsibility of, 211, 212
span of control in, 741–42
strong vs. weak cultures of, 722
structure of, 738–42
symbolic view of, 729
task systems of, 10
traditional model of, 30
types of leaders in, 29–36
values in, 173–74
Orientation Inventory (ORI), 180, 350, 498, 502, 909
originality, 86
Osama bin Laden, 234, 267, 735
Otis Quick Scoring Mental Ability Test, 1137
outsourcing, 856
outstanding leadership, 581, 606
Paley, William, 885
palliation, 337
Pankhurst, Emily, 899
paradox, embracing, 336
parental guidance, 1057–58
parental leadership, authoritarian, 155
Park Chung Hee, 996
parliamentarians, 34
participation:
as distinct behavior, 463
frequency of, 487
models in support of, 482–84
overlap of styles, 464
and satisfaction, 477, 478, 482
use of term, 136n, 460–61, 516n, 721n, 852n
participation:
effects on satisfaction and morale, 477
legislatively mandated, 1031–32
national differences in, 1031–33
opportunity for, 477–78
relevance of, 470–71
token, 462–63
participative leadership, 458–96
antecedents of, 468–75
in behavioral science, 466
considerate leadership in, 464–65
contextual aspects of, 463
contingent effects of, 484–89
delegation by, 461–62
directive vs., 458–59
discrepancies between self and others’ descriptions, 467–68
effects of, 475–84
effects of followers in, 470–71
frequency of usage, 466
misuse of, 462
models of, 489–96
multistyle approach to, 466–67
national differences in, 1029–32
shared, 463–64
superior-subordinate relations, 471–72
for theoretical tasks, 488
training in, 1101–2
and transformational leadership, 627
Pascal, Blaise, 241
paternalism, national differences in, 1029
paternalistic leaders, 30–31
pathfinders, 42
path-goal theory, 61, 735, 786, 804–11
patrimonial leaders, 30
Patton, George S., 49, 116, 660
pay for performance, 370, 381–82
PC Connection, 500
peer appraisals, 1129
peer-oriented leaders, 28
Pepper, Claude, 976n
Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS), 223
perceptual research methods, 1179
perceptual theories, 64
performance:
causes of, 416–18
contingent reinforcement in, 369–70
effect of leadership style on, 479–80
effects of CEO succession on, 891–92
exceeding expectations of, 941
and PM leadership, 147
and race, 957–62
and satisfaction, 192–93, 322–23
and task-oriented leaders, 509
performance appraisals:
of African Americans, 962–64
bias in, 386
of CEOs, 1124–25
constraints on, 392–94
criteria for, 401
ideal system of, 394–95
importance of, 1124
judgmental approaches to, 1125–30
moderators of judgments and their predictive validity, 1143–47
multiple rating sources, 1130–43
by peers, 1129
by subordinates, 1129–30
of women, 928–30
performers, 30
Pericles, 353
Perkins, Frances, 901
Persian Gulf War, 796
persistence, 87–88, 93–94, 874–78
personal charismatics, 579
personality:
Big Five factor structure of, 120–23, 144, 185, 222, 587, 634, 1015
gender differences in, 917–18
and leadership style, 486
and power, 265
of transformational leaders, 633–34
and trust, 259
types of, 35–36
use of term, 167
personality differences, 350–51
personality influences, national differences in, 1032–33
personality tests, 77
Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), 183, 636
Personal Values Questionnaire, 174, 1005
personnel practices, national differences in, 1033
person-situation theories, 53–55
perspective, conflicts in, 321–22
persuasion, 17–18, 29–30, 272, 286, 288, 465
Peters and Waterman, In Search of Excellence, 753, 1197
PF Inventory, 635
phantoms, 30
phenomenological research methods, 1179
Philippines, loyalty in, 1010
Philips, 699
philosopher-king, myth of, 4
philosopher-statesman, 27
Pilsudski, Józef, 193
pioneers, 938
Planned Experiences for Effective Relating (PEER), 1080
planning, 672–73
Planters Peanuts, 973
pluralistic ignorance, 385
pluralistic leaders, 980
Plutarch, Parallel Lives, 5, 52
plutocrats, 32
Polaroid, 885
policies:
moderation of, 729–30
setting, 693–702
policy charismatics, 580
political leaders:
