9:36 Joppa, about 38 miles (61 km) from Jerusalem, was the main seaport of Judea (see “Joppa”). Today it is known as Jaffa and is a suburb of Tel Aviv.

9:37 The body was washed in preparation for burial, a custom common to both Jews and Greeks. If burial was delayed, it was customary to lay the body in an upper room. In Jerusalem the body had to be buried the day the person died, but outside Jerusalem up to three days might be allowed for burial (see “Jewish Burial Practices”).

9:38 For “Lydda,” see the note on verse 32 and for “Joppa” the note on verse 36.

9:43 Occupations were frequently used with personal names to further identify individuals, but in this case the occupation was especially significant. A tanner was involved in treating the skins of dead animals, thus contacting the unclean according to Jewish law; an individual involved in such a trade was despised by many.

10:1 For “Caesarea,” see the note on 8:40.
A centurion commanded a century, a military unit that by New Testament times typically numbered 80 men (see the note on Mt 8:5). The Roman legion (about 6,000 men) generally included about 60 centuries, as well as cavalry and auxiliaries. A legion was typically comprised of ten cohorts or regiments, with six centuries per cohort. Centurions were carefully selected; all of them mentioned in the New Testament appear to have had noble qualities. The Roman centurions provided necessary stability to the entire Roman military system.
“Italy” (here referred to in the designation “the Italian Regiment”) is the geographical term for the country of which Rome was the capital. Originally it applied only to the extreme south of what is now Italy, the region now called Calabria, but gradually the application of the name was extended, until in the first century A.D. it began to be used in the current sense. It is referred to three other times in the New Testament: 18:2, 27:1 and Hebrews 13:24.

10:2 God-fearers were non-Jews who believed in one God, attended the synagogue and respected the moral and ethical teachings of the Jews but who did not fully embrace all of the Jewish customs, such as the rite of circumcision (see the note on Jn 12:20; cf. “converts” in the note on Ac 2:11; see also “Proselytes in Second Temple Judaism” and “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”)

10:3 Cornelius experienced his vision “at about three in the afternoon”—a traditional Jewish time of prayer—the hour of the evening incense (see the note on 3:1).

10:5 For “Joppa,” see the note on 9:36.

10:6 For “tanner,” see the note on 9:43.

10:9 For “roof,” see the notes on Mark 2:4 and Luke 17:31.

10:15 On the subject of defilement in the Old and New Testaments, see the note on Song of Songs 5:3.

10:23 By providing lodging for them, Peter was already taking the first step toward accepting Gentiles. Such intimate relationship with Gentiles was contrary to prescribed Jewish practice.

10:30 The Jews counted a part of a day as a whole day.
“A man in shining clothes” was common language to describe an angel when appearing in the form of a man (see Mt 28:3; Mk 16:5; Jn 20:12; see also “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

10:46 See “Tongue-Speaking in Christian and Pagan Worship.”

11:1 At times “brothers” is used to refer to those of common Jewish lineage (2:29; 7:2), but in Christian contexts the term denotes those united in Christ (6:3; 10:23).

11:2 “Circumcised believers” refers to Jewish Christians.

11:3 “Uncircumcised men” refers to the Gentiles who would not observe the laws of clean and unclean food and who would violate Jewish regulations concerning food preparation.

11:5 For “Joppa,” see the note on 9:36.

11:14 “Household” refers not only to the family but also to slaves and employed individuals under Cornelius’s authority.

11:19 Phoenicia was a country about 15 miles (24 km) wide and 120 miles (193 km) long, stretching along the northeastern Mediterranean coast (modern Lebanon). Its important cities were Tyre and Sidon (see the notes on Mt 15:21; Mk 7:31; see also “Phoenicia”).
Cyprus is an island in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Jews had settled there from Maccabean times. It was also the home of Barnabas (see the note on Ac 13:1–2).
Antioch—not to be confused with Pisidian Antioch (see the note on 13:14)—was the third city of the Roman Empire (after Rome and Alexandria). It lay 15 miles (24 km) inland from the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean. The first largely Gentile church was located there, and it was from this church that Paul’s three missionary journeys were launched (see “Antioch of Syria, Center of Christianity”).

11:20 For “Cyprus,” see the note on verse 19. Cyrene was the capital of a district of Libya (a region west of Egypt) called Cyrenaica. Archaeology has shown that the Greek plan was to make Cyrene the “Athens of Africa.” The most interesting remains there are a great system of tombs cut out of solid rock into the cliff. Architecture and paintings adorn these tombs.

11:22 “Antioch” is Syrian Antioch (see the note on v. 19).
The sending of Barnabas (see the note on 13:1–2) was apparently in keeping with the Jerusalem church’s policy of sending leaders to check on new ministries that came to their attention (see 8:14 and its note).

11:25 For “Tarsus,” see the note on 22:3.

11:26 The term “Christian” was probably applied to these disciples in Syrian Antioch (see the note on v. 19) by the city’s non-Christian population, possibly as a derogatory label meaning “little messiahs” or “belonging to Christ.” Christ is the Greek word for Messiah—a redeemer most Jews thought they still awaited.

11:28 See “Famine in the Ancient Near East”, as well as the note at Ruth 1:1. According to Josephus, a severe famine occurred in Judah (affecting Jerusalem) in A.D. 46.
Claudius was the emperor of Rome (see “Claudius, Emperor of Rome”) from A.D. 41 to 54.

11:30 This is the first reference to “elders” in Acts (see also the notes on 1Ti 3:1–7; 5:17). Since the apostles are not mentioned, they may have been absent from Jerusalem at this time.

12:1 “King Herod” is a reference here to Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great and son of Aristobulus. He was a nephew of Herod Antipas, who had beheaded John the Baptist (Mt 14:3–12) and tried Jesus (Lk 23:8–12). When Antipas was exiled, Agrippa received his tetrarchy, as well as those of Philip and Lysanias (see Lk 3:1 and its note). In A.D. 41 Judea and Samaria were added to his realm. (see “Herod’s Successors and Uneasy Relations Between Rome and the Jews.”)
For “persecute them,” see “The Early Persecution of the Church.”

12:2 James was the brother of John the apostle and the son of Zebedee (Mt 4:21). This event took place about ten years after Jesus’ death and resurrection.
“Put to death with the sword” implies beheaded, like John the Baptist.

12:3 For “Feast of Unleavened Bread,” see the notes on Matthew 26:17 and Mark 14:1.

12:4 “Four squads” means one company of four soldiers for each of the four watches of the night (see the note on Mt 14:25).
“Passover” here refers to the whole week of the festival (see the note on Mt 26:17).

12:7 For “angel of the Lord,” see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

12:8 For “clothes and sandals,” see “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World.”

12:9 “Prison” probably refers to the Fortress of Antonia, located at the northwestern corner of the temple—the “barracks” where Paul was later held (see 21:34; see also “Herod’s Temple”, “The Ancient City” and “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest”).

12:12 Mary was the aunt of Barnabas (see Col 4:10; see also the note on Ac 13:1–2). Apparently her home was a gathering place for Christians, and it may have been the location of the upper room where the Last Supper was held (see Mk 14:13–15; Ac 1:13; see also “The Upper Room”) and the place of prayer in Acts 4:31.

12:17 James was Jesus’ brother (see the note on Lk 8:19 and “The Family of Joseph, Mary and Jesus”).

12:20–23 Agrippa’s sudden death was fully recorded by Josephus (Antiquities, 19.8). On the second day of a festival held in Caesarea in honor of Claudius, Agrippa donned a silver garment of “wonderful” texture and entered the amphitheater early in the morning. When the sun’s rays shone on his garment, the brilliant glare caused his flatterers to cry out that he was a god. Josephus added that “the king did neither rebuke them nor reject their impious flattery.” Almost immediately a severe pain arose in his abdomen, and five days later he died in great agony.

12:21 For “throne,” see “The Judgment Seat.”

13:1–2 Barnabas (called Joseph in 4:36) was a Levite from Cyprus who was known for his generosity and goodness (4:36; 11:24) and who had spoken on Paul’s behalf to the apostles (9:27). The Jerusalem church had sent Barnabas to Syrian Antioch (11:22; see the note on 11:19) to lead the new church there, and he later brought Paul to Antioch to work as his associate (11:26). Paul and Barnabas spent about a year together in Antioch before receiving this call from God to set out on a missionary journey together. Paul and Barnabas would later have a disagreement over Barnabas’s cousin John Mark, and the two would separate to go on separate missionary journeys—Barnabas and John Mark to Cyprus, Paul and Silas to Asia Minor (15:36–40).

13:3 For “placed their hands on,” see the note on 6:6.

13:4 It was common to travel by sea (see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”); accordingly they headed to Seleucia, the seaport of Syrian Antioch, 16 miles (26 km) to the west and 5 miles (8 km) upstream from the mouth of the Orontes River.

13:5 Salamis was a town on the eastern coast of the central plain of Cyprus (see the note on 4:36), near modern Famagusta. It was founded, according to tradition, by Teucer, who was from the island by the same name off the coast of Greece. The city possessed a good harbor and was populous and flourishing during the Hellenic and Roman periods. Nothing is said of the duration or success of the visit by Paul and Barnabas. Paul did not return to Salamis, but Barnabas doubtless did on his second missionary journey (15:39). According to tradition he was martyred there during the reign of Nero.
“John” was John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas.

13:6 Paphos, the headquarters of Roman rule, was located at the western end of Cyprus, nearly 100 miles (160 km) from Salamis. The Paphos of the Bible is really New Paphos, a Roman city rebuilt by Augustus; the old Greek city of Paphos, dedicated to the worship of Aphrodite, lay 10 miles (16 km) to the south. New Paphos is now known as Baffa.
For “sorcerer,” see the note on “Magi” at Matthew 2:1.

13:7 Since Cyprus (see the note on 4:36) was a Roman senatorial province, a proconsul was assigned to it. A proconsul was a Roman official, generally of praetorian or consular rank, who served as deputy consul in the Roman provinces. The term of office was one year, although it could be longer in special instances. The powers of the proconsul were unlimited in both the military and civil areas, but when his term had expired he was held accountable for what he had done. Sergius Paulus, Paul’s famous convert (see “Sergius Paulus, Proconsul of Cyprus”), and Gallio (18:12) were such officials mentioned in the Bible.

13:8 “Elymas” is a Semitic name meaning “sorcerer,” “magician” or “wise man” (probably a self-assumed designation). See also the note on “Magi” at Matthew 2:1.

13:9 It was customary to have a given name, in this case Saul (designating a Hebrew with a Jewish background), and a later name, in this case Paul (denoting a Roman with a Hellenistic background).

13:13 Perga, the capital of Pamphylia, a coastal province of Asia Minor between the provinces of Lycia and Cilicia, lay 5 miles (8 km) inland and 12 miles (19 km) east of the important seaport Attalia (see the note on 14:25). During Greek times a celebrated temple of Artemis (Diana) was located in the vicinity, which may have been the reason that Christianity never flourished there as it did in other cities in Asia Minor. Today it is known as Murtana, and the well-preserved ruins still reveal an immense theater that accommodated about 13,000 people.

