INDEX

Page numbers in italics indicate figures and tables.

A

African Mine Workers’ Union (Amwu) 232

African National Congress (ANC) 225

and Mpondoland migrant workers 71

agency 2, 138, 257

and living-out allowances 13

militancy of migrants 228–230

of Mpondo wives 68–69

agriculture 10–11

homelands 229

Betterment schemes 161–162

farm workers 28, 157, 202

lack of interest in 66, 68, 258, 260

and land ownership and exclusion 243

Mpondoland 60, 62, 68, 72, 258

Zebediela 156–157

Zululand 76

see also under food insecurity; Letaba district homesteads; sugar farming

Ally, Shireen 207, 212

Amalaita groups 26

amatshawe 68–69

amawisa (knobkerries) 26, 83, 84

Anglo Platinum 250

Aphane, Maesela William 157–158

apprenticeship of freed slaves 38–40

arms see guns

associational life

Mpondoland 68–69

people from Zebediela 158, 161

Association of Mineworkers and Construction Union (Amcu) 72

and Marikana massacre 255

aural literature see Basotho auriture (sung poetry)

B

Baines, Thomas 42

banking

and saving 246–247

and the unbanked 249–251

Bantustans see homelands

bartering 91, 149

Basotho auriture (sung poetry) 170

and the concertina 170, 171

the departure metaphor 176

the herd boy metaphor 175–176

and Kimberley 170–171

and music 170

the natural healing metaphor 179–180

sefela (songs of the adventurers) 171–172, 174

social history as auriture 174–175

the train metaphor 171–172, 176, 179

the trouble at home metaphor 182–183

the underground disaster metaphor 180–182

women’s songs 183–184

Basotho people

care for the sick 55

and colonial labour migration 53

and diamonds 53, 55–56, 58

and food for travelling 53, 54–55

and forced labour 52–53

gains of colonial labour migration 55–56

The Wandering Bassuto. (1882) Carl Richter 52–58

and travelling parties during colonialism 53–54

beaded neck ring (ugcazimbana) 29, 31

beadwork 10, 29, 29

advent of 90

beaded identities 94–96

and bodies of resistance 100–101

hybridity and modernity through 100

and leather 96–98

and leather, Xhosa integrations 98–100

trade in beads and ‘tribal’ dress 91

‘traditional’ dress 91–93

valorisation of 93

vests/waistcoats 98–100, 99, 100

beer-brewing 206

amatshawe groups 68–69

Betterment Schemes 161–162

black economic empowerment (BEE) 14

Black Municipal Workers’ Union (BMWU) 230–231

Black Sash 206–207

blankets 78, 93, 159

body, the 92

and resistance 100–101

see also under beadwork

Boers and forced labour 52–53

Botha, Andries 198, 199

Bourke-White, Margaret 65

Brazil, slave trade 37, 38, 41

Brenton, Sir Jahleel 39, 40

bride-wealth 50

of Massuto people 58

of Mpondo people 61–62, 260

see also lobola

Britain, slave trade 37–41

Bulwer, Henry 77

C

Cape colony

and migrant labour from Mozambique 37–38, 44–46

and slave trade 37–39, 40–44

Cape Town, unionism in 228

Carnegie Inquiry into Poverty Alleviation 30

cash economy 90, 91, 260

and bartering 149

Castle galleries, Iziko Museums. CT 18

cattle 10–11

advances and debt 244

in Basotho songs 171–172

as gains labour migration 56, 60–61, 78, 260

herding of 66, 68

as lobola 58, 61–62, 75, 78, 81–82, 260

Pondoland 60–61, 63, 66, 68, 260

ritual slaughter of 261–262

as wealth 78, 260

cattle advances 244

Cetshwayo, king 77, 78, 85

Chamber of Mines 133, 136–138, 232, 234–235

Chemical Workers’ Industrial Union (CWIU) 228

child labour 52, 66, 68, 146

children as security 261

child support grant 260

Chinese labour 117–118

Chopi marimbas 26, 95

Chopi people 45

Christianity 149

and burial societies 161

during colonialism 45, 53

and dress 101

and gender roles 204

Manyanos 210, 212

circumcision 64

Clarke, Mrs Fred 66

clothing 159, 258

and Christianity 101

and indlavini 68

and stigma of being poor 149

see also beadwork

Cole, Ernest 5, 163, 227

Colenso, Bishop John 76–77

Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) 225, 232

compensation for diseases 107, 110, 111, 112, 113

compounds see hostels; mine compounds; municipal compounds

concertinas 170, 171

Congress of South African Trade Unions (Cosatu) 228

contractualisation of work 14–15

Coplan, David 173, 177, 178

credit

buying on 251

and labour recruitment 244

sources of 242

credit apartheid 243–244

credit clubs 246

culture

African 170

cultures of mobility 170

hybrid 26, 29, 100

see also ethnicity

customary law 79

D

debt and saving 242

and banking 246–247

and banking the unbanked, mines 249–251

borrowing 247–249

and buying on credit 243–244

and credit apartheid 243–244

and furniture on hire purchase 247–248

and garnishee or emoluments attachment orders 242

informal moneylending 248–249

and Marikana massacre 242, 249

and sources of credit 242

and technologies of collection 242

and wages 244, 246–247

‘Democracy X: Marking the Present – Re-Presenting the Past’ Castle galleries, CT 18