changes in styles of, 466–67
eloquence and rhetoric of, 586–87
family factors of, 937
future research on, 1193–94
in government agencies, 732–33
grassroots, 658–59
local governments, 33
moral courage of, 410
in office, see public officials
strategies of, 702–15
transactional and transformational, 638–40
values and, 177–78
world-class, 33
political psychology, 165–66
political theories of leadership, 57–58
politicking, 338
polycentrism, 1043–44
Pontiac, Chief, 969
poor performance, 389
popularity, 92, 251, 256, 257, 275
populism vs. elitism, 291–92
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, 1125
Portugal, 1024
positive transfer, 878, 879–80
Powell, Colin, 443, 708, 776–77, 878, 964
power, 263–90
abuse of, 410
acquisition of, 158
and authority, 355–56
centralization of, 780–81
in communities, 295–96
and competence, 326
and control, 269
and corruption, 289–90
definitions of, 263–66
and democracy, 310–16
of departments, 299
differences in, 291–95, 471–72
and directive leadership style, 469
dispersion of, 743
distribution of, 291–318
and emergence as leader, 268–70
empowerment, 304–10
equalization of, 294, 296, 311, 798, 1187
as force, 263–64
French and Raven model, 270–71, 286–87
future research on, 1187
gender differences in use of, 265, 921
and humanism, 294
legitimate, 270, 271, 272, 282–86, 287–89
in organizations, 296–99
personal, 266–67
positional, 267–68
power emanating from, 268, 271
redistribution of, 310, 317–18
referent, 265, 270, 271, 272, 274–75, 287, 288–89
relationship of, 21–22
reward and threat, 487
sharing, 299, 300, 313, 315–18, 406
as social exchange, 264
threat of, 270
uses of, 268
willingness to use, 287–88
PowerAgent, 691–92
power distance factor, 291
power motivation, 157–60, 179–80, 270
and careers, 158–59
and leader attitudes, abilities, and behavior, 159–60
measurement of, 157
practical intelligence, 110–11
prenatal environment, 106
presidents, U.S.:
advisors to, 408
charisma of, 707–9
and the Constitution, 354, 355
effectiveness of, 709–11
effects of performance by, 12–13, 51
expectations for, 253–54
failures of, 712–15
greatness of, 711–12
inaugural addresses of, 158, 703
information management by, 610
as leaders, 703–15
management styles of, 704–5
moral courage of, 410
personalities of, 705–7
persuasiveness of, 17
post-presidency of, 714
power of, 704
revisions in reputations of, 712
strong mothers of, 1056
succession of, 889
virtues of, 221–22
wives of, 614–15
see also specific presidents
prestige, 92
PriceWaterhouse, 935
primitive cultures, differences in, 1022
princes, 30
priorities, 174–76
problem orientation vs. theory, 7–8
and conflict, 341–42
differences in, 467
by groups, 801
information processing in, 67
national differences in, 1017–18
procedural justice, 225
Production and Maintenance (PM) style, 553
productivity:
effects of leadership style on, 481–82
and laissez-faire leadership, 145–46
and LBDQ scores, 556
and technology, 813–14
productivity bonuses, 311
professional leaders, 29
professional organizations, motivation to lead in, 142
professional schools, 1060
Professional Zone of Acceptance Inventory, 355
Profile of Organizational Characteristics (POC), 453
Profile of Organizational Influence Strategies (POIS), 401
programmed instruction, 1076
prophets, 33
protectors, 30
prototypes, national differences in, 1021–22
prototypical leaders, 397–98
Protzman, Charles, 594
proxies, statistical, 868–71
proximity, 841–42
pseudotransformational leadership, 203, 214, 233–34
psychoanalytic taxonomies, 35
psychoanalytic theories, 55–57
psychobiographical research, 71
psychodynamic research methods, 1179–80
psychohistory, 55–56
psychological contracts, 366, 429–30
psychological distance, 844
psychometric properties, national differences in, 1038
psychometric research, 71
psychopathology, 194–97
psychosocial development, 914–15
psychosocial space, 843–50
public officials:
authoritarianism of, 151
civil servants, 341
constraints on, 9–10