13:14 For “Pisidian,” see the note on 14:24.
Pisidian Antioch—not to be confused with Syrian Antioch (see the note on 11:19)—was named after Antiochus, the king of Syria after the death of Alexander the Great. It was located 110 miles (177 km) from Perga and 3,600 feet (1,100 m) above sea level. The city was the hub of good roads and trade and had a large Jewish population. It was a Roman colony, which meant that a contingent of retired military men was settled there. They had been given free land and made citizens of the city of Rome, with all of the accompanying privileges (see “Roman Citizenship”).
Paul’s regular practice was to begin his preaching in the synagogue, as long as the Jews would allow it. His reason for doing so was grounded in his understanding of God’s redemptive plan. He was not neglecting his Gentile mission, for “God-fearers” (see the notes on Jn 12:20; Ac 10:2; cf. “converts” in the note on 2:11) were a part of the audience. The synagogue provided a ready-made preaching situation with a building, regularly scheduled meetings and a people who knew the Old Testament Scriptures. It was customary to invite visitors, and especially visiting rabbis (such as Paul), to address the gathering. (See the notes on Mk 1:21; Lk 21:12.)

13:15 Sections from the Old Testament were read (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”), followed by exposition and exhortation.
For “synagogue rulers,” see the notes on Mark 5:22 and Luke 8:41.

13:28 See “Pontius Pilate.”

13:45 See “Paul’s Jewish Opponents.”

13:51 For “shook the dust from their feet,” see the notes on Matthew 10:14 and Luke 9:5.
In the first century Iconium was one of the chief cities in the southern part of the Roman province of Galatia. It was a city of immemorial antiquity, situated near the western end of a vast, level plain, with mountains a few miles toward the west, from which streams flowed that made it a veritable oasis. Two important trade routes passed through the city, and it lay on the road leading to Ephesus and Rome. Its geographical position made it the natural capital of Lycaonia (see the note on Ac 14:6). Archaeological inscriptions found there in 1910 show that the Phrygian language was spoken there for two centuries after the time of Paul, although at neighboring Lystra the natives spoke “the Lycaonian language (14:11). Hadrian made the city a Roman colony. It has had a continuous history and is now known as Konia—still the main trading center on the Lycaonian plain.

14:1 Paul made it his practice to preach in the synagogues of cities through which he passed (see the notes on 9:20; 13:14).

14:5 Stoning was a Jewish mode of execution for blasphemy (Lev 24:16).

14:6 Lycaonia was a district east of Pisidia (see the note on 14:24), north of the Taurus Mountains. In early Roman days it had been a part of the Roman province of Cilicia, but Trajan transferred it to Galatia (the situation during Paul’s time), after which it reverted largely back to Cilicia under the boundary adjustments of Antonius Pius. Iconium, an ancient city rich in history, was its administrative capital (see the note on 13:51). The province generally was backward, its inhabitants still speaking a vernacular language during the first century A.D. In this verse it is implied that one crossed a frontier in passing from Iconium to Lystra.
Lystra, a Roman colony, was the probable home of Timothy (see 16:1)—although he was known in Iconium as well (see 16:2). Lystra lay about 20 miles (32 km) from Iconium and 130 miles (209 km) from Antioch.
Derbe, about 60 miles (97 km) from Lystra, was the home of Gaius (see 20:4). It was a border town in the southeastern part of the Lycaonian region of Galatia. An inscription naming the city has been discovered about 30 miles (48 km) east of what was previously thought to be its site.

14:12 Zeus, the most popular god in Galatia, was regularly linked with Hermes. The response of the Lystrans may be traced to the following legend: Zeus and Hermes once visited the Phrygian hill country, disguised as ordinary men. They were turned away from a thousand homes but finally were welcomed into the humble abode of an elderly couple. The gods turned that house into a temple and destroyed the houses of all who had rejected them.

14:13 The Greek for “city gates” can refer to the temple gates, the city gates or house gates.

14:14 Tearing one’s clothes was a Jewish way of expressing great anguish (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).

14:19 The Jews stoned Paul inside the city rather than at the usual place of execution outside its walls (see “Paul’s Jewish Opponents”).

14:20 For “Derbe,” see the note on verse 6.

14:21 “Antioch” is Pisidian Antioch (see the note on 13:14).

14:24 Pisidia was a district about 120 miles (193 km) long and 50 miles (80 km) wide, located north of Pamphylia. Bandits frequented the region.
Pamphylia was a district 80 miles (129 km) long and 20 miles (32 km) wide at its widest part, located on the southern coast of Asia Minor. After A.D. 74 Pisidia was included in the Roman province of Pamphylia.

14:25 For “Perga,” see the note on 13:13.
Attalia was the best harbor on the coast of Pamphylia.

14:26 For “sailed,” see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World.”
“Antioch” is Syrian Antioch (see the note on 11:19).

15:1 These “men” were probably from the party of the Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17). They were believers (see Ac 15:5) who insisted that before anyone could become a true Christian that individual must keep the Law of Moses; for a man, the test of such compliance was circumcision. These Judaizers (or legalists) were given a hearing, not implying that they correctly represented the apostles and elders of Jerusalem.

15:2 For “sharp dispute and debate,” see “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World.”

15:5 Some Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17) became Christians but brought their Judaic beliefs with them. They believed that Gentiles must first become converts to Judaism and be circumcised (see v. 1) before being eligible to be saved by faith.

15:10 For “yoke,” see the note on Matthew 11:28–30.

15:19–20 Circumcision was not required, but four stipulations were laid down. These involved areas of Gentile weakness that particularly repulsed Jewish believers. It would have helped both the individual and the relationship between Gentile and Jew if these requirements had been observed. They involved divine directives that the Jews believed were given before the Mosaic Law. Gentiles were to abstain from (1) food polluted by idols (see the note on 1Co 8:7); (2) sexual immorality, a sin taken too lightly by the Greeks and also associated with certain pagan religious festivals; (3) the meat of strangled animals, those retaining the blood that was forbidden to be eaten (see Ge 9:4); and (4) eating blood, a practice expressly forbidden under Jewish law (see Lev 17:10–12).

15:22 Silas was a leader in the Jerusalem church, a prophet (v. 32), a Roman citizen (16:37–38) and Paul’s companion on his second missionary journey (15:40).

15:23 “Antioch” is Syrian Antioch (see the note on 11:19).
Cilicia was a country in southeastern Asia Minor, bounded on the north and west by the Taurus range and on the south by the Mediterranean. It had two parts, the western region, called the Rugged, and the eastern side, called the Plain Cilicia, the chief city of which was Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul (21:39; 22:3; 23:34). The early inhabitants must have been Hittites, although later on the Syrians and Phoenicans settled there. The region came under Persian sway but, after Alexander, Seleucid rulers governed it from Antioch. Cilicia became a Roman province in 100 B.C. One of its governors was Cicero, the renowned orator (51–50 B.C.). The country was accessible by land only by way of its two famous mountain passes, the Cilician Gates and the Syrian Gates. Jews from Cilicia disputed with Stephen (6:9), and the gospel reached the area early, probably through Paul (9:30; Gal 1:21). On Paul’s second missionary journey he confirmed the churches that had been established there (Ac 15:41), and on his way to Rome as a prisoner he sailed over the sea of Cilicia (27:5).

15:29 See the note on verses 19–20.

16:1 For “Derbe” and “Lystra,” see the note on 14:6.
Timothy must have been in his teens at this time. His father was a Greek, while his mother was a Jewish Christian. (Statements concerning his mother’s faith, combined with silence concerning the faith of his father, suggest that his father was neither a convert to Judaism nor a believer in Christ.) Although Timothy lived in Lystra (in modern Turkey), he was well known in Iconium as well (16:2; see the note on 13:51).
Greeks and Grecians are to be distinguished. Greeks were generally those of the Hellenic race (here and in 18:4; this designation probably applies as well to Jn 12:20), but the word may be used as well to indicate non-Jews, foreigners and aliens. Grecians were Greek-speaking Jews, people of the dispersion, from areas that were predominantly Greek (Ac 6:1).

16:3 Timothy was circumcised as a matter of expediency, so that his work among the Jews might be more effective. This was different from Titus’s case (see Gal 2:3), where circumcision was refused because some were demanding it as being necessary for salvation.

16:6 The district of Phrygia was formerly the Hellenistic territory of Phrygia, but it had more recently been divided between the Roman provinces of Asia and Galatia. Iconium (see the note on 13:51) and Pisidian Antioch (see the note on 13:14) were located in Galatian Phrygia.
The name “Galatia” had been used to denote the Hellenistic kingdom, but in 25 B.C. the territory had been expanded considerably to become the Roman province of that name.
Asia had been a smaller area but was now a Roman province that included the Hellenistic districts of Mysia, Lydia, Carla and parts of Phrygia.

16:7 Mysia was located in the northwestern part of the province of Asia. Luke used old, Hellenistic names, but Paul preferred the provincial (Roman) names.
Bithynia was a region along the northern edge of Asia Minor fronting on the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. The area had been settled very early, and its known history goes back past the sixth century B.C., when Croesus made it a part of his kingdom. A king of Bithynia in the third century B.C. invited the Gauls into Asia, so originating the designation “Galatia.” From the thirteenth century A.D. on the region has been Turkish, or at least ruled by the Turks.

16:8 Troas was located 10 miles (16 km) from ancient Troy. Alexandria Troas (its full name) was a Roman colony and an important seaport for connections between Macedonia and Greece on the one hand and Asia Minor on the other. A church was eventually started there, for Paul ministered to believers in Troas when he returned from his third journey on his way to Jerusalem (20:5–12).

16:9 Macedonia had become a Roman province in 148 B.C.

16:10 The pronoun “we” suggests that Paul and Luke may have met or joined forces at Troas. Some scholars believe that Luke joined the team as a doctor due to Paul’s health concerns (cf. Gal 4:13).

16:11 Samothrace is an island in the northeastern Aegean Sea. It was a convenient place for ships to anchor rather than sailing at night. Traveling by sea was common in New Testament times (see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”).
Neapolis (modern Kavalla) was the seaport for Philippi, 10 miles (16 km) away.

16:12 Philippi was a city in eastern Macedonia named after Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great. Since it was a Roman colony, it was independent of provincial administration and had a governmental organization modeled after that of Rome. Many retired legionnaires from the Roman army settled there, but few Jews. (see “Philippi.”)

16:13 There were in fact so few Jews in Philippi that there was no synagogue (ten married men were required to establish one), so the Jews who were there met for prayer along the banks of the Gangites River. It was customary for such places of prayer to be located outdoors near running water.

16:14 Lydia was a businesswoman whose name may be associated with her place of origin, the Hellenistic district of Lydia. In fact, as “Lydia” was a common term to denote a woman from Lydia, some scholars have suggested that her personal name was unknown or that she may have been either the Euodia or the Syntyche mentioned in Philippians 4:2. At any rate, Lydia was a Gentile who, like Cornelius (see Ac 10:2), believed in the true God and followed the moral teachings of Scripture. She had not, however, become a full convert to Judaism (see the notes on Jn 12:20; Ac 10:2; cf. “converts” in the note on 2:11).
Thyatira was located in the Roman province of Asia, 20 miles (32 km) southeast of Pergamum (in the Hellenistic kingdom of Lydia). The city was famous for dyeing works, especially royal purple (crimson).

16:15 Private homes were central to the life of the early church. Beyond being centers for hospitality, they were places for teaching, worship, fellowship and witness (see “House Churches and Early Church Buildings”). Life was lived in community, so when Lydia believed, her whole household did as well.

