Table of Contents

1. Cover
2. Title Page
3. Preface
4. List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
5. 1 Food Forensics: Introduction
   1. Reference
6. 2 Food Provenance and Food Fingerprinting: Authentication and Traceability of Foods and Food Products
   1. Introduction
   2. Food Fraudulence and Adulteration
   3. Scientific Methods and Strategies for Verification of Food Fraudulence Cases
   4. Scientific Verification of Geographical Indications and Designation of Origin of Foods
   5. Processes, Steps and Procedures to Distinguish the Geographical Origin of Foods
   6. Geographical Identification, Quality Verification and Authentication of the Origin for Fruit Nectars, Fruit Juices, Vegetable Juices, and Non‐alcoholic Beverages
   7. Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis (SIRA) of Sugars in Fruit Juices and Fruit Nectars: Isotope Signature
   8. Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis (SIRA) and Multi‐element Stable Isotope Analysis Techniques
   9. Multi‐element Pattern Analysis: Targeted Analysis Methods for Food Provenance: Examples for Honey, Fish, and Meat Products
   10. Non‐targeted Metabolomic Methods for the Determination of Maturation, Expiry, and Shelf Life of Meat Products
   11. Methods for Dairy Products Authentication
   12. Advanced Spectroscopic Methods: Vibrational Spectroscopy
   13. Sampling Approaches for Vibrational Spectroscopy Techniques
   14. Phenols, Polyphenols and Phenolic Flavonoids
   15. Organic Acids in Fruit Juice and Fruit Nectar as Indicators for Geographical Origin
   16. Authentication of Alcoholic Beverages
   17. Chemometric Tools and Methods for Food Authentication and Fingerprinting
   18. Conclusions
   19. References
7. 3 Food Forensics Cases Related to Food Allergenomic Sabotage and Food Intolerance: Allergens and Allergenicity of Processed Foods
   1. Food Allergy and Food Intolerance, What is the Difference?
   2. Labeling of Foods that Contain Allergens
   3. Diagnosis of Food Allergy Reactions
   4. Detection of Allergenic Species in Foods
   5. Proteomics Based Methods for Food Allergens
   6. Immunochemical Identification and Detection Methods for Food Allergens
   7. Molecular Biology Based Methods for the Determination of Food Allergens
   8. Determination of Food Allergens Using Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry Based Methods
   9. Conclusion
   10. References
8. 4 Food Forensics Cases Related to Food Bioterrorism/Food Bio‐Weapons and Food Poisoning Agents: Agrochemical Food Poisoning Agents
   1. Introduction
   2. Chemical Food Poisoning Agents: Agrochemicals in Foods
   3. Sampling of Target Specimens
   4. Agrochemical Poisoning Metabolite Indicators and Markers: Indicator Molecules and Markers Found in Urine Samples After Poisoning
   5. Analysis of Agrochemical Residues and their Metabolites in Biologic Samples in Individuals Affected by Food Poisoning
   6. Biomarkers in Agrochemical Poisoning
   7. Organophosphate and Carbamate Agrochemicals: Mode of Action, Toxicity, Metabolism, and Biomarkers
   8. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Parathion and Methyl Parathion
   9. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Pirimiphos‐methyl
   10. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Diazinon
   11. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Dichlorvos
   12. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Coumaphos
   13. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Chlorpyrifos
   14. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Chlorpyrifos‐methyl
   15. Organophosphate Agrochemicals: Azinphos‐ethyl
   16. Organosphosphate Agrochemicals: Azinphos‐methyl
   17. Carbamate Agrochemicals: Mode of Action, Toxicity, and Metabolism
   18. The Biotransformation of Carbamate Agrochemicals
   19. Poisoning Biomarkers/Indicator Compounds, Metabolites, and Monitoring Matrices
   20. Organohalogen Agrochemicals Poisoning: Indicator Compounds and Monitoring Biomatrices
   21. Metabolism of Organohalogen Agrochemicals and their Respective Metabolites
   22. Pyrethroid Agrochemicals
   23. Herbicides Poisoning
   24. Detection Methods for Food Forensic Specimens Suspected of Contamination with Agrochemical Molecules and/or their Metabolites in Various Biomatrices