elected vs. appointed, 117, 341, 347
election of, 28
hierarchical levels of, 675
interlocking office holding, 296
and leadership style, 454–55
leadership traits of, 32–33, 51
legislative leaders, 34
short-vs. long-term goals of, 20
succession of, 892
task dimensions of, 676
transactional and transformational, 638–40
women, 900–901
punctuality, 331
punishment:
attitudes about, 389
and authoritarianism, 154–55
caveats, 374
and coercive power, 280–81, 287, 288
disciplinary actions, 383
effects of, 729
justifications for, 371–72
punitive style, 451
Putnam, Howard, 691
Qaddafi, Muammar al-, 578, 616
Q sorts, 72
Quaker communities, 554
Quaker Oats, 690
qualitative methods, 75–77, 1173–74
quality, and ethics, 211
quality circles (QCs), 246, 594, 1008
Quality Improvement, 627, 697, 1051
quality-of-work-life (QWL) projects, 774, 856
quantitative research methods, 71–72
race:
importance of, 958–59
and performance, 957–62
and social transition, 949–50
see also minorities
radical leaders, vision of, 631–32
RAD scales, 363–64
Raglan, Lord, 146
Rahim Organizational Inventory (ROCI), 340
random group resampling (RGR), 73
randomness, model of, 494
rational-deductive model, 53
rationally oriented leaders, 621
rational-structural systems, 729
Reagan, Ronald, 125, 143, 193, 194, 268, 331, 410, 586, 590, 611, 615, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710–11, 712, 713, 714, 835, 853, 1091
Reagan administration, sleaze factor in, 285
reality, as defined by leaders, 17
reciprocal relationship, 428–36
clarity of the goal, 433–34
individualized leadership, 428
interdependence, 798–99
leader-follower exchange, 431–33
and leadership style, 434–36
mutual effects of the task, 433–34
psychological contrasts, 429–30
two-way impact, 430–31
redefinition, 349
references and recommendations, 1136
referent power, 265, 270, 271, 272, 274–75, 287, 288–89
Reflexite Corporation, 738
reformers, vision of, 631–32
regulatory agencies, effects of, 724
Reich, Robert, 300
carrot-and-stick, 385
caveats, 378
and emergence of leaders, 376–78
operant, 373
positive vs. negative, 383–84
self-reinforcement, 872
reinforcement leadership, 623
democratic and, 449
as instrumental leadership, 368
personal and situational modifiers, 372–73
utility of, 368
relations-oriented leaders, 31, 42–43, 44, 435–36
antecedents of, 501–4
concept, 499
consequences of, 504–11
examples of, 500
LPC as measure of, 525
national differences in, 1035–36
need for, 500–501
in organizational systems, 499–500
quality of relations in, 499
and satisfaction, 505–6
situation effects on, 720
training for, 1102
religious faith, 151, 172, 213–14
religious intolerance, 331
Renier, Jim, 632
repertory grid, 76
repressors, 867
reputational capital, 686–87
research:
anonymity in, 74
applicability of, 24–25
behavioral methods, 1180–81
biases in, 1174–76
biographies, 77
centers of, 13
cognitive and information-processing methods, 1178–79
confirmatory factor analysis, 72
content analysis, 76
contingent models, 1200–1201
convenience sampling, 1171
critical incidents technique, 664
critiques of, 75
cross-cultural, 982–83
dyadic vs. group relations, 1176–77
empirical, 618–19
field surveys, 71
future methodological issues, 1169–78
hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), 73
from humanities and the arts, 77
hypothesis testing, 1172–73
indexes of change, 75
influence on popular books, 6–7
intraclass correlation, 73
laboratory experiments, 71
laboratory vs. field studies, 1169–70
law of small numbers, 1170–71
leadership as subject of inquiry in, 13–14
mathematical modeling, 1182–83
McNamara’s fallacy, 77
measurement problems, 1171–72
meta-analyses, 74–75
methods and measurement, 70–78, 96–97
modern studies, 6–7
motivational and psychodynamic methods, 1179–80
multidimensional scaling, 1181
multiple-levels analyses, 72–75
observational studies, 71, 1181–82
personality tests, 77
phenomenological and perceptual methods, 1179
Q sorts, 72
qualitative methods, 75–77, 1173–74