16:16 The spirit by which the slave girl predicted the future was a demonic “python” spirit. The python was a mythical snake worshiped at Delphi and associated with the Delphic oracle. The term python had come to be used of the persons through whom the python spirit supposedly spoke. Since such persons spoke involuntarily, the term ventriloquist was used to describe them. To what extent this young woman actually predicted the future is unknown.

16:19 For the multiple functions of the agora, or marketplace, see the note on Matthew 11:16–17, as well as “The Ancient Agora.”

16:22–24 The treatment described here was not permitted against Roman citizens. After being stripped, flogged (see the note on Mt 27:26) and sentenced without a trial, these men were sent to a maximum security area (“inner cell”). Prisoners in stocks were obliged to sleep sitting or lying on the floor, and changing positions was nearly impossible. (see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”)

16:25 For “hymns,” see “Early Christian Hymnody.”

16:26 For earthquakes, see the note on Zechariah 14:5.

16:27 If a prisoner escaped, the life of the guard was demanded in his place. To take his own life would have shortened the guard’s shame and distress.

16:37 The public beating of a Roman citizen was illegal, let alone a beating without a trial.

17:1–9 The events described here occurred in the spring of A.D. 50, shortly after Claudius had expelled Jews from Rome (in 49) following riots associated with Jews and Christians. The authorities would have wanted to avoid such problems, and the Jewish opponents would have exploited those fears.

17:1 The Egnatian Way crossed the whole of present-day northern Greece in an east-west direction and included Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia and Thessalonica on its route. At several locations, such as Kavalla (Neapolis), Philippi and Apollonia, the road is still visible today. If a person traveled about 30 miles (48 km) a day, each city could be reached after one day’s journey.
Thessalonica, situated about 100 miles (160 km) from Philippi, was the capital of the province of Macedonia and had a population of more than 200,000, including a colony of Jews (and a synagogue). See “Thessalonica.”

17:2 For “synagogue,” see the notes on 9:20 and 13:14.

17:4 For “God-fearing Greeks,” see the notes on John 12:20 and Ac 10:2 (cf. “converts” in the note on 2:11).
These “prominent women” may have been the wives of the leading men of that city; alternatively, they may have been women who deserved notice and position in their own right.

17:5 For “marketplace,” see “The Ancient Agora.”

17:6 The Greek term politarch (lit., “city ruler”), translated here and in verse 8 as “city officials,” is found nowhere else in Greek literature, but it was discovered in 1835 in a Greek inscription on an arch that had spanned the Egnatian Way on the western side of Thessalonica. (The arch was destroyed in 1867, but the block with the inscription was rescued and is now in the British Museum in London.) The term has since been found in 16 other inscriptions in surrounding towns of Macedonia, as well as elsewhere.

17:7 Blasphemy was the gravest accusation for a Jew, but treason—to support a rival king above Caesar—was the worst accusation for a Roman.

17:9 Jason was forced to guarantee a peaceful, quiet community; otherwise, he would have faced the confiscation of his properties and perhaps even death.

17:10 Berea (modern Verria) was located 50 miles (80 km) from Thessalonica in another district of Macedonia.
For “synagogue,” see the notes on 9:20 and 13:14.

17:14–15 Although we might conclude that Paul traveled by ship to Athens, the route there follows a coastal road, and he may have walked the distance after having been escorted to the coast—some 20 miles (32 km).
Five centuries before Paul, Athens had been at the height of its glory in terms of art, philosophy and literature. The city had retained its reputation in philosophy through the years and still maintained a leading university in Paul’s day (see “Athens”).

17:16–33 The Epicureans were followers of Epicurus, a Greek philosopher who had lived from 341–270 B.C. Epicurus taught that nature rather than reason is the true reality and that nothing exists but atoms and voice (matter and space). The chief purpose of humankind in his view was to achieve happiness. People have free will, he asserted, in order to plan and live lives of pleasure. Epicurus interpreted pleasure as avoidance of pain, so that the mere enjoyment of good health would have been considered “pleasure.” He also considered it impossible to live a good life without having honor and justice. Such moderation was lost on later interpreters, however, who took “pleasure” to be synonymous with unrestrained sensual satisfaction. Epicureanism was widely espoused at the time of Christ, and Paul met it in Athens when he encountered the philosophers of that city. Epicureans were not impressed by his teaching of creation, judgment and resurrection, since all of these doctrines were denied by the Epicurean philosophy (see “Greek Philosopical Schools”).

17:17–19 In Athens Paul ministered in the synagogue (see the notes on 9:20; 13:14) to Jews and to “God-fearing Greeks” (see the notes on Jn 12:20; Ac 10:2; cf. “converts” in the note on 2:11), as well as in the marketplace (see “The Ancient Agora”). He also engaged in discussions with the philosophers (see “Greek Philosophical Schools”) and leaders of the city.
The Areopagus (see “The Areopagus”) was the main administrative body and chief court in Athens, representing that society’s intellectual elite. The Council of the Areopagus had ruled Athens before it had become a democracy in 620 B.C. By New Testament times the Areopagus retained authority only in the areas of religion and morals and met in the Royal Portico at the northwestern corner of the agora. Its members considered themselves the custodians of teachings that introduced new religions and foreign gods.

17:17 For the multiple functions of the agora, or marketplace, see the note on Matthew 11:16–17, as well as “The Ancient Agora.”

17:21 See “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World.”

17:23 The Greeks were fearful of offending any god by failing to give him or her attention; they felt that they could cover any omissions by the label “unknown god” (see “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans”). Other Greek writers confirm that such altars could be seen in Athens.

17:28 There are two quotations here: The first is from the Cretan poet Epimenides (c. 600 B.C.) in his Cretica. The second is from the Cilician poet Aratus (c. 315–240) in his Phaenomena, as well as from Cleanthes (331–233). Paul quoted Greek poets elsewhere as well (see 1Co 15:33; Tit 1:12).
Cleanthes, the head of the Stoic school from 263 to 232 B.C., had infused religious fervor into Zeno’s Stoicism, teaching that the universe is a living being with God its soul, advocating disinterest in ethics (maintaining that doing good to gain advantage is like feeding cattle for meat!) and asserting that evil thoughts are worse than evil deeds. Paul quoted here from his “Hymn to Zeus,” a surviving poem.

17:32 Immortality of the soul was accepted by the Greeks, but not resurrection of a dead body.

17:33 “The Council” refers to the meeting of the Areopagus (see “The Areopagus”).

17:34 Later tradition states, though it cannot be proved, that Dionysius became the bishop of Athens.
Some have suggested that Damaris must have been a foreign, educated woman to have been present at a public meeting such as that of the Areopagus (see “The Areopagus”). It is also possible that she was a God-fearing Gentile (see the notes on Jn 12:20; Ac 10:2; cf. “converts” in the note on 2:11) who had heard Paul at the synagogue.

18:1 Paul traveled either by land along the isthmus (a distance of about 50 mi or 80 km) or by sea from Piraeus, the port of Athens, to Cenchrea, on the eastern shore of the isthmus of Corinth (see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”).

18:2 Pontus, located in the northeastern region of Asia Minor, was a province lying along the Black Sea between Bithynia and Armenia.
For “Italy,” see the note on 10:1.
Suetonius wrote that Claudius (see “Claudius, Emperor of Rome”) had given the expulsion order because of “[the Jews’] continual tumults instigated by Chrestus” (a common misspelling of “Christ”). If “Chrestus” does in fact refer to Christ, the riots obviously were “about” him rather than led “by” him.

18:3 Paul had evidently been taught the tent-making trade as a youth. It was the Jewish custom to provide manual training for sons, whether rich or poor. (see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World.”)

18:4 For “synagogue,” see the notes on 9:20 and 13:14 and for “Greeks” the note on 16:1.

18:8 For “synagogue ruler,” see the notes on Mark 5:22 and Luke 8:41.

18:10 Corinth was a large, strategic political, commercial and religious center (see “Corinth”). It was important that a strong church be established there.

18:12 Gallio’s positive response to Paul was a key building block in the church’s case for a strong legal standing in the empire.
For “court,” see “The Judgment Seat.”

18:13 The Jews were claiming that Paul was advocating a religion not recognized by Roman law as Judaism was. If he had been given the opportunity to speak, he could have argued that the gospel he was preaching was the faith of his fathers and thus authorized by Roman law.

18:17 It is not clear whether the Greeks beat Sosthenes, seeing the occasion as an opportunity to vent their feelings against the Jews, or the Jews beat their own synagogue ruler because he was unsuccessful in presenting their case—probably the former.

18:18 That Priscilla’s name is mentioned first may indicate her prominent role or her higher social position.
People in Paul’s day typically cut or shaved their hair after following through on a vow. Paul may have taken this vow (probably a temporary Nazarite vow) in connection with the vision he had received (vv. 9–10). If so, cutting his hair may have been an act of thanksgiving for his protection and for the positive response of the Corinthians to the gospel.
Paul’s vow was probably a temporary Nazirite vow.

18:19 Ephesus was the leading commercial city of Asia Minor, the capital of provincial Asia and the warden of the temple of Artemis (Diana). (see “Artemis of the Ephesians” and “Ephesus During the Time of Paul.”)

18:22 For “Caesarea,” see the note on 8:40.

18:23 The phrase “region of Galatia and Phrygia” may indicate the southern part of Galatia in the Phrygian area.

18:24 Alexandria, located in Egypt, was the second most important city in the Roman Empire. It had a large Jewish population (see “Alexandria”).

18:27 Achaia was a Roman province, and Corinth was its capital.

19:1 Paul did not take the lower, direct route down the Lycus and Meander Valleys but instead took the upper, Phrygian route, approaching Ephesus from a more northerly direction.
For “Ephesus,” see “Ephesus During the Time of Paul.”

19:4 See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”

19:6 For “placed his hands on,” see the note on 6:6.
For “spoke in tongues,” see “Tongue-Speaking in Christian and Pagan Worship.”

19:9 “The Way” was a name for Christianity occurring a number of times in Acts.
The “lecture hall of Tyrannus” was probably a school used regularly by Tyrannus, a philosopher or rhetorician. Instruction was probably given during the cooler, morning hours. One Greek manuscript adds that Paul did his instructing from 11:00 A.M. to 4:00 P.M. This would have been the hottest time of the day, but the hall was available and the people were not at their regular work.

19:12 Handkerchiefs were probably used by Paul in his trade of leatherworking, for tying around his head and waist.

19:13 For “demon-possessed,” see “Demons and the Bible.”

19:14 Sceva, “a Jewish chief priest,” may have been related to the high priestly family of Jerusalem. But more likely he took this title himself to make a further impression with his magical wiles. Drawn by Paul’s ability to drive out evil spirits, Jewish exorcists wanted to copy his work.

19:19 Scrolls bearing alleged magical formulas and secret information have been unearthed. Ephesus was a center for magical incantations. The high price of 50,000 drachmas (a drachma was worth about a day’s wage) was due not to the quality of the books but to the supposed power gained by their secret knowledge of words and names.

19:21 Macedonia and Achaia were the two Roman provinces into which Greece was then divided.

19:22 Erastus, at one time “the city’s director of public works” (see Ro 16:23 and its note), was an important figure at Corinth (see “The Erastus Inscription”).