   25. Analytical Methods of Organophosphate Agrochemicals and their Residues in Human Urine Specimens
   26. Analytical Methods of Organophosphate Agrochemicals and their Residues in Human Serum Specimens
   27. Analytical Methods of Organophosphate Agrochemicals and their Residues in other Biomatrices Specimens
   28. Analytical Methods of Organochlorine Agrochemicals and their Residues in Human‐related Biomatrices
   29. Analytical Methods of Organochlorine Agrochemicals and their Residues in Human Milk Specimens
   30. Analytical Methods of Organochlorine Agrochemicals and their Residues in Human Serum Specimens
   31. Analytical Methods of Organochlorine Agrochemicals and their Residues in Meconium Specimens
   32. Analytical Methods of Multiresidue Analysis of Miscellaneous Agrochemicals and their Metabolites in Various Biomatrices
   33. Conclusions
   34. References
9. 5 Food Forensics Cases Related to Food Bioterrorism/Food Bio‐Weapons and Food Poisoning Agents: Biological Food Poisoning Agents
   1. Major Groups of Biological Agents with Potential for Being Used in Food Poisoning/Bioterrorism
   2. The Chemistry of Cereulide Emetic Toxin: Biosynthetic Pathways and Mode of Action
   3. Clostridium botulinum and its Toxic Metabolites (Botulinum Toxins) in Foods
   4. Clostridium perfringens and C. perfringens Toxins in Food Forensics
   5. Mechanism of Action of Beta Toxins
   6. Epsilon Toxin (ETV) and Food Forensics
   7. The Chemistry and Mode of Action of Iota Toxin (ITX) and Food Forensics
   8. Clostridium perfringens Beta 2 Toxin (CPB2): Chemistry and Mode of Action
   9. Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxin (CPE): Chemistry and Mode of Action
   10. Staphylococcus Aureus Staphylococcal Food Poisoning (SFP) and Food Forensics
   11. The Chemistry, Mode of Section, and Genetics of SE and SEls Toxins
   12. Gram‐negative Bacteria and Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins in Food Forensics
   13. Vibrio Parahaemolyticus in Food Forensics
   14. Salmonella Bacilli and Typhoid/Parathyphoid Toxins in Food Forensics
   15. Campylobacter Species (C. jejuni and C. coli) and Food Forensics
   16. Campylobacter Species, Cytolethal Distending Toxin (CDT) in Food Forensics: Chemistry, Genetics, and Mode of Action
   17. Algae/Cyanobacterial Toxins in Drinking Water and Food Forensics
   18. Fungi Derived Mycotoxins and Food Forensics
   19. Plant Derived Phytotoxins and Food Forensics
   20. Analysis and Detection Methods for Protein Based Biotoxins in Food Poisoning Cases
   21. Classification of Food Poisoning Agents
   22. Conclusions
   23. References
10. 6 Food Forensics Cases Related to Food Bioterrorism Poisoning using Pathogenic Viruses
    1. Pathogenic Influenza Viruses and Food Forensics
    2. Avian Influenza Viruses and their Potential Application in Food Bioterrorism
    3. The Genetics of Influenza Virus Type A
    4. Avian Influenza A Viruses that Infect Animals, Wild Birds, Poultry and Humans
    5. Mechanism of Action of Avian Influenza Viruses in Bird‐to‐Human Transmission, Pathogenesis and Host Restrictions of Interspecies Transmission
    6. Analytical Strategy for the Identification of Influenza Virus A Infection Cases
    7. Conclusions
    8. References
11. 7 Food Forensics Cases Related to Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Foods
    1. Introduction
    2. The Process of GMO Production
    3. Sampling and Sample Preparation for GMO Analysis
    4. Reference Materials in GMO Analysis and Results Validation
    5. Detection and Identification of GMOs in Food Forensics
    6. Protein‐based Methods for GMO Analysis: Immunoassay Techniques
    7. Protein Immunoblots (Western Blot Assay) Techniques
    8. Immunoassay Methods for GMOs in Food Forensics
    9. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA)/Enzyme Immune Assay (EIA)/Ligand Binding Assays
    10. Molecular Biology PCR‐based Methods
    11. Qualitative PCR Methods for GMO Analyses
    12. Quantitative End‐point Pcr Methods for Gmo Analyses
    13. Quantitative Competitive Pcr Methods in Gmo Analyses
    14. Quantitative Real‐time Pcr in Gmo Analyses
    15. Exhaustive Limiting Dilution Pcr Method in Gmo Analyses
    16. Dna‐based Methods for Gmo Analyses
    17. Sample Preparation Methods for DNA‐based Techniques in GMO Analyses
    18. Dna Isolation Methods in Gmo Analyses