quantitative methods, 71–72
random group resampling (RGR), 73
rating inaccuracies in, 74
repertory grid, 76
simulations and games, 1182
stories, 76–77
structural equation modeling, 72
surveys, 73–74
systems approach to, 1199–1200
triangulation, 77–78
reshaping, 338
resilience, 815
resources, control of, 322, 656
responsibility, 88
and accountability, 360, 361–62
collective, 361
delegation of, 362–64
in RAD scales, 363–64
time span of, 362
restructuring, 737
Reuther, Walter, 736
Revised Self-Monitoring scales, 186–87
revolutionary leaders, 33, 1056n
travels of, 1065
values of, 178
vision of, 631–32
reward power, 272, 275–77, 288–89
Rhee, Syngman, 996
Rickenbacker, Eddie, 683
Rickover, Hyman, 597, 643, 714, 751, 752, 869n, 1134
Ridge, John, 970
Riesman, David, The Lonely Crowd, 187
rights, use of term, 221
right to work laws, 1116
right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), 153
Riply, William, 200
risk taking, 181–82, 469, 1014–15
Rizzo, Frank, 973
robber barons, 219
Robespierre, Maximilien, 178, 1056
Rockefeller, Jay, 610–11
Rod and Frame Test, 188
Roddick, Dame Anita, 199, 583–84
role ambiguity, 320–21, 322, 816
role clarity, 792
role conflict, 320, 322, 816, 1187–88
role differentiation, 338
role expectations, 61
role models, 19, 42, 205–6, 209, 403–5, 1096
role overload, 816–17
role playing, 1072–74
role-role incongruence, 324–25
roles:
legitimization of, 343
overlapping, 324
and personality traits, 327
Rolm, 753
Romance of Leadership Scale, 587–88, 594, 633
Rome:
great leaders in, 52
mythology of, 4–5
Rommel, Erwin, 357
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 203, 704, 815, 899, 1053, 1087, 1198
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 10, 51, 55, 158, 162, 165, 178, 193, 230, 339, 578, 579, 614, 618, 620, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709–10, 711, 712, 713, 773, 835, 970, 973, 1053, 1056, 1087, 1116
Roosevelt, Theodore, 56, 143, 158, 221, 704, 706, 708, 709, 711, 713, 1053, 1056, 1087
Rosenwald, Julius, 696
Ross, John, 970
rotational research designs, 73, 104
Rothstein, Ruth, 223
routine tasks, 794–95
routinization, 595–96
Royal Dutch Shell, 622
Rubin, Robert, 1091
Russia:
business ethics in, 1013
participation vs. direction in, 1034
post-Soviet development in, 1000–1001
Soviet, see Soviet Union
Sacajawea, 899
Sadat, Anwar, 616
Saint-Gobain, 699
salient leaders, 28
Samsung, 996
Sanders, Colonel, 976n
Sanger, Margaret, 901
Santorum, Rick, 973
SAS, 221
satisfaction:
and age, 192
contingent reinforcement in, 369
and LBDQ scores, 556
and participation, 477, 478, 482
and relations-oriented leaders, 505–6
in teams, 780
Saudi Arabia, leadership style in, 1035
Scalia, Antonin, 973
Scandinavian cluster of nations, 992, 1021, 1024, 1043
schemata, 65
Schlesinger, Arthur, Sr., 711
Schneiderman, Rose, 597
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 635
scholastic records, 84–85
Schwartz Value Survey (SVS), 1006
Schwarzkopf, Norman, 219
science and engineering, specialized training in, 1110–11
scientific management, 728
Scorsese, Martin, 973
Scott, Robert F., 108
search committee, 885
search firms, 1136
Sears, 497, 696, 1125, 1141–42
seating arrangements, 842–43
Seattle, Chief, 969
second-curve thinking, 622
secrecy, 745–46
segregation, gender, 911
selection committees, 1135–36
self-actualization, 183–84, 294, 619, 741
self-assessment, 1130–32
self-authorization, 348
self-awareness, 184–85
self-confidence, 189, 357, 468, 585, 920
Self Description Inventory, 1140
self-efficacy, 65, 187, 188–89
self-empowerment, 309
self-esteem, 189–90, 250–51, 391, 956–57
self-fulfilling prophecy, 613
self-interest, 230
self-managed teams, 305, 317, 781–84, 871, 1022
self-managing individuals, 871–72
self-monitoring, 186–87, 235, 688–89
self-oriented leaders, 31
self-perception, 1100
self-presentation, 613
self-regulation, 187
self-reinforcement, 872
Self-Reported Inappropriate Negotiation Strategies Scale (SINS), 223
self-schemas, 185–86