19:23 “The Way” was a name for Christianity occurring a number of times in Acts.

19:24 Each trade had its guild, and Demetrius was probably a responsible leader of the guild for the manufacture of silver shrines and images.
Reproductions from the time of the emperor Domitian (A.D. 81–96) of the original Artemis image have been found in Ephesus. (see “Artemis of the Ephesians.”)

19:25 Since the temple of Artemis was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world (see the note on v. 27), people came from far and wide to view it. Their purchase of silver shrines and images produced a lucrative business for the craftsmen.

19:27 The temple of Artemis was the glory of Ephesus. It was 425 feet (130 m) long and 220 feet (67 m) wide, having 127 white marble columns 62 feet (19 m) high and less than 4 feet (1.2 m) apart. In the inner sanctuary stood the many-breasted image supposedly dropped from heaven.

19:29 In spite of the rudimentary dramatic structure discernible in the book of Job and the Song of Songs, Israel produced no drama and thus had no theaters. The word theater is from the Greek and is a noun derived from the verb theaomai, meaning “to view” or “to look upon.” The Greek theater, and the Roman theater that followed it, were structures designed to seat the viewers at a dramatic representation. The theater was usually an open-air structure, a semicircle of stone seats built into the side of a hill and seating 5,000 people or more. The seats were cut concentrically (facing a common center), and at the foot of the auditorium a semicircular piece of level pavement provided the “orchestra” (the space where the chorus, an indispensible part of all Greek dramas, and the actors performed).
There were only three actors in a Greek tragedy to fill all of the roles involved in a play. On the tent was painted a rough representation of trees or a temple or a house. The Greek for “tent” is skçnç; hence “scenery” in the dramatic sense. Surviving Greek theaters are acoustically remarkable. They were commonly used for public gatherings, since they were likely to provide the largest places of assembly in the city. The ruins of the theater in Ephesus, a most imposing structure seating 25,000 people, have been excavated. Roman theaters tended to be more elaborate than those of the Greeks, contained a more finished stage and, perhaps in conformity with the needs of a more severe climate, were at least in part roofed over.

19:38 The words “courts” and “proconsuls” are probably general terms, not intended to refer to more than one court or one proconsul. As the capital city of the province of Asia, Ephesus was the headquarters for the proconsul.

19:39 The “legal assembly” was the regular civil meeting ordinarily held three times a month.

20:4 These men seem to have been the delegates appointed to accompany Paul and the money given for the needy in Judea.
For information on Timothy, see the note on 16:1.

20:5 For “Troas,” see the note on 16:8. This city was to be the rendezvous for Paul and those who went on ahead by sea from Neapolis, the seaport of Philippi.

20:6 For “Feast of Unleavened Bread,” see the note on Matthew 26:17.
The voyage from Neapolis (the seaport of Philippi) to Troas took five days.

20:7 The “first day of the week” was Sunday. This is the first clear reference to believers meeting for worship on the first day of the week, but Sunday worship may have already become a regular practice. Although some scholars maintain that the meetings were held on Saturday evenings, since the Jewish day began at 6:00 the previous evening, Luke’s method of counting days and reporting happenings in this Hellenistic city was probably not Jewish but Roman, which counted from midnight to midnight.
“Break bread” is a reference to the Lord’s Supper.

20:9 See “Houses in the Holy Land of the First Century A.D.: Peter’s House in Capernaum; Insulae”.

20:13 Assos was on the opposite side of the peninsula from Troas—about 20 miles (32 km) away by land. The journey along the coastline, however, was about 40 miles (64 km). Travel by sea was common in New Testament times (see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”).

20:14 Mitylene was a harbor on the southeastern shore of the island of Lesbos.

20:15 Kios was a large island that lay along the western coast of Asia Minor. Samos was one of the most important islands in the Aegean, while Miletus was located about 35 miles (56 km) south of Ephesus, the destination of the ship on which Paul was traveling. He would have had to change ships to put into Ephesus, which would have resulted in lost time.

20:16 For “the day of Pentecost,” see the note on 2:1.

20:28 “Overseers” refers to the “elders of the church” (v. 17).

21:1 Cos, one of the Sporades islands off the coast of Asia Minor, was the birthplace of Hippocrates, the father of medicine. A large Jewish settlement was located there.
“Rhodes” here refers to the leading city on the island of Rhodes, once noted for its “harbor colossus,” one of the seven wonders of the ancient world (but demolished over two centuries before Paul’s arrival there).
Patara was located on the southern coast of Lycia. Paul changed ships there from a vessel that hugged the shore of Asia Minor to one going directly to Tyre and Phoenicia (see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”).

21:3 For “Cyprus,” see the note on 4:36.

21:7 Ptolemais (modern Acco) was a city lying north of and across the bay from Mount Carmel. It was situated one day’s journey from Tyre on the north and another 35 miles (56 km) to Caesarea on the south.

21:8 For “Caesarea,” see the note on 8:40. Philip’s evangelistic work may have focused on Caesarea for almost 25 years.

21:9 See the note on prophetesses at Exodus 15:20–21.

21:10 Evidently Agabus held the office of prophet, as Philip held the office of evangelist (v. 8). This is the same prophet who had been in Syrian Antioch (see the note on 11:19) prophesying the coming famine in Jerusalem, some 15 years earlier (11:27–29).

21:18 This James was the brother of Jesus (see the note on Lk 8:19). He wrote the letter of James and was the leader of the church in Jerusalem (see Gal 1:19; 2:9). Although called an apostle, he was not one of the Twelve.

21:20 See “Before the Gentile Expansion: The Jewish Churches in the Holy Land.”

21:23 These men, evidently under the temporary Nazirite vow (see the note on Nu 6:1–21), became unclean before the completion time of the vow (perhaps due to contact with a dead body). For a discussion of the support of Nazirites by the apostle Paul, as well as by the court of Herod Agrippa, see the note on Luke 1:15.

21:24 In some instances purification rites included the offering of sacrifices. Such rites were observed by choice by some Jewish Christians but were not required of Christians, either Jew or Gentile.
Paul’s part in sponsoring these men would have included (1) paying part or all of the cost of the sacrifices (in this case eight pigeons and four lambs; Nu 6:9–12) and (2) going to the temple to notify the priest when their days of purification would be fulfilled so that the priests would be prepared to sacrifice their offerings (Ac 21:26).

21:27 Seven days were required for purification, shaving their heads at the altar, the sacrifice of a sin offering and burnt offering for each and announcing the completion of the vow to the priests.

21:28 Inscriptions in Greek and Latin on stone slabs (two of which have been discovered by archaeologists) were placed on the barrier between the inner and outer temple courts, warning Gentiles of the death penalty for proceeding any further (see “The Dividing Wall of the Court of the Gentiles in Herod’s Temple”). The Roman authorities were so anxious to appease the Jews in this regard that they authorized execution even if the offender was a Roman citizen.

21:29 Trophimus was a Gentile Ephesian. Paul probably did not take him into the forbidden area. If he had, these Jews should have attacked Trophimus rather than Paul.

21:30 The gates were shut by order of the temple officer in order to prevent further trouble inside the sacred precincts.

21:31 The “commander” (Greek, chiliarch) was responsible for 1,000 soldiers (a regiment). His name was Claudius Lysias (23:26), and he was stationed at the Fortress of Antonia.

21:32 “Officers” refers to centurions (see the note on 10:1). Since the plural is used, it is likely that at least two centurions and over 150 soldiers were involved.

21:33 Paul’s hands were probably chained to that of a soldier on either side.

21:34 For “barracks,” see the note on 12:9.

21:35 The Fortress of Antonia was connected to the northern end of the temple area by two flights of steps. The tower overlooked the temple area (see the note on v. 40; see also “Herod’s Temple”).

21:38 Josephus told of an Egyptian false prophet who some years earlier had led 4,000 people (Josephus, through a misreading of a Greek capital letter, reported the number as 30,000) out to the Mount of Olives. Roman soldiers killed hundreds, but the leader escaped.
“Terrorists” (the Greek here is a loanword from Latin sicarii, meaning “dagger-men”) were violent assassins.

21:39 For “Tarsus,” see the note on 22:3.

21:40 The Tower of Antonia was a castle connected to the temple at Jerusalem, rebuilt by Herod the Great at the same time as the temple and named by him in honor of Mark Antony, his patron. A Roman legion was stationed in the castle to guard against excesses on the part of the people. When Paul was seized in the temple by the Jews, he was carried to this castle, from the stairs of which he addressed the people.
Aramaic was the most commonly used language among Palestinian Jews.

22:2 For “Aramaic,” see the note on 21:40.

22:3 Paul was a citizen of Tarsus (21:39) as well as of Rome (see “Roman Citizenship”).
Tarsus was located 10 miles (16 km) inland on the Cydnus River and 30 miles (48 km) from the mountains, which were cut by a deep, narrow gorge called the Cilician Gates. The city was an important commercial center, university city and crossroads of travel. Jews had been living in Tarsus since Antiochus Epiphanes’ refoundation in 171 B.C., and Paul belonged to a minority that had held Roman citizenship, most likely since Pompey’s organization of the East in 66–62 B.C.
Paul must have come to Jerusalem at an early age. Another translation (“brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel, being thoroughly trained according to the law of our fathers”) would suggest that Paul had come to Jerusalem when he was old enough to begin training under Gamaliel.
Gamaliel, the most honored rabbi of the first century, was probably the grandson of Hillel (see “Gamaliel, Paul’s Teacher”).

22:5 Caiaphas, the high priest over 20 years earlier, was now dead, and Ananias was high priest (see 23:2 and its note).
The “Council” refers to the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55; see also “The Sanhedrin”).

22:24 For “commander,” see the note on 21:31 and for “barracks” the notes on 12:9 and 21:35.
“Flogged” here means beaten with the scourge, a merciless instrument of torture. It was legal to use the scourge to force a confession from a slave or alien but never from a Roman citizen. This weapon consisted of a whip of leather thongs with pieces of bone or metal attached to the ends (see the note on Mt 27:26).

22:25 The Greek word translated “stretched him out” was used for tying a person to a post for whipping.
For “centurion,” see the note on 10:1.
According to Roman law, Roman citizens were assured exclusion from all degrading forms of punishment: beating with rods, scourging or crucifixion (see “Roman Citizenship”).

22:28 There were three ways to obtain Roman citizenship: (1) receive it as a reward for some outstanding service to Rome; (2) buy it at a considerable price; (3) be born into a family of Roman citizens. How Paul’s father or an earlier ancestor had gained citizenship no one knows. By 171 B.C. a large number of Jews were citizens of Tarsus (see the note on v. 3), and in the time of Pompey (106–48 B.C.) some of these could have received Roman citizenship as well (see “Roman Citizenship”).

22:30 The “chief priests” were those of the high priestly line of descent (mainly Sadducees; see the notes on Mt 2:4; 3:7), but the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55) now included a considerable number of Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17). These men constituted the ruling body of the Jews. The Jewish court was respected by the Roman governor (see “The Roman Governor”), whose approval had to be obtained before sentencing to capital punishment.

23:1 For “Sanhedrin,” see the note on Mark 14:55, and “The Sanhedrin.”

23:2 Ananias, the son of Nebedaeus, was the high priest from A.D. 47 to 59. He is not to be confused with the high priest Annas (A.D. 6–15; see the note on Lk 3:2). Ananias was noted for cruelty and violence. When the revolt against Rome broke out, he was assassinated by his own people.