    19. Southern Blot for DNA Detection of GMO Samples
    20. Data Analysis and Interpretation
    21. Other Non‐molecular Biology‐based Methods for Gmo Analyses
    22. Conclusions
    23. References
12. 8 Food Forensics Cases Related to Poisoning of Food and Water using Radionuclides
    1. Radionuclides of Concern in Food Poisoning
    2. Food Products of Concern in Radionuclide Contamination
    3. Types of Radionuclide Particles/Radiation
    4. Analytical Protocol for Radionuclides in Foods and Biological Sample Specimens
    5. Radiochemical Separations
    6. Analytical Strategy for Measurement of Radionuclides in Foods and Biological Specimens
    7. Measurement and Identification of Alpha Emitters in Foods and Biological Specimens
    8. Measurement and Identification of Beta Emitters in Foods and Biological Specimens
    9. Measurement and Identification of Gamma/X‐ray Emitters in Foods and Biological Specimens
    10. Conclusion
    11. References
13. 9 Food Forensics Cases Related to Nano and Novel/Intelligent Foods, Feeds and Agroproducts
    1. Introduction
    2. Nanotechnology Derived Food Ingredients and the Role of Nanotechnology in the Pioneering of New Functional Food Ingredients
    3. Manufacture of Nanomaterials for Application in the Food Industry to Create Nanofoods
    4. Classes of Nanomaterials and Nanostructures Used in Foods/Feed/Agroproducts
    5. Food Grade Novel Edible Coatings and Edible Nanolaminate Films
    6. Food‐grade Nano/Microemulsions as Functional Nanostructures for Foods
    7. Nanotechnology for the Enhancement of Food Color
    8. Nano‐liposomes/Liposomes Functional Nanostructures in Foods
    9. Nanoscale Nutraceuticals
    10. Nanoparticles for Application as Food Additives, Food Supplements and in Water Purification
    11. Encapsulation in Delivery of Functional Food Ingredients
    12. Association Colloids Based Delivery System for Functional Food Ingredients
    13. Nanoemulsions Based Delivery System for Functional Food Ingredients
    14. Nanostructured Multiple Emulsions Based Delivery System for Functional Food Ingredients
    15. Nanotechnology for Active and Intelligent Food Contact Materials
    16. Food Grade Biopolymeric Nanoparticles in Food Packaging
    17. Classification of Biopolymers with Application in Food Packaging
    18. Nanophase/fillers – Bio‐nanopolymers Blends for Use as Food Packaging
    19. Classification of Nanofillers for Food Packaging
    20. Nanosensors in Foods
    21. Nanoparticles/Nanofillers for use in Bioencapsulation Materials in Functional Food Delivery Systems
    22. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Bioencapsulation Materials for Functional Food Delivery Systems
    23. Nanofibers and their Multi‐applications in Foods
    24. Generation of Food‐grade Polymeric Nanocomposites for Application in Food Contact Materials
    25. Criteria for Establishment of Risk Assessment for Nanofoods
    26. Potential Risks of Nanofood and Nanofood Regulations Concerning the Safety of Nanofoods
    27. Regulation Regimes for use of Nanoscaled Materials Foods
    28. Analysis and Characterization of Nanomaterials in Food Materials
    29. Electron Microscopy Based Methods for the Characterization of Nanomaterials in Foods
    30. Sampling for Electron Microscopy Analysis and Characterization of Nanomaterials in Food
    31. Sample Preparation for Electron Microscopy Analysis and Characterization of Nanomaterials in Food
    32. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis of Foods
    33. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Analysis of Foods
    34. Field Flow Fractionation (FFF) Techniques in Nanofood and Food Macromolecule Analyses
    35. Hydrodynamic Chromatography for Sizing and Quantifying Nanofoods/Nanomaterials in Foods
    36. Analysis and Characterization of Nanofood Structure, Food Nanomaterials and Food Macromolecules Using Small‐angle X‐ray Scattering (SAXS)
    37. Application of Neutron Scattering Techniques in the Analysis and Characterization of Nanofoods and Nanomaterials in Foods
    38. Conclusions
    39. References
14. 10 Food Forensics Cases Related to Application of Food Additives and Food Improvement Agents
    1. Introduction
    2. Methods and Techniques for the Identification and Authenticity Verification of Food Additives