desertions

from mines 232

of wives 78

diamonds and Basotho workers 53, 55–56, 58

Dietrich, Keith 30, 34

dismissals 228, 229, 230, 235

dockworkers strike, Durban 226

domestic work

case study 202, 204, 206–207, 210, 212–213

and gender 204, 206

legal protection of 206–207

men performing 157, 160, 190, 204

and migrancy 157, 161, 212–213

and mothering 210, 212

and ‘respectability’ 202, 204, 206

state definition of 206–207

unions for 207

Domestic Workers and Employers Project (Dwep) 207

dress see clothing

drought of 1947

to 1951 149–151

Duma, Sibusiso 101, 102

Durban

1973 strike wave 226, 228

dockworkers strike 226

and Mpondoland migrant workers 69, 71

Dutch East India Company (VOC) 37

E

earplugs (iziqhaza) 29

East African slave trade 41, 42

education

and child labour 146

of freed slaves 40

of girls 204

and prosperity 260–261

and tradition 258

emoluments attachment orders 242

ethnic belonging and beadwork 94–95

“ethnic” conflicts, mines 232, 234

ethnicity

Mpondo 64

Ndebele 156–157, 158, 164–167, 166

F

families 3, 62–69, 90, 152, 235, 250

family labour, escaping 66, 68

farm workers 28, 157, 202

see also agriculture; sugar farming

Fatti’s and Moni’s strike 228

Federation of South African Trade Unions (Fosatu) 228

firearms see guns

Fischer, Anne 9

Food and Canning Workers’ Union (FCWU) 228

food insecurity

drought of 1947 to 1951 149–151

and gender 152–153

land policy as cause of 146

Letaba district 146

and maize shortages, 1940s 152

and make-up of households 146

and migrancy 152–153

forced labour 52–53, 135–136, 153

forced removals 258

Forrest, Kally 229, 230

France, slave trade 37–38

Fuze, Magema Magwaza 77

G

gangs 64, 68

garnishee orders 242

Gaza people 43, 45

Gencor 234, 235

gender

and domestic work 204, 206

and famine 152–153

gendered division of labour 90

see also masculinity; patriarchy; women

global financial crisis 250–251

Godfrey, Ilan 259

Goje, Sandile 20, 21

Goldberg, Michael 23, 24

Goldblatt, David 30, 32, 233, 245

Gold Fields 107, 234

gold mines 23, 71, 108, 110, 136, 234

see also occupational diseases, gold mines

Gordon, Jenny 6

grants, social 242, 260

guns 8, 50, 55–56, 57

H

Haiti (colony of St Domingue) 37

Hammanskraal 213

headrest (Isigqiki) 26, 29, 30

herding

as metaphor in songs 175–176

running away from 66, 68

hire purchase 247–248

HIV and AIDS 223

gold mines 111–112

homelands 258

agriculture in 229

and migrant workers’ militancy 229

and Ndebele identity 164, 166–167

home ownership schemes 250

homesteads 145–148

as dumping ground for obsolete workers 256

effects of wage work on 75–76, 78

as primary residences 62, 256–257, 258, 261

and reproduction and production 75

youth rebellion against 66, 68

see also Letaba district homesteads; under rural

hostels 3, 157, 220

demise of 235, 250, 257

Kathorus 229, 230

and ‘Ngezinyawo — Migrant Journeys’ exhibition 23–26

and NUM 257

as single accommodation villages 250

and trade unions 229–230, 231

and urban residents 4

see also mine compounds; municipal compounds

housing, investment in 260

Hunter, Monica 61

hut tax 20, 90

Zululand 75–76

hybrid culture 26, 29

and beadwork 100

I

identity

and betterment 161–162

domestic labour and mothering 206–212

dual 30

ethnic, Ndebele 158, 164, 166–167

rural, and Mpondo 62, 64–69, 261

see also gender; masculinity; under beadwork

Impala Platinum 234, 255

indlavini 68

inflation and strikes 226, 229, 232

influx control 29–30, 229

informal moneylending 248–249

informal settlements 30, 71, 239, 250, 257–258

lifestyle in 257–258

Inhambane 41, 43, 45

intolibhantshi 26, 29, 29

Iscor 161

isibaxa 78, 80

isibhalo 75, 76, 79, 81

Isigqiki 26, 29, 30

Isitshozi gangs 64

Iziko Museums, CT, Castle galleries 18

iziqhaza 29

J

James, Deborah 243

Johannesburg municipal workers’ strike, 1980 230–231

Joja, Alton 262

journeys

long-distance 50, 52

and ‘Ngezinyawo — Migrant Journeys’ exhibition 18

see also under Basotho people; Kruger National Park

K

Kathorus 229

Kekana, Johannes Shikoane 162, 164

Kekana, Patrick Ntedi 162

Kentridge, William 23, 26, 27, 219

Khoi people

and pass laws 38

and slavery 40, 41

Kimberley

and Basotho sung poetry 170–171

diamonds and Basotho workers 53, 55–56, 58

Kruger National Park

and the Chamber of Mines 136–138

‘clandestine emigration’ through 138–139, 141

and colonial power 137–138

migration through 133, 135–139, 141–142

and the Pafuri road 137

unpaid labour in 139, 141

L

labour market

and migrant labour 44–45

and slavery 37, 38, 40–44

labour recruitment 3, 8, 14, 76, 244, 257

and buying on credit 244

of Chinese 117

for mining 14

Mozambican workers 44–45, 133, 135–139, 141–142

Mpondo workers 60

numbers, SA mines 14

and Teba 10, 14, 242

see also Witwatersrand Native Labour Association (Wenela)