23:3 Paul called Ananias a “whitewashed wall”—a metaphor for a hypocrite (see the note on Mt 23:27)—because Ananias had acted improperly in ordering that Paul be struck (Ac 23:2). Striking someone prior to a conviction was illegal. In this case, Paul had not even been properly charged.

23:6 For “Sadducees,” see the note on 4:1 and for “Pharisees” the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.

23:10 For “commander,” see the note on 21:31. For “barracks,” see the notes on 12:9 and 21:35.

23:12 These Jews were probably from the Zealots (see “The Zealots and the Essenes”) or the “terrorists” (see the note on 21:38) later responsible for revolt against Rome.
For “bound themselves with an oath,” see “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice.”

23:17 For “centurions,” see the note on 10:1.

23:23 Moving a prisoner for his or her own safety or to avoid possible violence or the threat of a riot is a tactic still used today. The commander made every possible provision for Paul’s security, sending him off in the company of 470 armed soldiers under cover of darkness.

23:24 For “Governor Felix,” see the note on verse 34.

23:31 Antipatris, rebuilt by Herod the Great and named for his father (Antipater), was a military post between Samaria and Judea located 30 miles (48 km) from Jerusalem.

23:33 Caesarea was the headquarters of Roman rule for Samaria and Judea—28 miles (45 km) from Antipatris (see the note on 8:40).

23:34 The governor (see “The Roman Governor”) was Antonius Felix. The emperor Claudius had appointed him governor of Judea in about A.D. 52, a time when Felix’s brother was the emperor’s favorite minister. The brothers had formerly been slaves, then Freedmen, then high government officials. The historian Tacitus stated of Felix: “He held the power of a tyrant with the disposition of a slave.” Felix married three queens in succession, one of whom was Drusilla (see the note on 24:24).

23:35 Herod’s palace had been erected as a royal residence by Herod the Great but was now used as a Roman praetorium—the headquarters of the local Roman governor. Praetoria were located in Rome (Php 1:13), Ephesus, Jerusalem (Jn 18:28), Caesarea and other parts of the empire. (see “The Roman Governor.”)

24:1 For “Ananias,” see the note on 23:2. The high priest himself made the 60-mile (96-km) journey to supervise the case personally.
The term “elders” was used of both the religious and the political councils. The Sanhedrin was made up of 71 elders (see “The Sanhedrin”).
A lawyer (lit., “orator”) was one trained in forensic rhetoric who served as an attorney at law in a court trial.
Tertullus was a common variant of the name Tertius. Only a few words of his elaborate oration are included, but they are enough to reveal the nature of his rhetoric and the character of his accusation. He may have been a Roman, for there is a Latin ring to some of his phrases as they appear in Luke’s Greek, and his name is Latin. Tertullus was obviously trained in the art of contemporary rhetoric, (see “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World”) and Luke was impressed with his elaborate introduction, drawing positive attention toward Felix. This was a traditional courtesy, and the device, without the self-seeking flattery, is to be distinguished also in the opening phrases of Paul’s reply in verse 10.

24:2 In his six years in office Felix had eliminated bands of robbers, thwarted organized assassins and crushed a movement led by an Egyptian (see the note on 21:38). But in general his record was not good. He was recalled by Rome two years later because of misrule (see the note on 24:27). His reforms and improvements are hard to identify historically.

24:5 To excite dissension in the empire was treason against Caesar, and to be a leader of a religious sect—the “Nazarene sect” refers to Christianity—without Roman approval was contrary to law.

24:14 Paul admitted to his part in the Way (see the note on 19:23) but still believed the Law and the Prophets (i.e., the Old Testament Scriptures; see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).

24:23 Perhaps Paul was under house arrest similar to that which he experienced while awaiting trial in Rome (28:30–31; see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest”)—in recognition of the fact that he was a Roman citizen who had not been found guilty of any crime.

24:24 Drusilla was the youngest of the three daughters of Herod Agrippa I, her sisters being Bernice and Mariame (see the note on “Bernice” at 25:13). At the age of fourteen she married Azizus, King of Emesa, but left him for Felix, procurator of Judea, who was captivated by her beauty and employed a Cyprian sorcerer to gain her for his wife. The couple had one son, Agrippa, who died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79.

24:27 Felix was recalled to Rome in A.D. 59/60 to answer for disturbances and irregularities in his rule, such as his mishandling of riots between Jewish and Syrian inhabitants. Festus is not mentioned in existing historical records before his arrival in Judea. He died in office after two years, but his record for that time reflects wisdom and honesty superior to those of either his predecessor, Felix, or his successor, Albinus.
See “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”

25:1 The trip from Caesarea to Jerusalem was 60 miles (97 km), requiring two days. Festus was anxious to go immediately to the center of Jewish rule and worship.

25:2 The “chief priests and Jewish leaders” is a reference to the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55; see also “The Sanhedrin”).

25:6 For “court,” see “The Judgment Seat.”

25:9 Paul wanted his trial to be conducted in Caesarea rather than to suffer at the hands of a Jewish religious court. As a Roman citizen, he could refuse to go to a local provincial court; instead, he looked to a higher Roman court.

25:11 Nero had become emperor by this time (see “Nero, Persecutor of Christians”). It was the right of every Roman citizen to have his case heard before Caesar himself (or his representative) in Rome (see “Rome”). This was the highest court of appeal, and winning such a case could have led to more than just Paul’s acquittal: It could have resulted in official recognition of Christianity as distinct from Judaism.

25:12 Festus’s “council” refers to the officials and legal experts who made up the advisory council for the Roman governor.

25:13 “King Agrippa” was Herod Agrippa II. He was seventeen years old at the death of his father, Herod Agrippa I, in A.D. 44. Being too young to succeed his father, he was replaced by Roman governors. Eight years later, however, a gradual extension of his territorial authority began. Ultimately he ruled over territory north and northeast of the Sea of Galilee, over several Galilean cities and over some cities in Perea. At the Jewish revolt, when Jerusalem fell, he was on the side of the Romans. He died in about A.D. 100—the last of the Herods.
Bernice, the oldest daughter of Agrippa I, is mentioned three times in Acts (here; v. 23; 26:30). According to Josephus, she was first married to Marcus, after whose death she became the wife of Herod of Chalcis, her uncle (Antiquities, 19.5.1; 20.7.1–3). After Herod’s death Bernice lived with Agrippa II, her brother, and was rumored to be involved in an incestuous relationship with him. Later she was married to Polemo of Cilicia. This marriage was of short duration, as she returned to Agrippa. She was later the mistress of Vespasian and Titus, who finally cast her aside.
It was customary for rulers to pay a complimentary visit to a new ruler at the time of his assignment. It was advantageous to each that they get along well together.

25:23 The “audience room” was not the judgment hall, for this was not a court trial. It was an auditorium appropriate for the pomp of the occasion, with a king, his sister, the Roman governor and the outstanding teachers of both the Jews and the Roman government present.
Five regiments were stationed at Caesarea, so their five commanders (the “high ranking officers”) would have been in attendance.

25:26 Festus was required to send Caesar an explicit report on the case when an appeal was made. He hoped for some help from Agrippa in this matter. This was not an official trial but a special hearing to satisfy the curiosity of Agrippa and provide an assessment for Festus.
King Agrippa would have been sensitive to differences between Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 3:7 and Lk 5:17) and Sadducees (see the note on Mt 3:7), varying expectations of the Messiah, differences between Jews and Christians and Jewish customs pertinent to these issues.

26:3 As king, Agrippa controlled the temple treasury and the vestments of the high priest and could appoint the high priest. He was consulted by the Romans on religious matters. This is one of the reasons Festus wanted him to assess Paul.

26:5 For “Pharisee,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.

26:22 “The prophets and Moses” refers to the Old Testament Scriptures (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).

26:24 The governor felt that Paul’s education and reading of the sacred Scriptures had led him to a mania about prophecy and resurrection.

26:27 As an expert on Jewish Scripture, this king knew what Paul was talking about.

26:30 For “Bernice,” she the note on 25:13.

27:1 For “Italy,” see the note on 10:1.
Luke had probably spent the two years of Paul’s Caesarean imprisonment nearby, and now he joined those ready to sail.
The “centurion named Julius” is otherwise unknown. Perhaps he was given the specific duties of an imperial courier, which included delivering prisoners for trial.
The Roman legions were designated by number, and each of the regiments also had a designation. The identification “Augustan,” or “Imperial” (belonging to the empire), was common.

27:2 Adramyttium was a harbor on the western coast of the province of Asia, southeast of Troas and east of Assos. At one of these stops Julius would have planned to transfer to a ship going to Rome (see “Rome”).

27:3 Sidon was about 70 miles (113 km) north of Caesarea.

27:4 They sought the protecting shelter of the island by sailing north on the eastern side of the island, then west along the northern side. Prevailing winds in the summertime were westerly.

27:5–6 For a discussion of travel by land or sea in Bible times, see the note on Jonah 1:3 and “Travel in the Greco-Roman World.”
Cilicia and Pamphylia were adjoining provinces on the southern shore of Asia Minor. From Sidon to Myra along this coast would ordinarily have entailed a voyage of from 10 to 15 days.
The growing importance of the city of Myra was associated with the development of navigation. Instead of hugging the coast from point to point, more ships were daring to run directly from Alexandria in Egypt to harbors like Myra on the southern coast of Asia Minor. Myra was considerably out of the way on the trip to Rome from Egypt, but the prevailing westerly wind would not allow a direct voyage toward the west. Myra became an important grain-storage city as well.

27:6 The “Alexandrian ship” had originated in Egypt (with grain cargo, v. 38) and was bound for Rome (see “Alexandria” and “Rome.”

27:7 From Myra to Cnidus at the southwest point of Asia Minor was a trip of about 170 miles (273.5 km). The journey probably took another 10 to 15 days.
Crete is an island 156 miles (250 km) long. Rather than crossing the open sea to Greece, the ship was forced to bear south, seeking to sail west with the protection of the island of Crete on the north. (see “Crete.”)

27:8 Fair Havens was a port about midway on the southern coast of Crete. Lasea was a city about five miles (eight km) away.

27:9 “The Fast” was the Jewish Day of Atonement. It fell in the latter part of September or in October. The usual sailing season by Jewish calculation lasted from Pentecost (May-June) to Tabernacles, which fell five days after the Fast. The Romans considered the prospect of sailing after September 15 doubtful and after November 11 suicidal.

27:12 Phoenix was a small port city that served as a wintering place, having a harbor with protection against the storms. Its precise location is debated, although it was clearly located on the western end of Crete.

27:13 In ancient times every ship carried several anchors. In successive periods these were made of stone, iron, lead and perhaps other metals. Each had two flukes (the part of the anchor that fastens to the ground) and was held by a cable or a chain. The word “anchor” is used here and in verses 17, 29, 30 and 40, as well as in Hebrews 6:19 (in a figurative sense in this last reference).

27:14 A “northeaster” was a typhoon-like, east-northeast wind (the Euraquilo), which drove the ship away from its destination.

27:16 Cauda (now called Gavdo) was a small island about 23 miles (37 km) from Crete. It provided enough shelter to make preparation against the storm.
A “lifeboat” being towed behind the ship was interfering with its progress and with the steering. It may also have been in danger of being crushed against the ship in the wind and the waves and had to be taken aboard.