    3. Analysis of Food Coloring Agents
    4. Analysis of Preservatives Used for Foodstuffs
    5. Conclusions
    6. References
15. 11 Application of Molecular Biology Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. Molecular Biology Techniques in Food Forensics
    3. Sampling
    4. Molecular Methods for Genetic Materials Extraction
    5. Sample Preparation Methods Suitable for Molecular Biology Techniques
    6. Sample Preparation Methods
    7. Molecular Markers in Food Forensics
    8. General PCR Procedure
    9. Genome Segmentation and Identification/Typing Methods: Molecular Techniques
    10. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)‐PCR Methods in Food Forensics
    11. Gel Electrophoresis Separation of Biomolecules and PCR Products
    12. Slab Electrophoresis: (Gel Electrophoresis) – Polyacrylamide (PA) and Agarose
    13. Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
    14. Separation of Biomolecules Using Non‐electrophoresis Techniques
    15. Application of AFLP‐PCR in Food Forensics
    16. Genotypic Detection and Identification Methods: AFLP‐PCR
    17. Identification of Toxigenic Strains in Animal Carcasses and Varieties in Plant Crops
    18. PCR: Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
    19. RAPD Principle
    20. Microsatellite Techniques
    21. Inter‐sequence Simple Repeat (ISSR)‐PCR
    22. Genome Fingerprinting by Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR)‐anchored Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplification
    23. Forensically Informative Nucleotide Sequencing (FINS)/DNA/PCR Sequencing/Barcoding
    24. Conclusions
16. 12 Application of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopic Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)
    3. Atomic Emission Spectrometry: Inductively Coupled Plasma Techniques
    4. Applications of Ion Chromatoraphy and Atomic Spectrometry in Food Forensics
    5. The Relationship Between Mineral Composition in Foods, Fruit Bearing Plants, Flowers, Vegetables/Vegetable Derived Products, and Soil Structure
    6. Atomic Spectrometry (AAS, ICP‐OES, ICP‐MS)
    7. Sample Preparation for Elemental Composition Analysis in Foods
    8. Ultraviolet‐visible (UV‐Vis) Spectroscopic Methods for Food Forensics
    9. Application of Molecular Spectroscopy Methods in Food Forensics: Fluorescence Spectroscopy
    10. Fluorescence Coupled Techniques for Application in Food Forensics
    11. Proton (¹H) ¹³NMR and C NMR Spectroscopy for Food Fingerprinting and Food Provenance
    12. Application of ¹⁹F in Food Forensics
    13. Phosphorus NMR and the Application of ³¹P NMR Spectroscopy in Food Forensics
    14. Assignment of Chemical Shifts for Food Components in ³¹P NMR
    15. Application of ³¹P NMR in Plant Based Food Samples
    16. ¹³P NMR for Foods of Animal Origin
    17. Application of ³¹P NMR for Seafood Forensics
    18. Application of ³¹P NMR for Food Additives Forensics
    19. Nitrogen NMR in Food Forensics
    20. ¹⁴N and ¹⁵N NMR Techniques in Food Forensics
    21. Multidimensional NMR Techniques
    22. Application of Vibrational Spectroscopy in Food Forensics
    23. Monitoring of Foods in which Processing has Altered the Composition by Vibrational Spectroscopic Techniques
    24. Application of Mid‐infrared Spectroscopy
    25. Mid‐infrared and Chemometric Methods
    26. Application of Near Infrared in Food Forensics
    27. THz‐based Techniques for Food Forensics
    28. Food Forensics Application of Microwave Rotational Radiation
    29. Different Microwave Techniques for Food Forensics
    30. Food Forensics Application of Multi‐dimensional Raman Spectroscopic Pattern Signatures
    31. Conclusions
    32. References
17. 13 Application of Microscopy Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. Forensic Food Microscopy Methods
    2. Light Microscopy Techniques
    3. Types of Light Microscopy Techniques for Food Forensics
    4. Electron Energy Loss Spectrometry (EELS) and Electron Spectroscopic Imaging (ESI)
    5. Other Microscopy and Imaging Techniques in Food Forensics
    6. Potential Application of AFM in Nanofood Simulation, Optimization and Characterization
    7. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
    8. Other Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques
    9. Conclusions
    10. References
18. 14 Application of Ionizing Radiations (X‐rays/γ‐Rays) Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. X‐ray Techniques in Food Forensics
    2. X‐ray Techniques for Food Forensics
    3. Ionizing Radiation in Food Preservation
    4. X‐ray‐(Micro) Computed Tomography (CT)
    5. X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and its Potential Application to Food Forensics
    6. X‐ray Diffraction (XRD)
    7. X‐ray Fluorescence Techniques for Food Forensics
    8. Total Reflection X‐ray Fluorescence (TXRF)
    9. Summing‐up X‐ray Applications in Food Forensics
    10. Application of Gamma Rays in Food Forensics: Radionuclide Food Poisoning
    11. Sampling, Storage and Sample Preparation Methods for Food Specimens Suspected of Radionuclide Contamination
    12. Packaging Before Analysis
    13. Sample Preparation Methods for Radionuclides in Foods
    14. Detection Techniques for Radionuclides in Foods
    15. Detection of Radionuclides in Foods
    16. Conclusions
    17. References
19. 15 Application of Chromatographic Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. Chromatography and Food Forensics
    3. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Food Forensics
    4. Mobile Phases in HPLC
    5. Stationary Phases for Separation of Analytes (HPLC Columns)
    6. Ion Exchange Chromatography (IEC) Interactions
    7. Types of Stationary Phases Used in Ion Exchange Stationary (IEC)
    8. Affinity Chromatography (AC) Interactions
    9. Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC)
    10. Gas Chromatography (GC) for Food Forensics
    11. GC Derivatization Strategies for Food Forensics
    12. GC Pyrolysis for Food Forensics: Analysis and Identification of Polymeric Components of Food Wrappings and Food Packaging
    13. Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) for Food Forensics
    14. Conclusions
    15. References
20. 16 Application of Hyphenated Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry Hyphenated Techniques for Food Forensics
    2. GC‐MS for Food Forensics
    3. Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA) and On‐line Combustion Gas Chromatography Coupled to Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC‐C‐IRMS) for Food Forensics
    4. Sample Preparation, Derivatization and Isotopic Calibration for CSIA‐GC‐C‐IRMS in Food Forensics
    5. CSIA‐GC‐C‐IRMS for Adulteration Tests, Authenticity and Adulteration of Foods
    6. Ion Chromatography (IC) and Atomic Spectrometry Methods in Food Forensics: Verification of Food Authenticity, Adulteration, Provenance and Isotopic Fingerprinting of Foods
    7. Conclusions
    8. References
21. 17 Application of Electromigration Driven Techniques in Food Forensics
    1. Indicative‐species Targeted in Electromigration Methods:
    2. Capillary Electrophoresis and Food Authenticity in Forensics
    3. Free Solution Capillary Electrophoresis (FSCE) and Food Forensics
    4. Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography (MEKC)
    5. Considerations During the Application of Electromigration Techniques in Food Forensics
    6. Hyphenated Techniques Involving Capillary Electrophoresis
    7. Conclusions
    8. References
22. 18 Application of Thermal Methods in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. The Relationship Between Temperature and Food Properties
    3. Application of Thermal Gravimetric Analysis Techniques in Food Forensics
    4. Moisture Content and Water of Crystallization of Foods Using Thermogravimetry: Measure of Food Authenticity, Quality Control and Quality Assurance
    5. Sampling and Sample Preparation Methods in the Analysis of Moisture/Water Content in Foods
    6. Modern Instrumental Methods and Techniques for the Analysis of Moisture Content in Foods
    7. Considerations Needed to be Taken into Account During Data Interpretation from TGA Curves
    8. Protein Identification/Authentication and Species Differentiation Using Differential Scanning Calorimetric (DSC) Methods
    9. Application of DSC in the Analysis of Protein Thermal Stability
    10. Factors that Affect Thermodynamic Stability Properties of Proteins
    11. Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and Food Forensics
    12. Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) Application in Food Forensics