labour relations and slavery 38

land ownership and exclusion 243

Langalibalele, Chief 76, 77

Larrabee, Constance Stuart 165

lay-by purchasing 246

Lebowa homeland 164, 166

Lecheko, Tsokolo 182

Letaba district homesteads 145

availability of food in 146

drought of 1947 to 1951 149–151

education in 146

homestead life in 145–146

maize shortages and mobility 152–153

migrancy and poverty 149, 151

and poverty 146, 149

letter writing 20

Levson, Leon 160

Likhojane, Makeka 171–172, 175–176, 180

Limebeer, AJ 137–139

living-out allowances 13, 239, 249–250, 257–258

lobola 216, 260

cattle as 58, 61–62, 75, 78, 81–82, 260

and Natal Code of Native Law 81–82

of Zulu people 75, 82

see also bride-wealth

Lonmin 71, 72, 255

Lourenço Marques

and colonial migrant labour 44–45

and slave trade 41, 43

Luthuli, Nokukhanya 190, 192

M

Madagascar slave trade 37, 38

Magidigidi, kaNobede 77

Mai Mai hostel 26

Majara Majara 172, 176, 179, 180–182

Makua people 45

Mandebele Burial Society 161

Mandebele Cradle Association 162, 164

Manyano groups 210, 212

marijuana 220

Marikana massacre 255, 259

and differential wage settlements 72

and indebtedness 242, 249

and Mpondoland migrant workers 60, 71–72, 257

and rock-drillers 249, 251

and urban and rural homes 72

marimbas, Chopi 26

masculinity

and Amalaita groups 26

and gangs 11

and herding 175

men as wives 220–221

and Mpondo migrant workers 62, 64, 261

see also patriarchy

Matshana kaMondisa, chief 75–79, 82, 84–85

Mayekiso, Moses 229

Mdingi, Leonard 69, 71

men as wives 220–221

Metal and Allied Workers’ Union (Mawu) 228, 229–230

Mfethe, Julius 147, 148, 217

microlenders 248

migrant labour 2–4, 7

destructive consequences of 4, 7

foreign workers as 3, 3–4, 14

South African recruitment numbers 14

militancy 225, 226, 228–230

mine compounds 3, 4, 157

for Chinese workers 120–121

gangs in 64

Mpondos in 64

and Ndebele ethnicity 158

and NUM 13

and unions 231, 233

see also hostels

mines

contract labour migration to 3

desertions from 232

and the global financial crisis 250–251

living-out allowances 13, 249–250, 257–258

maintenance of two homes 235, 239

mine compounds 231

new home ownership schemes 250

number of migrants employed on 231

retrenchments 250, 251

safety conditions on 231

and trade unions 231–232, 234

wages on 10, 231, 232, 234–235

see also Mpondoland, migrant workers from; occupational diseases, gold mines

Mofolo, Mphafu 179

Mokhalo, Ngoana 171–172, 175–176, 180

Mokokoane, Sebata 182–183

mothering and domestic work 210, 212

Motsoahae, Molefi 173

Mozambique

and anti-slavery 42–44

and the Cape colony 37–38, 44–46