self-serving, 230–31
self-sufficiency, 87
self-understanding, 185
self-worth, 618
sense making, 747
sensitivity training, 1079–87
attitude changes in, 1081–82
attributes of trainers in, 1084–85
back-home organizational differences, 1084
behavioral changes in, 1083
conclusions, 1085–86
ethical concerns in, 1086–87
evaluations of, 1081
outdoors, 1081
packaged, 1080–81
for participative leadership, 1101–2
perceptions changed in, 1082–83
performance effects of, 1083–84
theory of, 1079
transfer problems, 1086
variants of, 1079–80
sensitizers, 867
September 11 attacks, 210, 234, 237, 258, 708, 824, 973
servant leaders, 51–52, 55, 227, 554, 626, 749
ServiceMaster, 1109
sex differences, see gender differences sexism, 909, 1014
sex-role identification, 919–20
Sex-Role Inventory (SRI), 907, 923
sex-role stereotypes, 34, 903, 906–15, 1025
sexual orientation, 978
Shakespeare, William, 6, 596, 607
shareholders, 686
Shell International, 1044, 1051
Shenandoah Life Insurance, 784
short-term results, pressure for, 171–72
Silicon Valley, California, 751
perceived, 251–52
simulations:
in future research, 1182
in performance appraisals, 1125
in training programs, 673, 1074–76
Singapore, 995
Sitting Bull, Chief, 969
situational favorability, 530
situationalism, 103–4, 717–19, 815
situational leadership training, 1101
situational theories, 52–53, 511, 518, 520
Sixteen Personal Factors Questionnaire, 1015, 1143, 1149
skills, 112
skills training, 1078–79, 1099
Sloan, Alfred P., 660
Smith, Adam:
The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 797–98
The Wealth of Nations, 726–27, 797
social capital, 728
social distance, 846–47
social-exchange theory, 63
social identification, 589
social intelligence, 123–24
socialization:
in clan and market cultures, 754–55
of women, 913–15
social learning theories, 60–63
social mobility, 91
Social Processes of Leadership (SPL), 628
social psychological theories, 58
social science research, 13–14
social skills, 688–89
Social Skills Inventory, 916
social support, 838
socioeconomic status, 91, 98, 247
socioemotional competence, 118–35
structure of, 119–22
task requirements vs., 799
sociograms, 847
sociometric leaders, 28
sociophysical activity, 91
sociopolitical ethos, effects of, 723–24
sociopsychological classifications, 34–35
sociotechnical systems, 799–800
Socrates, 1196
solidarity, 766–67
Sopranos (fict.), 735
Southwest Airlines, 213, 223, 500, 698, 699
Soviet Union:
Afghanistan invaded by, 713
and Bolshevik Revolution, 719
and Cold War, 707
conflict resolution in, 1018
dissolution of, 711, 987; see also Russia
distrust of managers in, 1024
glasnost and perestroika in, 585, 616, 703
origins of leaders in, 999
parallel authority structures in, 358
space:
autonomous work groups, 871
electronic networking, 855–62
experimental communication networks, 863–71
and interaction potential, 840
and networks, 850–55
office layout, 844
physical, 841–43
psychosocial, 843–50
seating arrangements, 842–43
and self-management, 871–72
Sparks, Jack, 20
Spartacus, 11
spatial proximity, 841
specialists, transfer of, 879
specifications equations, 1143
speech, fluency of, 83
speeches, evaluation of, 1127
Spencer, Herbert, 52
Spinoza, Baruch, 201
spiritual leadership, 213–14
spotlight effect, 250
Springfield ReManufacturing Corporation, 500, 746
stability, 294, 349, 743–44, 773–74, 865
Stack, Jack, 500
Stalin, Joseph, 331, 339, 440, 578
stars, 30
static leaders, 29
statistical proxies, 868–71
stature, 82
and age, 1164–65
clarity about, 191
and compensation, 191–92
and esteem, 256–57
and legitimacy, 347–48
loss of, 244
maintaining, 257
overestimated, 348
and satisfaction, 190–91
self-accorded, 246–47
striving for, 243–44
symbolic value of, 248–49
in teams, 770
status crystallization, 739
status differences, 845
stereotypes:
gender-related, 34, 903, 906–15, 1025
use of term, 906n
stereotype threats, 908
Sternberg, Tom, 688
Stevenson, Adlai E., 108, 153, 589
Stilwell, Joseph, 846