    13. Thermogravimetry and Cooking/Edible Oil Fingerprinting
    14. Thermogravimetry and Food Packaging and Food Contact Substances Authenticity and Compliance
    15. Biodegradable Biopolymers Used in Food Packaging and Food Contact Substances
    16. Conclusions
    17. References
23. 19 Application of Electrochemical Methods and Biosensors in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. Biosensors for Food Analysis
    3. Electrochemical Biosensors in Food Analyses
    4. Conclusions
    5. References
24. 20 Application of Flow Cytometry in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. Conclusions
    3. References
25. 21 Application of Multivariate Statistical Analysis/Chemometrics in Food Forensics
    1. Introduction
    2. Procedures for Sample Selection Prior to Chemometrics Data Analysis
    3. Targeted Metabolic Profiling Prior to Statistical Data Treatment
    4. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
    5. Multivariate Statistical Analysis Techniques (Pattern‐recognition Methods) in Food Forensic Samples
    6. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) as a Variable‐reduction Technique
    7. Multivariate Qualitative Methods
    8. Supervised Pattern Recognition (Discriminant Analysis) Methods
    9. Partial Least Squares (PLS) Regression Multivariate Calibration and Prediction Method
    10. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)
    11. Discriminant Analysis (DA)
    12. Stepwise Discriminant Analysis (SDA)
    13. Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS‐DA)
    14. k‐Nearest Neighbors Algorithm (k‐NN)
    15. Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogies (SIMCA)
    16. Decision Trees: Classification and Regression Trees (CART)
    17. Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
    18. Non‐supervised Pattern Recognition Methods (Exploratory Methods)
    19. The Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA)
    20. The Principal Component (PCA) Cluster Analysis
    21. Multivariate Calibration for Quantitative Analysis
    22. Validation Approaches for Chemometric Pattern Recognition Models
    23. Factors that Govern a Proper Choice of Statistical Technique in Food Forensic Samples
    24. Conclusions
    25. References
26. 22 Conclusions and Future Trends
27. Index
28. End User License Agreement

List of Tables

1. Chapter 02
   1. Table 2.1a Major natural organic acids found in fruits.
   2. Table 2.1b Major natural organic acids found in vegetables.
   3. Table 2.2 Essential amino acid profiles in fruits.
2. Chapter 03
   1. Table 3.1 Food ingredients and food allergy or food intolerance.
3. Chapter 05
   1. Table 5.1 Biological and chemical properties of toxins produced by C. perfringens (Sakurai, 1995 ; Sakurai and Duncan, 1978).
4. Chapter 11
   1. Table 11.1 Preparation of solutions and buffers for molecular analysis (Nishiguchi et al., 2002).
   2. Table 11.2 Sample preparation methods for the molecular forensic analysis of freshwater and marine animal food products (Taggart et al., 1992).
   3. Table 11.3 Nucleic acid extraction methods and the target specimens for food forensic molecular analyses.
5. Chapter 12
   1. Table 12.1 ½ Spin nuclei (Harris, 1983).
   2. Table 12.2 ¹⁹F NMR reference standards.
   3. Table 12.3 Fluorine chemical shifts in various solvents (Gerig, 2001).
   4. Table 12.4 Approximate chemical shift values for nitrogen isotopic nuclei as found in different types of chemical environments when CH₃NO₂ is used as a standard.
   5. Table 12.5 Example of some selected functional groups, their positions, shape and band strengths in IR spectra of bacteria.
6. Chapter 15
   1. Table 15.1 Matching the analyte chemistry with the appropriate chromatographic stationary phase.
   2. Table 15.2 Silylation reagents (Regis 1998/99 Chromatography Catalog).
   3. Table 15.3 Acylation reagents (Regis 1998/99, Chromatography Catalog).
   4. Table 15.4 Alkylation reagents.

List of Illustrations

1. Chapter 04
   1. Figure 4.1 General chemical structures of organophosphate agrochemical sub‐classes: (a) phosphorothioate; (b) sodium‐di‐sec‐butyl‐phosphorodithioate; (c) phosphorothioic acid, methyl, 0‐ethyl; (d) phosphates; (e) phosphonates; (f) phosphoramidite; and (g) O,S‐dimethyl phosphoramidothioate.