27:17 The ropes were probably passed crosswise underneath the ship in order to prevent it from being broken apart by the storm.
Syrtis, a long stretch of desolate banks of quicksand along northern Africa off the coast of Tunis and Tripoli, was still far away, but in such a storm the ship could have been driven a great distance.
The sea anchor was apparently lowered to keep the ship from running onto the sandbars of Syrtis. Alternatively, the Greek translated “sea anchor” may be rendered “mainsail.”

27:18 Cargo was thrown overboard to lighten the ship. The crew retained some bags of grain, however.

27:19 A “ship’s tackle”—spars, planks and perhaps the yardarm with the mainsail attached—were at times dragged behind, serving as a brake.

27:27 The Adriatic Sea is the sea between Italy, Malta, Crete and Greece. In ancient times it extended as far south as Sicily and Crete. (Some think that this sea included all of the area between Greece, Italy and Africa and that it was known as the Adrian, not the Adriatic, Sea.) The modern usage of “Adriatic” describes a smaller area.

27:28 The sailors measured the depth of the sea by letting down a weighted line.

27:30 Without a port for the ship, the sailors felt that their chance for survival was better in the single lifeboat, unencumbered by the many passengers.

27:31 The sailors were needed to successfully beach the ship the next day.

27:37 To note the number on board may have been necessary in preparation for the distribution of food or perhaps for the coming attempt to get ashore. The number (276) was not extraordinary for the time. Josephus referred to a ship that had 600 aboard (Life, 13).

27:38 The crew threw overboard the remaining bags of wheat (see v. 18), which had probably been kept for food supply. The lighter the ship, the farther it could sail in to shore.

27:40 The sailors lowered the stern rudders into place so that the ship could be steered toward the sandy shore. Ancient ships had a steering oar on either side of the stern.

27:42 If a prisoner escaped, the life of his guard was to be taken in his place. The soldiers did not want to risk having this happen.

28:1 Malta, which was included in the province of Sicily, was known as Melita by the Greeks and Romans. It is located 58 miles (93 km) south of that large island.

28:2 “Islanders” is literally “barbarians.” All non-Greek-speaking people were called this by Greeks. Far from being uncivilized tribesmen, these men were Phoenician in ancestry and used a Phoenician dialect, although they were otherwise thoroughly Romanized.
It was raining and cold at the end of October or the beginning of November.

28:3 The islanders must have known that the “viper” was poisonous. There are no snakes on Malta today.

28:11 The travelers had to remain there until the sailing season opened in late February or early March.
A “figurehead” is a carving mounted at the prow of the ship. This one was of Castor and Pollux, the two “sons of Zeus,” the guardian deities of sailors.

28:12 Syracuse, the leading city on the island of Sicily, was located on its eastern coast.

28:13 Rhegium (modern Reggio) was a Greek colony on the coast of Italy, near the southwestern tip and close to the narrowest point (six mi, or ten km in width) of the strait separating that country from Sicily, opposite Messina. As a strategic point, it was the object of Rome’s special care, and in consequence a loyal ally. The port was also a haven in extremely difficult water. The captain of the ship Paul was on, having tacked widely to make Rhegium, waited in the protection of the port for a favorable southerly wind to drive his ship through the currents of the strait on the course to Puteoli.
Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was almost 200 miles (322 km) from Rhegium. It was situated in the northern part of the Bay of Naples and was the chief port of Rome, though 75 miles (120 km) away. Its population included Jews as well as Christians.

28:14–15 The city of Rome appears several times in Scripture in a historical context, the most notable being Paul’s enforced stay there. Paul landed at Puteoli, and, alerted by the little church there, members of Rome’s Christian community met him at two stopping-places. On the evidence of a document called the Nazareth Decree, it appears that a group of believers had been established in Rome since the principate of Claudius in the late 40s A.D. Paul probably entered Rome by the Capena Gate. His “rented house” (v. 30) was no doubt located in some block of flats—an “insula” (see “Houses in the Holy Land of the First Century A.D.: Peter’s House in Capernaum; Insulae”).

28:15 The Forum of Appius was a small town 43 miles (69 km) from Rome (see “Rome”).
Three Taverns was a town 33 miles (53 km) from Rome.

28:16 Paul had committed no flagrant crime and was not politically dangerous. He was accordingly allowed to have his own living quarters, but a guard was with him at all times, perhaps chained to him (see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest”).

28:17 The decree of the emperor Claudius (see 18:2 and its note) had been allowed to lapse, and Jews had returned to Rome with their leaders.

28:23 “The Law of Moses and … the Prophets” refers to the entire Old Testament Scriptures (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).

28:30 See the note on verses 14–15 for commentary on Paul’s “rented house.”

1:1–7 Ancient letters typically began with a simple identification of the sender and the recipients, followed by a greeting (see “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World”). New Testament letters follow this pattern, but in no other letter does the author elaborate as much as Paul did in Romans—perhaps because he was writing to a church he had never visited. Paul spent six verses identifying himself before mentioning his audience and extending them a greeting.

1:1 The Greek word translated “servant” here literally means a “slave,” one who belonged completely to his owner and was not at liberty to leave (see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World” and “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”).

1:2 For “Holy Scriptures,” see “The Old Testament of the Early Church.”

1:7 See “Rome.”

1:13 The Greek word translated “brothers” was commonly used in Paul’s day to address a crowd or community that included both men and women (see Ac 1:14–16).

1:14 “Greeks” refers to those Gentiles who either spoke Greek or followed the Greek way of life, even though they may have been Latin-speaking citizens of the Roman Empire.
“Non-Greeks” (lit., “barbarians”) is a word that probably imitated the unintelligible sound of their languages to Greek ears.

1:18 God’s anger is not like the egoistic and unpredictable anger attributed to the mythic gods with whom Paul’s Roman audience was familiar (see “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans”).

1:27 “Indecent acts” refer to sodomy, for which Sodom had become noted (Ge 19:5). God strictly forbade this practice (Dt 23:17). Typically this act took place in connection with heathen worship, and its presence was a sign of departure from the Lord (1Ki 14:24). Both Asa (1Ki 15:12) and Jehoshaphat took measures against this sin (1Ki 22:46), but its practice continued, until in the days of Josiah it was being practiced even in the Lord’s house (2Ki 23:7).

2:1 Jews of that day regarded themselves as superior to Gentiles because they (the Jews) possessed the Mosaic Law. According to Jews of that day, Gentiles were ignorant of God’s revelation and immoral in their lifestyles.

2:22 Large amounts of wealth were often stored in pagan temples.

2:25 Circumcision was a sign of the covenant that God had made with Israel and a pledge of the covenant blessing (see Ge 17:10 and its note; see also “Circumcision in the Ancient World”).

3:8 Antinomianism is the view that the moral law does not apply to Christians, who are instead under the law of grace. Because salvation does not come through works but through grace, it is held, moral effort can be discounted. Paul found that this kind of heresy had crept into the church (1Co 5–6). Others had chosen to misrepresent Paul’s teaching on grace (as in this verse), and Paul pointed out the absurdity of the charge (Ro 6:1, 15). From the first century to our own day, some individuals or groups have sought to combine the spiritual life with moral license, but Scripture leaves no doubt that the new life in Christ means death to the old, evil desires (Gal 5:24).

3:10–18 Several factors explain why Old Testament quotations are not always cited verbatim in the New Testament: (1) New Testament quotations sometimes gave the general sense of the original and were not intended to be word-for-word citations. (2) Quotation marks were not used in Greek. (3) The quotations were often taken from the pre-Christian Greek translation (the Septuagint) of the Hebrew Old Testament, because Greek readers were for the most part unfamiliar with the Hebrew Bible. (4) Sometimes the New Testament writer, in order to drive home his point, would purposely enlarge, abbreviate or adapt an Old Testament passage or combine two or more passages. (see “The Septuagint and Its Use in the New Testament.”)

3:21 “The Law and the Prophets” refers to the entire Old Testament Scriptures (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).

3:22–25 Paul drew on several dimensions of human experience from his day. “Justification” is the language of the courtroom—what a judge does when he declares a defendant not guilty. “Redemption” comes from the world of commerce and slavery—one could redeem slaves by purchasing their freedom. “Sacrifice of atonement” obviously is the language of religion—the giving of an offering to take the place of the guilty.

4:9–17 In Jewish thought, a distinction remained between Abraham’s descendants—covenant participants—and the “other” nations, who also received benefits through Abraham in some unspecified way. Paul broke down that distinction: Gentiles along with Jews are Abraham’s “offspring,” equal recipients with Jews of God’s covenant blessings.

4:11 See “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”

4:25 These words, which reflect the Septuagint translation of Isaiah 53:12, are probably quoted from a Christian confessional formula. (see “The Septuagint and Its Use in the New Testament.”)

6:1 For the heresy of antinomianism (the view that the moral law does not apply to Christians, who are under the law of grace), see the note on 3:8.

6:3–4 In New Testament times baptism so closely followed conversion that the two were considered parts of one event (see Ac 2:38; see also “Baptism in the Ancient World”).

7:2–3 Some scholars insist that these verses prove that remarriage on any basis other than the death of a spouse is adulterous. But both Roman and Jewish law allowed for remarriage after a legitimate divorce (see “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel”). Paul was not teaching about marriage or divorce but was illustrating the point that believers have “died” to the law.

7:25 In the New Testament the word “mind” frequently occurs in an ethical sense (referring to the will and moral disposition of a person), as here and in Colossians 2:18. See “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”

8:15 The underlying word of “sonship” is “adoption” (see the NIV text note). Adoption was common among the Greeks and Romans, who granted the adopted son all the privileges of a natural son, including inheritance rights (see “Adoption in the Roman World”).
Abba is the Aramaic word for “father,” transliterated into Greek and thence into English. The corresponding Hebrew word is Ab. Abba is found three times in the New Testament (see also Mk 14:36; Gal 4:6). For the use of the Aramaic language in New Testament times, see the note on Mark 5:41.

8:26 For commentary on the phrase “groans that words cannot express,” see “Tongue-Speaking in Christian and Pagan Worship.”

8:31–39 Rhetoric (the art of speaking, and particularly the science of persuasion) was important in the ancient Greco-Roman world (see “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World”). Paul’s language in these verses was rhetorical—chosen to move or convince the reader. Paul was trying to draw his audience into the discussion.

8:34 For “at the right hand of God,” see “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

9:4 The “people of Israel” refers to the descendants of Jacob (who was named Israel by God; see Ge 32:28). The name was used of the entire nation (see Jdg 5:7), then of the northern kingdom after the nation was divided (see 1Ki 12), the southern kingdom being called Judah. During the intertestamental period and later in New Testament times, Palestinian Jews used the title to indicate that they were the chosen people of God, his adopted “sons” (see “Adoption in the Roman World”).

9:17 God’s “name” is synonymous with God himself because it reflects his character (see the note on Jer 16:21).

9:21 Rabbis (including Jesus) regularly used simple illustrations from everyday life to drive home profound theological points. Describing God as a potter illustrates his sovereignty. But analogies were not meant to be exhaustive theological statements. The analogies between God and the potter and between a human being and a pot should not be pressed to the extreme. A human is more than an inanimate object made of clay. (see “Pottery-Making in Bible Times.”)