stories, as research method, 76–77
strategic alliances, 656, 1042
strategic challenges, 694–95
strategic change, 695–97
strategic decisions, 698–99
strategic formulation, 699–700
strategic inflection points, 694
strategic leadership, 682–715
components of, 700–701
decision making, 701
and executive leadership, 683
setting policies, 693–702
top-management team (TMT), 684–85
types of, 43–44
strategic maneuvering, 698
StrengthsFinder, 1070
stress, 812–39
of African Americans, 955
and burnout, 642
causes of, 813–14
and central authority, 822–23
and conflict, 827–28
and decision making, 812–13, 823–24
defensive avoidance, 819–20, 825
and effective leaders, 826–38
future research on, 1192
group responses to, 819–20
individual differences in, 815
and leadership, 820–26
and motivation, 817–18
national differences in, 1016–18
nature of, 812–19
and the nature of the task, 827
signs of, 812
situational differences in, 815–16
and structure, 818–19
variations in conditions of, 826–27
for women in management, 913
stretch assignments, 941
Strong Vocational Interest Blank, 918, 1137–38, 1140, 1142
structural clarity, 739
structural complexity, 740–41
structural distance, 844
structural equation modeling, 72
structuralism, 293–94, 294–95, 297
structural role redefinition, 942
structure:
in disasters, 832
and effectiveness, 303
initiation of, 18
and stress, 818–19
tall vs. flat, 741
timing and need for, 739–40
student leaders, 31
submissive subordinates, 418
subordinates:
abilities of, 789
African American, 959–62
appraisals of bosses by, 1129–30
authority dependent on, 354–55
conflicts with, 329
differing treatment of, 432–33
as feedback moderators, 390–91
gender of, 931
of laissez-faire leaders, 148–49
performance of, 503–4
power of, 265–66
satisfaction and leader gender, 927–28
see also followers
Sub-Saharan cluster of nations, 994
substitutes for leadership, 868, 869–70, 871, 1198–99
succession, 882–94
abruptness of, 894
of African American leaders, 952
and age, 888
antecedents of, 884
consequences of, 890–92
determinants of choice, 885
effects of poor corporate performance, 887
in family firms, 886
founder’s influence on, 885
future research on, 1186–87, 1202–3
grooming the successor for, 886
heir apparent to, 886
of insiders vs. outsiders, 888–90
involuntary, 886–87
lack of continuity in, 889
moderators of effects of, 892–93
organizational influences in, 888
in owner-managed firms, 888
predecessor and, 885–86
purposes of, 883–84
rules of, 884–85
search committees for, 885
strategic influences in, 887
and transition, 893–94
Sundby, Dale, 691–92
Sun Tzu, Art of War, 49
superleaders, 405–6, 782, 783–84, 872
superstars, 579
supervision:
general, 435
need for, 8
operant model of, 64
Supervisor Position Description Questionnaire (SPDQ), 669
supervisors:
African American, 959–61
as agents of socialization, 754–55
authority of, 354–55
conflicts with, 329
evaluations by, 1127–28
experienced, 417
importance of, 8
influence of, 406
intentions in appraisals, 1128–29
and job complexity, 769
learning from, 1090
multiple orientations of, 334
organizational support for, 744
positional power of, 267–68
role in organizational strategies, 702
stressful practices of, 820–21
training effectiveness for, 1120
views about, 391
Supervisory Behavior Description Questionnaire (SBDQ), 540–71
antecedents and correlates of, 549–53
business studies of, 556–58
instrumentation of, 564–65
interaction of effects, 569
meta-analyses of, 562–64
psychometric properties of, 540–43
and race, 961–62
Supreme Court, U.S., 708
Survey of Organizations, 962
surveys, 73–74
symbolic universes of meaning, 343
symbolism, 17, 609–10, 627, 656
systematization, 1166
tact, 92
Taft, William Howard, 704, 706, 713
Taiwan:
compensation in, 1004
economic development of, 993, 996
long-term orientation in, 1012
management practices in, 995
task competence, 108–9, 117, 789, 790
task-cycle model, 367
task-effective culture, 753