   2. Scheme 4.1 Proposed reactions of organophosphates and acetylcholinesterase (Raushel, 2011).
   3. Scheme 4.2 Proposed acetylcholinesterase mechanism of action.
   4. Scheme 4.3a Proposed interaction of acetylcholine with acetyl cholinesterase.
   5. Scheme 4.3b Proposed interaction of acetylcholine with carbaryl.
   6. Scheme 4.3c Proposed interaction of acetylcholine with chlorpyrifos.
   7. Figure 4.2 Chemical structure of malathion.
   8. Figure 4.3a(i) Proposed metabolic pathways of malathion in humans: Formation of specific malathion/malaoxon biomarkers in urine (MCA and MDA).
   9. Figure 4.3a(ii) Proposed metabolic pathways of malathion in humans: Formation of non‐specific malathion biomarkers in urine (DMDTP and DMTP).
   10. Figure 4.3b Proposed metabolism of malathion in fish/aquatic organisms.
   11. Figure 4.3c Proposed formation mechanism of malathion metabolic biomarkers in plants (e.g. plant vegetables, crop plants).
   12. Figure 4.3d Proposed metabolites of malathion in water.
   13. Figure 4.4 Chemical structure of parathion.
   14. Figure 4.5 (a) Proposed metabolic pathways for parathion in animals; (b) Proposed photolysis metabolic pathways for parathion.
   15. Figure 4.6 (a) Proposed metabolic pathway for parathion‐methyl; (b) Proposed acidic hydrolysis metabolic pathway for parathion‐methyl; (c) Proposed alkaline hydrolysis metabolic pathway for parathion‐methyl; (d) Proposed metabolic pathway for parathion‐methyl in goats.
   16. Figure 4.7 Chemical structure of pirimiphos‐methyl.
   17. Figure 4.8a Proposed metabolic pathways of pirimiphos‐methyl in animals.
   18. Figure 4.8b Proposed metabolic pathways of pirimiphos‐methyl in plants.
   19. Figure 4.9 Chemical structure of diazinon.
   20. Figure 4.10a Proposed metabolic pathways for diazinon in plants.
   21. Figure 4.10b Proposed hydrolysis metabolic pathways for diazinon.
   22. Figure 4.10c Proposed photolysis metabolic pathways for diazinon.
   23. Figure 4.10d Proposed metabolic pathways for diazinon in animals.
   24. Figure 4.11 Chemical structure of dichlorvos.
   25. Figure 4.12 Chemical structure of coumaphos.
   26. Figure 4.13a Proposed metabolic pathways for coumaphos in animals.
   27. Figure 4.13b Proposed hydrolysis metabolic pathways for coumaphos.
   28. Figure 4.13c Proposed photolysis metabolic pathways for coumaphos.
   29. Figure 4.14 Chemical structure of chlorpyrifos.
   30. Figure 4.15a Proposed metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos in humans.
   31. Figure 4.15b Proposed metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos in plants.
   32. Figure 4.15c Proposed metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos in goats.
   33. Figure 4.15d Proposed metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos in fish.
   34. Figure 4.16 Chemical structure of chlorpyrifos‐methyl.
   35. Figure 4.17a Proposed metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos‐methyl in animals.
   36. Figure 4.17b Proposed metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos‐methyl in plants.
   37. Figure 4.17c Proposed hydrolysis metabolic pathways for chlorpyrifos‐methyl.
   38. Figure 4.18 Chemical structure of azinphos‐ethyl.
   39. Figure 4.19a Proposed metabolic pathways for azinphos‐ethyl in animals.
   40. Figure 4.19b Proposed metabolic pathways for azinphos‐ethyl in plants.
   41. Figure 4.20 Chemical structure of azinphos‐methyl.
   42. Figure 4.21a Proposed photolysis metabolic pathways for azinphos‐methyl.
   43. Figure 4.21b Proposed metabolic pathways for azinphos‐methyl in animals.
   44. Figure 4.21c Proposed metabolic pathways for azinphos‐methyl in plants.
   45. Figure 4.21d Proposed thermal degradation metabolic pathways for azinphos‐methyl.
   46. Figure 4.22 Proposed urinary metabolites of permethrin in mammals (Crawford et al., 1981; Miyamoto et al., 1988).
2. Chapter 05
   1. Figure 5.1a An example of a chemical structure of Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT):‐ Amino acid sequence (top) and oligonucleotide sequence (bottom) of a specific fragment of BoNT/A using HE2 primer. The fragment is found in the amino acid position 635‐643 and nucleotide sequence 2037–2062 (Thompson et al., 1990).