10:7 See “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

10:9 The affirmation “Jesus is Lord,” the earliest Christian confession of faith (see 1Co 12:3 and its note), was probably used at baptisms. In view of the fact that “Lord” is used over 6,000 times in the Septuagint to translate the name of Israel’s God (Yahweh), it is clear that Paul, when using this word of Jesus, was ascribing deity to him. (see “YHWH: The Name of God in the Old Testament.”)
In Biblical terms the heart is the seat not only of the emotions and affections, but also of the intellect and will (see Ps 4:7 and its note, as well as “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology”).

11:4 For “Baal,” see the note on Judges 2:13 and “The Ugaritic Text of the Myth of Baal.”

11:5 Central to Jewish tradition was a distinction between corporate (group) and individual election. Deuteronomy 7:6 represented the first—the binding, covenant agreement between God and Israel (as a group). As Israel’s history progressed, however, Jews continued to rebel against God. From this came the concept of the “remnant”—those individual Israelites who remained committed to God. Paul intertwined these strands: Only those Jews God had chosen by grace were truly his people—the Israel (individuals) within Israel (the group).

11:16 Part of the dough made from the first of the harvested grain (firstfruits) was offered to the Lord. This consecrated the whole batch (see Nu 15:17–21).

11:17 The usual procedure was to insert a shoot or slip of a cultivated tree into a common or wild one. In verses 17–24, however, the metaphor is used of grafting a wild olive branch into the cultivated olive tree. Such a procedure is unnatural (see v. 24 and its note)—which is precisely the point. Normally, such a graft would be unfruitful.

11:24 Obviously, the reasoning in this verse is more theological than horticultural. It would be difficult horticulturally to graft broken branches back into the parent tree, but the Jews really “belong” (historically and theologically) to the parent tree.

11:25 The so-called mystery religions of Paul’s day used the Greek word mysterion in the sense of something that was to be revealed only to the initiated (see “The Mystery Religions”). Paul used the term to refer to something formerly hidden or obscure but now revealed by God for all to know and understand.

11:26 The Talmud (a Jewish collection of religious instruction) understood Isaiah 59:20 to be a reference to the Messiah, and Paul appears to have used it in this way.

11:36 This concept of God as source, sustainer and goal of all things may reflect Greek Stoic philosophy (see “Greek Philosophical Schools”).

12:1 Scholars claim that in the ancient world religion was sacrifice. The popularity of sacrifice in ancient religions, however, often led to abuses. People thought that all they had to do to please their god was to offer a sacrifice, regardless of their sincerity. Both Jewish and pagan authors in Paul’s day warned against this attitude.

12:8 “Let him govern” may be a reference to an elder. The Ephesian church had elders by about this time (see Ac 20:17; see also 1Ti 5:17 and its note).

13:1 The “governing authorities” were the civil rulers, all of whom were probably pagans at the time Paul was writing. Christians may have been tempted not to submit to them and to claim allegiance only to Christ (cf. “The Imperial Cult”). Even the possibility of a persecuting state did not shake Paul’s conviction that civil government is ordained by God.

13:4 The sword was the symbol of Roman authority on both national and international levels.

13:6 See “Roman Taxation.”

13:12 This does not mean that the early Christians believed that Jesus would return within a few years. Rather, they regarded the death and resurrection of Christ as the crucial events of history that began the last days.

14:1 Those “whose faith is weak” were probably Jewish Christians at Rome who were unwilling to give up the observance of certain requirements of the law, such as dietary restrictions and the keeping of the Sabbath and other special days. Their concern was not quite the same as that of the Judaizers of Galatia (see the note on Gal 1:7), who thought they could put God in their debt by works of righteousness and were trying to force this heretical teaching on the Galatian churches. The “weak” Roman Christians did neither. They were not yet clear as to the status of Old Testament regulations under the new covenant inaugurated by the coming of Christ.

14:20 On the subject of defilement in the Old and New Testaments, see the note at Song of Songs 5:3.

14:21 See “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World.”

15:12 The Gentile mission of the early church was a fulfillment of this prophecy, as is the continuing evangelization of the nations.

15:19 Jerusalem was the home of the mother church, where the gospel originated and its dissemination began (see Ac 1:8; see also “The Church From the Resurrection to the Conversion of Paul”, “Geographic Expansion of the Church Under Persecution”, and “Before the Gentile Expansion: The Jewish Churches in the Holy Land”).
Illyricum was a Roman province north of Macedonia (present-day Albania and Yugoslavia).

15:24 Paul wanted to use the Roman church as a base of operations for a mission to Spain (see also v. 28).

15:26 For “Macedonia and Achaia,” see the note on 1 Thessalonians 1:7–8.

15:30–32 The prayer at the end of Romans 15 is not to be taken as the conclusion of a letter but only as the appropriate conclusion of a particular topic. Paul had been telling of his itinerary. He was deeply moved as he contemplated the perils of his impending visit to Jerusalem and strongly implored the prayers of the saints in Rome with respect to the matter.

16:1 Phoebe was probably the carrier of the letter to Rome (cf. v. 2). She is called a “servant” (see the NIV text note), one who serves or ministers in any way. When church-related, as it is here, it probably refers to a specific office—a female deacon or deaconess.
Cenchrea was a port located about 6 miles (nearly 10 km) east of Corinth on the Saronic Gulf.

16:3–24 Most of the people represented by the names in this list of greetings were Gentiles, freed slaves or descendants of freed slaves (see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World” and “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”). Paul specifically mentioned at least two groups of slaves: the household servants of Aristobulus and those of Narcissus. What little evidence we have suggests that a large percentage of early Christians came from the “lower” classes.
Of the 27 Christians Paul greeted, 10 were women. Women made up a significant part of the early Christian church and engaged in significant ministry. Paul commended six of them—Phoebe, Priscilla, Junias, Tryphena, Tryphosa and Persis—for their labor in the Lord.

16:3 Priscilla and Aquila were close friends of Paul who worked in the same trade of tent-making.

16:5 See “House Churches and Early Church Buildings.”

16:7 The more common reading of the Greek text is Junia (not Junias, as in the NIV), a feminine name. Andronicus and Junia may have been husband and wife.

16:10 Aristobulus may have been the grandson of Herod the Great and the brother of Herod Agrippa I.

16:11 Narcissus is sometimes identified with Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, a wealthy freedman of the Roman emperor Tiberius.

16:12 Tryphena and Tryphosa may have been sisters, perhaps even twins, because it was common for such persons to be given names from the same root.
Persis means “Persian woman.”

16:14–15 None of these persons can be further identified, except that they were slaves or freedmen (men who had been emancipaed from slavery) in the Roman church (see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World” and “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World.”)

16:16 Justin Martyr (A.D. 150) stated that the holy kiss was a regular part of the worship service in his day. This is still a practice in some churches. (see “The Jewish Custom of Kissing.”)

16:21–22 This is a letter, not a treatise; as such, it was not intended to be a formal literary product. In the midst of greetings from friends who were with the author as he wrote, Tertius, the scribe to whom the letter was dictated, inserted his own personal greeting. This personal touch reminds us that the people of the Bible were human beings under human circumstances, and the letter means more to us because this is so.

16:21 This Jason may have been the individual by that name mentioned in Acts 17:5–9. Sosipater was probably Sopater, the son of Pyrrhus, from Berea (see Ac 20:4).

16:22 Tertius had functioned as Paul’s secretary.

16:23 Gaius is usually identified with Titius Justus, a God-fearer (see the notes on Jn 12:20; Ac 10:2; cf. “converts” in the note on Ac 2:11) in whose house Paul stayed while in Corinth (see Ac 18:7; 1Co 1:14). His full name would be Gaius Titius Justus.
At Corinth archaeologists have discovered a reused block of stone in a paved square, with the Latin inscription: “Erastus, commissioner of public works, bore the expense of this pavement” (see “The Erastus Inscription”). This may refer to the Erastus mentioned here. If it does, it is the earliest reference to a Christian by name outside the New Testament. He may also be the same person referred to in Acts 19:22 and 2 Timothy 4:20, though it is difficult to be certain because the name was fairly common.

16:25–27 Various manuscripts show this closing benediction at different locations within the book of Romans—and some manuscripts do not include it at all (see “The New Testament Texts”).

1:1–3 Paul partially broke with the normal conventions for first-century letters (see “Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity”) to introduce the concerns that he would address in this letter.

1:2 Corinth was the chief city of Greece, both commercially and politically. Located just off the Corinthian isthmus, it was a bustling trading port of 100,000 (see “Corinth”). Today it is a small village.

1:10 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
Paul called for unity despite the great sociological divisions of the ancient Middle East: Jew versus Gentile, slave versus free, men versus women.

1:11 Information may have come to Paul via a letter no longer in existence (see “The ‘Missing’ Letter From the Corinthians to Paul”).

1:12 Apollos, an Alexandrian by birth, was a Jewish Christian with notable intellectual and oratorical abilities. Luke wrote that “he was a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures” (Ac 18:24). We also know that Apollos was associated with Paul in the early years of the church in Corinth (1Co 3:4–6, 22). He worked in the established church, teaching and encouraging the converts Paul had won.
Cephas is Aramaic for Peter (Greek). Those who followed Cephas in Corinth were probably Jewish Christians.

1:13 In Bible times the notion of “name” had a significance it does not carry today, when it is usually an otherwise unmeaning personal label (see “Naming of Children”). When a person gave his own name to another, it signified the joining of the two in close unity, as when God gave his name to Israel (Dt 28:9–10). To be baptized into someone else’s name accordingly meant to pass into new ownership (Mt 28:19; Ac 8:16; 1Co 1:15). In the Scriptures there is the closest possible relationship between a person and his or her name, the two being practically equivalent.

1:14 Crispus was probably the synagogue ruler (see the notes on Mk 5:22; Lk 8:41) mentioned in Acts 18:8.

1:16 The term “household” generally included family members, servants or anyone else who lived in the house.

1:17–31 For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

1:17 Paul’s mission was not to couch the gospel in the language of a trained orator, who applied the special rhetorical techniques of persuasion that had been developed by the rabbis among the Jews and by the sophists among the Greeks (see “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World”).

1:18–2:16 The word “philosophy” with its related terms is generally used in a derogatory sense in the Bible. It was not a genuine love of wisdom that Paul deprecated in Colossians 2:8 but “hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world rather than on Christ.” The same thought is expressed in the discussion of “wisdom” here in 1 Corinthians, where Paul not only emphasized the inadequacy of worldly wisdom but asserted, “We … speak a message of wisdom among the mature” (1 Co 2:6), a wisdom based on revelation. This is similar to the “wisdom” doctrine of Job, Ecclesiastes, certain psalms and especially Proverbs.

1:19 The Athenian statesman Aristides (530–468 B.C.) asserted that on every street in Corinth one met a so-called wise man who had his own solutions to humanity’s problems.

1:20 “Wise man” is a probable reference to Gentile philosophers in general (see “Greek Philosophical Schools”).
“Scholar” is most likely a reference to Jewish teachers of the law (see the notes on Mt 2:4; Lk 5:17).
“Philosopher of this age” probably refers to the Greek sophists, who engaged in long and subtle disputes (see “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World” and “Greek Philosophical Schools”).

1:22 Greeks specifically looked for insight into the workings of the world that would relieve humanity’s problems.