exportation of labour from 37

motives of migrant labour 135–136

recruitment from 44–45, 133, 135–139, 141–142

and the slave trade 37–38, 41–44

Wenela recruiting migrants 133, 135, 136

Mpande, king 77, 78, 85

Mpondoland, migrant workers from

and agriculture 60, 62, 68, 72, 258

and associational life 68–69

and cattle 60–61, 63, 66, 68, 260–262

and cattle advances 244

and Durban, politics and Marikana 69, 71

and education 260–261

and escaping family labour 66, 68

and grants 260

identity and rural life 62, 64–69, 261

investment in housing 260

and Marikana 60, 69, 71–72, 255, 257

migrant identities 62, 64–68

and the rural economy 60–62, 63, 261–262

rural families 62, 64–68

and urban consumerism 258, 262

and violence 64, 71

wives of 68–69, 216, 218

and Xhosa people 64

and Zulu people 71

municipal compounds 4, 230–231

municipal workers’ strike, Johannesburg, 1980 230–231

music 26 see also Basotho sung poetry

muti 180–181, 262

N

Natal colony 44, 45

Natal Code of Native Law 79, 81–82

National Union of Mineworkers (NUM)

formation of 234–235

and hostel accommodation 257

and living-out allowance 13

and Marikana massacre 255

membership of 234, 255

and occupational health 110

Ubank 249

National Union of Textile Workers (NUTW) 228

Native Trust and Land Act of 1936 161–162

Ndebele Ethnic Group 166

Ndebele National Organisation 166

Ndebele people

ethnic identities 158, 164, 166–167

see also under Zebediela

necklaces 30, 31

‘Ngezinyawo — Migrant Journeys’ exhibition 18

and hostel life 23–26

and journey/transformation 18–19

and rural and urban spaces 20–22

and work, daily life, transcendence 26, 28–33

Ngoza kaLudbana 77

Nkandla 75, 78, 82, 84

Nkosi, Oupa 238

Nomvimbi kaMondisa 75–76, 85

Nthako, Nthabiseng 183–184

Nunn, Cedric 26, 28

O

occupational diseases, gold mines 107–108

compensation for 107, 110, 111, 112, 113

institutional medicine and post-mortems 112–113

and medical surveillance 110–111

miners’ phthisis 107

Miners’ Phthisis Act of 1911 110, 111

and Miners’ Phthisis Medical Bureau 107, 112–113

and repatriation 107–108

and rural areas 107, 108, 113

silicosis 107, 108

tuberculosis and HIV and AIDS 107, 111–112

unreliable figures for 107–108

ownership

and BEE 14

home 250

land 243

P

pass laws 29–30, 38, 71, 139

and Khoi people 38

see also influx control

patriarchy 29–30, 84, 90

and Mpondo migrant workers 62, 64

traditional, effects of wage work on 75–76

and women in towns 206

and Zulu migrant workers 71, 75–76, 79, 84

Pedi people 11, 158, 164

Pedi kingdom 50

pensions 12, 260

performance genres 174–175

see also Basotho auriture (sung poetry)