task orientation (conscious motivation), 180–81
task-oriented leaders, 31, 42–43, 44, 435–36, 497, 498–500
antecedents of, 501–4
conceptions, 498
consequences of, 504–11
LPC as measure of, 525
national differences in, 1035–36
need for, 500–501
purposes, 498
and stress, 828
training of, 1102
ability to perform, 788–89
assignment of, 788
autonomy in, 793
complexity of, 795–99
different, effects of, 789
at different organizational levels, 802
difficulty of, 796–97
followers’ preferences for, 790
and gender roles, 934
innovation and creativity in, 793–94, 801–2
interdependence of, 797–99
low-scope, 795
multitasking, 797
nature of, 827
path-goal theory, 804–11
reengineering of, 758
relevance of, 485–86
role clarity of, 792
rotation of, 788
routineness vs. variations in, 794–95
types of, 801–4
uncertainty of, 797
Taylor, Elizabeth, 331
Taylor, Frederick W., Scientific Management, 728
Taylor, Zachary, 162
team climate, 780
team-member exchange (TMX), 760, 781
teams, 756–85
cohesiveness of, 765
conflicts in, 779–80
cross-training of, 758
early interest in, 758
effectiveness of, 774–77
empowerment of, 783
groups vs., 757–65; see also groups
leader intentions in, 778
leader presence in, 777–78
measuring the attributes of, 761
meetings of, 776–77
multifunctional, 770–71
network connections of, 775
performance of, 760–61
and power, 292
prevalence of, 758–59
purpose of, 762–63
self-managed, 305, 317, 781–84, 871, 1022
semipermanent, 784
status and esteem of, 770
structure of, 763–64
team satisfaction, 780
Teamsters Union, 209
technical leaders, 28
technology, 786–87
automation complacency, 787
avoiding obsolescence in, 1063
complexity of, 795–96
computerization, 680, 803–4, 1163–64
computer-mediated communications, 1062–63
constraints of, 10
and decision making, 473
E-leadership, 860–62
electronic networking, 855–62
future in, 1163
innovations in, 644
intensive, 795
and job reengineering, 786–87
long-linked, 796
managers of, 307
and opportunities for women, 935
optimal use of, 787
and productivity, 813–14
and resistance to change, 336–37
sociotechnical systems, 799–800
technical knowledge, 113–15
telecommuting, 856–57
teleworking, 856–58
Tecumseh, Chief, 969
telecommuting, 856–57
telepresence, 861
teleworking, 856–58
temperance, 221
Tenneco, 699
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 479, 646
Teresa, Mother, 590
terminal values, 167
term limits, 883
territoriality, 841
terrorism, 980
Texaco, 786–87
T-groups, 1079–81
Thatcher, Margaret, 49, 715, 874, 899, 901, 912
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 138, 157, 158, 218, 579, 804, 1113
Theory of Charismatic Leaderhip, 602
Theory X and Theory Y, 58, 447n, 448, 450, 728, 740–41
Thomas, Norman, 177
Thoreau, Henry, 160
thought, leadership of, 17
thought experiments, 1183
360-degree ratings, 1097–98, 1132–33
Thucycides, 353
time management, 665–67, 676, 1019
timing, 126–27
timocratic leaders, 32
Title VII, Civil Rights Act (1964), 903
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 997
tokenism, 912
Top-Management Team (TMT), 684–85
Toscanini, Arturo, 973
Total Quality Management (TQM), 8, 627, 697, 1051
Toussaint-Louverture, 11
toxic leadership, 235–36
trade-offs, 204
training, 1051–1122
action learning, 1090
approaches to, 1051
behavior modeling, 1077–78
career issues, 1063–67
coaching, 1091–92
computer-assisted instruction, 1077
criteria of effectiveness, 119
and educational institutions, 1058–63
effects of, 485
E-learning, 1076–77
evaluation of, 1117–18
expected effects of, 1098–1100
factors that affect outcomes, 1118–21
feedback on, 1096–98
future research on, 1202–3
in-baskets, 1074–75
job rotation, 1090–91
job transfer of, 1119
in leadership styles, 1100–1108
lectures and discussions, 1071–72
Looking Glass, 1075–76
management development programs, 1109–10
by mentors, 1090–96
motivation for, 1108–9
needs assessment for, 1068–70
off-the-job, 1071–87
on-the-job, 1087–96
programmatic applications, 1109
programmed instruction, 1076