1:23 Greeks and Romans were certain that no reputable person would be crucified, so it was unthinkable to them that a crucified criminal could be the world’s Savior.

2:1 “When I came to you” is a reference to Paul’s initial trip to Corinth (c. A.D. 51).
For “eloquence or superior wisdom,” see the note on 1 Co 1:17.

2:4 Paul’s letters reveal a great deal of knowledge in many areas of learning, and his eloquence is apparent in his address before the Areopagus (see Ac 17:22–31; see also “The Areopagus”). Paul’s point was that his confidence as a preacher did not rest on intellectual or oratorical ability, as did that of the Jewish rabbis and the Greek orators (see the note on 1 Co 1:17); rather, his confidence was in the power of the Holy Spirit.

2:6 Greek society was preoccupied with wisdom, looking to philosophers and rulers as the fount of insight (see “Greek Philosophical Schools”).

3:1 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

3:4 For “Apollos,” see the note on 1:12.

3:9 Paul’s choice of metaphors accords with the fact that in the ancient world planting the land and building a house (or city or temple) were traditionally the two basic focal points of human industry.

4:1 The Greek underlying the phrase “those entrusted” means “house manager” or “steward” (see the notes on Lk 12:42; 16:1).

4:9 When a Roman general returned home victorious, he led his army in a triumphal procession, at the end of which trailed the captives who were condemned to fight with beasts. Paul felt that, in contrast to the proud Corinthians, the apostles had been put “on display at the end of the procession, like men condemned to die in the arena.” God had made them a spectacle to be gazed at and made sport of in the arena of the world. The emperor Nero used to clothe the Christians in the skins of beasts when he exposed them to the wild beasts (cf. 2 Ti 4:17).

4:12 Paul was a tentmaker by trade (see Ac 18:3 and its note).

4:15 For “guardians,” see the note on Galatians 3:24.

5:1–6:20 For the heresy of antinomianism (the view that the moral law does not apply to Christians, who are under the law of grace), see the note on Romans 3:8.

5:1–5 For commentary on excommunication, see the note on 1 Timothy 1:20.

5:1 The Roman orator Cicero asserted that incest was practically unheard of in Roman society.
“His father’s wife” implies that the woman was his stepmother. The Old Testament explicitly prohibited such sexual relations (see Lev 18:8; Dt 22:30).

5:2 “Put out of your fellowship” means excommunicated from the church (see the note on Jn 9:22).

5:6 Paul was alluding to the prohibition against the use of leaven (or yeast) in the bread eaten in the Passover feast (see “The Festivals of Israel” and “The Passover”). Leaven (or yeast) in Scripture usually symbolizes evil or sin (see the note on Mk 8:15), and the church here was called upon to rid itself of the yeast of sin because its members constituted an unleavened batch of dough—new creations in Christ.

5:7 This may refer to the Passover custom of sweeping all of the (leavened) bread crumbs out of one’s house before preparing the Passover meal.

5:8 The “Festival” is here the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which actually followed the Passover (see the notes on Mt 26:17; Mk 14:1; see also “The Festivals of Israel”).

5:9 Paul here clarified a previous letter (evidently not preserved). Some in the Corinthian church mistook that letter to imply that, upon separating from sin, they should disassociate themselves from all immoral persons, including non-Christians. Instead, Paul meant that they should separate from immoral persons who were affiliated with the church (see vv. 10–11).

6:1 Paul warned against the Corinthian practice of suing fellow Christians in secular courts. The apostle seems to have been talking about civil court cases, not criminal cases that should have been handled by the state (Ro 13:3–4). The Corinthians were to take their civil cases before the church for informal, out-of-court settlements.

6:9 Paul identified three kinds of sexually immoral persons: adulterers, male prostitutes (see “Prostitution in the Ancient World”) and males who practiced homosexuality (see “Homosexuality in the Ancient World”). In Romans 1:26 he added the category of females who practiced homosexuality.

6:15 Corinth was infamous for prostitution (see the notes on v. 18; 7:2; see also “Prostitution in the Ancient World”).

6:18 The Greek word translated “flee” suggests that one must continually run away from sexual sinning (advice particularly needed in Corinth). The prostitutes of Corinth were dedicated to the service of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and sex (see the note on 7:2).

7:1 The Corinthians had written Paul, asking him a number of vexing questions (see “The ‘Missing’ Letter From the Corinthians to Paul”).

7:2 Examples of immorality in Corinth included the temple to Aphrodite on the Acrocorinth, the rocky eminence above Corinth, which at one time had in its service 1,000 priestess prostitutes (see the note on 6:18).

7:14 See “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel.”

7:18 See “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”

7:21 In the social and economic sphere, Christian slaves were to live contentedly in their situation, realizing that they had become free in Christ. However, if Christian slaves were given an opportunity to attain their freedom, they were to take advantage of it. In the Roman Empire slaves were sometimes freed by Roman patricians (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”).

7:22 “Freedman” or “free woman” translates two slightly different Greek words: (1) Apeleutheros, as here, refers to a slave who had received his freedom, although this verse concerns one who had received spiritual freedom from the Lord. (2) Eleutheros, as used in Galatians 4:22–23 and 30, Revelation 6:15, refers to a free woman or man, as opposed to a slave.

7:29 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

8:1 Most meat sold in the Corinthian marketplace (see “The Ancient City” and “The Ancient Agora”) came from sacrificial animals that had been slaughtered at pagan temple ceremonies. The Corinthian Christians had questions regarding whether such meat could be eaten—and if so, under what conditions. (see “ ‘Temple Restaurants’ and Food Sacrificed to Idols.”) For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

8:5 See “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans.”

8:7 Those with a “weak” conscience thought that in eating meat sacrificed on pagan altars they were involving themselves in pagan worship and thus sinning against Christ.

8:10 At the site of ancient Corinth archaeologists have found two temples containing rooms apparently used for pagan feasts where meat offered to idols was eaten. Christians may have been invited to such feasts by their pagan friends (see “ ‘Temple Restaurants’ and Food Sacrificed to Idols”).

9:9 For a discussion of the threshing floor, see the note on Ruth 3:4–7. See also “The Threshing Floor.”

9:11–18 Unlike itinerant Greco-Roman philosophers and religious teachers, Paul did not accept payment for his services but supported himself through various means, including tent-making.

9:11 For “reaping,” see the note on Galatians 6:7–8.

9:20–22 For the sake of the Jews (“those under the law”) Paul conformed to the Jewish law. For the sake of the Gentiles (“those not having the law”) the apostle accommodated himself to Gentile culture when doing so did not violate his allegiance to Christ. For the sake of the “weak,” Paul did not exercise his Christian freedom in such matters as eating meat sacrificed to idols (see 8:9, 13).

9:24–27 In these verses Paul alluded to the Isthmian games, which were celebrated every two years on the Isthmus of Corinth. Held in honor of the Greek gods, the festival consisted of foot races, horse races, chariot contests, jumping, wrestling, boxing and throwing the discus and javelin. The prizes in these games were perishable wreathes. To the Greeks these were events of patriotic pride, a passion rather than a pastime, and thus they made a suitable image of earnestness in the Christian race (cf. 2Ti 2:5; 1Pe 1:4). Other allusions in the New Testament to the language of games are found in Acts 20:24, Ephesians 6:12, Philippians 3:12–14, 1 Timothy 6:12; 2 Timothy 4:7, Hebrews 12:1–2, James 1:12 and Revelation 2:10.

9:24 The clearest uses of the Greek words agôn and stadion (most frequently translated “a foot race”) are in this verse, 2 Timothy 4:7 and Hebrews 12:1, although other passages may well allude to such a race: Galatians 5:7, Philippians 2:16. The Greek race was one of a series of highly competitive games. It consisted of (1) the goal, a square pillar opposite the entrance to the course, marking the end of the track; (2) the herald, whose duty it was to announce the name and the country of each competitor, as well as the name and family of the victor; (3) the prize, the crown or wreath that was awarded the winner (cf. 1Co 9:25; 2Ti 2:5); and (4) the judges (2Ti 4:8). The Lord is viewed as the righteous judge who bestows the wreath on those who have truly run well.

9:25 For a discussion of asceticism in the believer’s life, see the note on Leviticus 10:9.

10:8 Paul stated the number of the dead as 23,000, while the Hebrew and Greek (Septuagint) texts of Numbers 25:9 both indicate 24,000. It is clear that Paul was not striving for exactness but only speaking approximately. First-century writers were not as concerned about precision as twenty-first-century authors typically are.

10:14 Corinthian Christians had emerged from a background of paganism. Temples for the worship of Apollo, Asclepius, Demeter, Aphrodite and other pagan gods and goddesses (see “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans”) were seen daily by the Corinthians as they engaged in the activities of everyday life. The worship of Aphrodite was a particularly strong temptation (see the note on 6:18).

10:16 The “cup of thanksgiving” refers to the cup of wine that Christians drink during the celebration of the Lord’s Supper.

10:18–20 When the people of Israel ate part of the sacrifice made at the altar (Lev 7:15; 8:31; Dt 12:17–18), they were participating with the altar in consuming the sacrifices; that which was consumed on the altar (with fire) was Yahweh’s portion.
God’s people were warned that, in a similar way, if they did eat meat sacrificed to idols they should refrain from eating it with pagans in their temple feasts; to do so would be to become “participants with demons.” (see “ ‘Temple Restaurants’ and Food Sacrificed to Idols.”)

10:25 Christians could eat anything sold in the meat market, even if it had been sacrificed to an idol, because out in the public market it had lost its pagan religious significance.

10:26 This quotation from Psalm 24:1 was used at Jewish mealtimes as a blessing.

10:27 Whether or not the meat might have been sacrificed to idols, the believers were to ask no questions. As long as the subject was not brought up, they were free to eat the meat.

11:4 In the culture of Paul’s day men uncovered their heads in worship to signify their respect for and submission to deity. When a man prayed or prophesied with his head covered, he failed to show the proper attitude toward Christ.

11:5–6 Based on their newfound freedom in Christ, women in the Corinthian church were praying and prophesying. Christian tradition from Pentecost on had approved of such practice (Ac 2:17–18), and it readily fit Paul’s emphasis on freedom. But these women, as they spoke in worship, were apparently flaunting social convention by sending ambiguous signals about their sexuality or religious commitment through inappropriate hairstyles or the lack of headdresses. Paul encouraged them to exercise restraint.

11:15 A woman’s covering of her head is mentioned in the Bible only in this verse. In the preceding verses Paul stated that women should have their heads covered in public worship. At that time in Greece only immoral women were seen with their heads uncovered. Paul was saying that Christian women could not afford to disregard social convention, as this would hurt their testimony. In Paul’s view, in giving them long hair, a natural veil, God through “nature” teaches the lesson that women are not to be unveiled in public assemblies. For a discussion of literal and figurative references to hair in the Bible, see the note at Psalm 40:12. See also “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”

11:21 The early church held the agape (“love”) feast in connection with the Lord’s Supper (see “The Love Feast”). Perhaps the meal was something like a present-day potluck dinner. But some in the church gorged themselves and got drunk at the expense of those who came later or had less. Jude 12 addresses a similar problem.

11:23 See “The Last Supper and the Passover.”

11:24 Giving thanks was the Jewish practice at meals (see “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs”).