Phundulu, Hoyce 71

Pitšo ya Sekgweng 162, 164

platinum mines 71–72, 250–251, 256

poetry 170

polygamy 81, 85

Pondoland see Mpondoland, migrant workers from

Portugal

and migrant labour 44–45

and the slave trade 37–38, 42, 43

Prize Negroes 40

professional portrait photographers 33

proletarianisation 72, 256

Q

Qabula, Alfred 71

R

race

and the nature of gold mines 110

strikes over 234

and wages 10, 231, 256

Rakhali, Ngoana 172, 176, 179, 180–182, 181–182

Ramaphosa, Cyril 234, 255

reconciliation 20, 21

recruitment see labour recruitment

resistance, forms of 225–226

see also trade unions

retrenchments 229, 250, 251

Richards, Colin 198

Richter, Carl 50, 52

The Wandering Bassuto (1882) 52–58

Riley, Thomas 92, 93

rites of passage

and beadwork 93

labour migrancy as 50

ritual slaughter 261–262

rock-drillers 72, 249, 251, 255–256

Rugendas, Johan Moritz 41

rural and urban homes 10–11, 15, 33, 166, 256-257

communication between 189–199

and Mpondo people 62, 64–69, 72, 256–262

and Ndebele ethnicity 164–166

and ‘Ngezinyawo — Migrant Journeys’ exhibition 20–22

and occupatioal diseases 107–108, 113

primary residences 62, 256–257, 258, 261

and rural economy 12–14, 12–15, 60–62, 146, 149, 151

and rural families 3, 62–69, 152, 235, 250

and women 4, 90–91

and worker militancy 229, 232

see also beadwork; domestic work; homesteads; towns

rural and urban people

attitudes to each other 4

Rustenburg 250, 256

S

saving see debt and saving

Sebatakgomo 225

sefela (songs of the adventurers) 171–172, 174

Sekhukhune, chief 56

Sekhukhuneland 157, 225, 229

Sekhukhune rebellion 225

Selby compound, Johannesburg 230–231

service delivery 13

sewing by men 90, 93

shacklands see informal settlements

Shaka, king 75, 79

Shepstone, John 76–77

Shepstone, Theophilus 76, 79, 81, 81–82

Sibande, Mary 30, 33, 202, 203, 205, 208

Sidhlatiya 76, 78

Sigedhleni 75–76, 84, 85

silicosis 107, 108

Siopis, Penny 134, 140

slave trade 8

abolition of 38, 40–41, 44

anti-slavery 42–44

apprenticeship of freed slaves 38–40

and Boers 52

Cape colony 37–39, 40–44

and children 52

East African 41, 42

education of freed slaves 40

by indigenous Africans 41, 43, 45

rights of apprenticed slaves 40

see also under Mozambique

social history as auriture 174–175

South African Congress of Trade Unions (Sactu) 232

St Domingue, colony of (Haiti) 37

Stevenson-Hamilton, James 135, 136–137, 138

stokvels 246

Stone, Simon 20, 22

strikes

1920 mineworkers’ strike 232

1946 mineworkers’ strike 232

1973 strikes, Durban 226, 228

1973 Western Deep Levels 234

1982 mineworkers’ strike 234

1987 mineworkers’ strike 235

dockworkers strike, Durban 226

at Fatti’s and Moni’s 228

inflation and 229

municipal workers’ strike, Jhb, 1980 230–231

wave of, 1981 230

sugar farming 41

and Mozambicans 44

and Mpondo people 26, 60–61, 69

T

Teba 10, 14, 242

Teba Bank 249

The Employment Bureau of Africa (Teba) 10, 14, 242

The Wandering Bassuto. (1882). Carl Richter 52–58

Thorpe, Jo 187, 194

Tobias, George 23, 25

Tönneson, Reverend Canon 76–77

towns 166, 225

attitudes to 11, 158, 170

dress codes in 92

women in 206

see also rural and urban homes

trade networks, indigenous 7, 50

traders, borrowing from 243–244

trade unions 226

and dockworkers strike, Durban 226

and Fatti’s and Moni’s strike 228

and militant migrants 228–230

and miners 231–232, 234–235

and Mpondoland migrant workers 71