   2. Figure 5.1b The chemical structure and the proposed cleavage of Botulinum neurotoxin to form an active di‐chain (Ǻberg et al., 2013; Boyer et al., 2005).
   3. Figure 5.2a General mechanism of action of botulinum toxins in specific cleaving of VAMP‐2 on the synaptic vesicle (Boyer et al., 2005).
   4. Figure 5.2b General mechanism of action of botulinum toxins in specific cleaving of SNAP‐25 on the neuronal membrane (Boyer et al., 2005).
   5. Figure 5.2c General mechanism of action of botulinum toxins in specific cleaving of SYNTAXIN A1 on the neuronal membrane (Boyer et al., 2005).
   6. Figure 5.3 Targets and the proposed mode of action of toxins produced by Clostridium perfringens.
   7. Figure 5.4 Proposed mechanism of action of alpha toxin.
   8. Figure 5.5 Suggested processes involved in CPE‐induced cytotoxicity.
   9. Figure 5.6 The proposed mechanisms of Salmonella gastroenteritis, enterocolitis, and diarrhea.
   10. Figure 5.7 The chemical structures of some mycotoxin compounds (Nazari et al., 2015).
3. Chapter 06
   1. Figure 6.1 Influenza virus
4. Chapter 07
   1. Figure 7.1 Summary of the GMO production steps
   2. Figure 7.2 The status of GMOs in African countries.
5. Chapter 11
   1. Scheme 11.1 An example of the phenol‐based protocol for DNA extraction.
   2. Scheme 11.2 Protocol for crude total cellular miniprep.
   3. Scheme 11.3 An example of a cesium chloride gradient protocol for the separation of nuclear DNA and organellar DNA.
   4. Scheme 11.4 The use of Chelex as chelating resins for vertebrate DNA extraction.
   5. Scheme 11.5 Formalin‐based procedure for the isolation of DNA from museum‐preserved specimens.
   6. Scheme 11.6 Procedures for the extraction of enriched cytoplasmic nucleic acid from animals.
   7. Scheme 11.7 Protocol for DNA extraction from bird’s tissues and feathers.
   8. Scheme 11.8 DNA extraction from fish tissues.
   9. Scheme 11.9 Summary of the AFLP‐PCR procedure.
   10. Figure 11.1a Cycle one: Summary of the procedures (in two cycles), showing the principle in which the technique operates.
   11. Figure 11.1b Cycle two: Summary of the procedures (in two cycles), showing the principle in which the technique operates.
   12. Figure 11.2 Illustration of the PCR method used as a detection method for microsatellites.
6. Chapter 12
   1. Figure 12.1 Positions of selected spectroscopic bands within the electromagnetic radiation.
   2. Figure 12.2 UV‐Vis in combination with HPLC and CE in food forensics.
   3. Figure 12.3 An illustration of alignment of nuclei with spin on a magnetic field.
   4. Figure 12.4 Infrared, terahertz and microwave vibrational spectroscopy waves.
7. Chapter 15
   1. Figure 15.1 Chemical structure of some anionic exchange groups used in ion exchange chromatography: (a) quaternary ammonium; (b) tertiary ammonium; and (c) diethylaminoethyl (DEAE).
   2. Scheme 15.1 General silylation chemical reaction (Knapp, 1979).
8. Chapter 16
   1. Figure 16.1 Chemical structure of γ‐decalactone.
9. Chapter 17
   1. Figure 17.1 Chemical structure of furosine.
10. Chapter 18
    1. Scheme 18.1 DSC interpretation illustration.
11. Chapter 19
    1. Figure 19.1 Schematic depiction of a biosensor.

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