municipal workers’ strike, Jhb, 1980 230–231

reconfiguring of from 2012 239

and wages 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234–235

and wave of strikes, Durban 226, 228

works committees of 228

see also strikes; specific unions

traditional healers 181, 262

traditional leaders

effects of wage work on 75–76, 78

tributes to 56, 75

traditional medicine 180–181, 262

trains

and sick miners 108

in songs 171–172, 176, 179–180

transcendence 26, 28–33

Transport and General Workers’ Union (TGWU) 228

transport networks 81 see also trains

Transvaal Ndebele National Organisation 166

tuberculosis and HIV and AIDS 107, 111–112

U

Ubank 249

ugcazimbana (beaded neck ring) 29, 31

Ugudhla kaMondisa 75–76, 78, 82, 84–85

ukwakha umuzi 78

Umkhonto we Sizwe 225

umnyama (toxic ‘pollution’) 78

umthakathi (witch) 78

unemployment 12–13, 72, 261

Union of Johannesburg Municipality Workers (UJMW) 230

unions see trade unions

urban and rural homes see rural and urban homes

urban consumerism 258, 262

V

violence 33

migrants and urban dwellers 33, 71

and Mpondo migrant workers 64, 69, 71

and strikes 232, 235

see also Marikana massacre Virginia 179

W

wages 3, 10, 110, 151–152

contributing to rural community 72, 76, 90–91, 149, 261–262

and debt and saving 244, 246–247

deferring part or all of 244

on mines 10, 231, 232, 234–235

and race 10, 231, 256

and unions 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234–235

Weinberg, Paul 236, 237

welfare 260

Wenela see Witwatersrand Native Labour Association (Wenela)

Western Province Workers’ Advice Bureau (WPWAB) 228

white miners 10, 107, 110, 112, 136, 231

Wilson, Francis 4

witchcraft 78, 176

Witwatersrand Native Labour Association (Wenela)

and colonial power 137–138

and occupational health 108, 110–111, 112

recruiting Mozambican migrants 133, 135–139, 141–142

wives

agency of 69

of Mpondo workers 68–69, 216, 218

men as 220–221

polygamy 81, 85

see also bride-wealth; lobola

Wolseley, Garnet 77

women 4

agency of Mpondo 68

and amatshawe (beer-brewing and drinking associations) 68–69

black women in cities as a ‘danger’ 206

in hostels 220

migrancy from Zebediela 157

savings systems 246

and shifting social structures of migrant labour 90–91

songs of, Basotho auriture 183–184

working on sugar farms 69

see also beadwork; gender; patriarchy; wives

X

Xhosa people and Mpondo people 64

Y

youth

associations, traditionalist (indlavini) 68

rebellion against homestead work 66, 68

Z

Zebediela 156–157

attitudes to rural and urban settings 158, 161–162

burial societies 158, 161

displacement and migrancy 156

domestic workers from 157, 161

ethnic identities 158, 164, 166–167

homelands and ethnic identities 164, 166–167

Mandebele Cradle Association 162, 164

migrancy from 156–157

migrancy of women from 157

Zebediela Citrus Estate 156

Zoekmekaar 137, 138, 141–142

Zulu people

agriculture 76

and lobola 75, 82

migrant’s waistcoats (intolibhantshi) 26, 29, 29

and Mpondoland migrant workers 71

Natal Code of Native Law 79, 81–82

Sigedhleni feud 75–78, 82–85

Zuma, Alson 67

Zungu, Tito 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 195, 197

correspondence of 194, 196, 198

demand for decorated envelopes 194, 196

early work 190

experience of flying 198–199

as illiterate 194

and the postal service 190, 192

short biography of 189–190

stamps on envelopes 196, 198

working process 198–199