8:41 The ruler of the synagogue was responsible for conducting services, selecting participants and maintaining order. See also the note on Mark 5:22.
8:43 See the note on Matthew 9:20.
8:52 For “wailing and mourning,” see the note on Mark 5:38.
9:1 See “Demons and the Bible.”
9:5 Shaking the dust off their feet was a sign of repudiation of the people there for their rejection of God’s message, as well as a gesture indicating separation from everything associated with the place (see also the note on Mt 10:14).
9:7 For “Herod the tetrarch,” see the note on Matthew 14:1.
9:10 For “Bethsaida,” see the note on Mark 8:22.
9:14 See the note on Mark 6:44.
9:17 See the note on Mark 6:43.
9:22 The Jews were looking for a deliverer, not a suffering servant.
9:28 Although Mount Tabor is the traditional site of the Mount of Transfiguration, its distance from Caesarea Philippi (the vicinity of the last scene), its height (about 1,800 ft or 549 m) and its occupation by a fortress make this identity unlikely. Mount Hermon fits the context much better by being both closer and much higher (over 9,000 ft or 2,743 m).
9:33 For “three shelters,” see the note on Mark 9:5.
9:39 For “seizes him,” see the note on Matthew 4:24.
9:52 Samaritans were particularly hostile to Jews who were on their way to observe religious festivals in Jerusalem. It was at least a three-day journey from Galilee to Jerusalem, through Samaria, and Samaritans regularly refused overnight shelter for the pilgrims. Because of this antipathy, Jews traveling between Galilee and Jerusalem frequently chose to remain on the east side of the Jordan River. (see “The Samaritans.”)
10:4 A “purse” (Greek ballantion)was a rather finely finished leather pouch or bag. Money was also carried in “belts” (Greek zomnem; Mt 10:9), which were really Middle Eastern girdles made of crude leather or woven camel’s hair worn around the waist. Sometimes these “girdles” were finely tooled and contained “slots” in which gold and silver coins could be kept. If the “girdle” was made of cloth, the money was placed within the folds themselves.
For a discussion of salutations in the Bible, see the note at Ruth 2:4.
10:12 See “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.”
10:13–15 See “Korazin.” For “Bethsaida,” see the note on Mark 8:22, for “Tyre and Sidon,” the notes on Matthew 15:21 and Mark 7:31, for “sackcloth and ashes,” the article, and for “Capernaum,” the note on Matthew 4:13.
10:25 For “expert in the law,” see the note on 7:30.
10:30 Jerusalem to Jericho was a distance of 17 miles (27 km) and a descent from about 2,500 feet (762 m) above sea level to some 800 feet (244 m) below sea level. The road ran through rocky, desert terrain, which provided natural hiding places for lurking robbers to waylay defenseless travelers.
10:33 Jews viewed Samaritans as half-breeds, both physically (see the note on Mt 10:5) and spiritually (see the notes on Jn 4:20, 22, as well as “The Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim”). Samaritans and Jews practiced open hostility toward one another (see the note on Lk 9:52).
10:34 Oil and wine were used for their healing effects (see “Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World” and “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World”).
10:35 The “two silver coins” were denarii, worth two days’ wages (see the note on Mt 20:2).
10:38 This “village” was Bethany (see the note on Mt 21:17).
11:15 For “Beelzebub,” see the note on Matthew 10:25.
11:31 For “Queen of the South,” see the note on Matthew 12:42.
11:33 For “lamps,” see the note on Matthew 5:15.
11:37–52 For a note on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see Psalm 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
11:38 “Wash” refers to ceremonial washing (see the note on Jn 2:6).
11:42 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.
A “tenth” was the tithe of all agricultural produce required by law (see Dt 14:22–29).
“Rue” refers to strongly scented herbs with bitter leaves.
11:43 For “important seats in the synagogues,” see the note on Mark 12:39. For the multiple functions of the agora, or marketplace, see the note on Matthew 11:16–17, as well as “The Ancient Agora.”
11:44 For “unmarked graves,” see the note on Matthew 23:27.
11:45 For “experts in the law,” see the note on 7:30.
11:46 For “load people down,” see the note on Matthew 11:28.
12:3 For “inner rooms,” see the note on Matthew 24:26.
12:5 For “hell,” see the note on Matthew 5:22.
12:13 The elder son generally received a double portion of the inheritance (see “Inheritance in the Ancient Near East”). Disputes over such matters were normally settled by rabbis.
12:27 “Lilies” probably represents flowers in general (see “The Flowers of Ancient Israel”).
12:28 For “grass,” see the note on Matthew 6:30.
12:38 The night was divided into four watches by the Romans and three by the Jews (see the note on Mt 14:25). The “second or third watch” probably refers to the last two Jewish watches.
12:42 The “wise manager” was an outstanding slave (v. 43) who had been put in charge of the estate (see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World” and “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”).
12:54–55 Wind from the west blew from the direction of the Mediterranean Sea, while wind from the south came from the desert. People used such indicators to forecast the weather.
12:58 For “prison,” see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”
13:1 Having people killed while they were offering sacrifices in the temple fits Pilate’s reputation (see “Pontius Pilate”, as well as “Messianic Conflicts and the Fall of Jerusalem”).
13:2 In ancient times it was often assumed that a calamity would befall only those who were extremely sinful.
13:4 The tower in Siloam was probably part of the ancient system of fortifications on the walls of the city of Jerusalem near the Pool of Siloam (see “The Pool of Siloam”). The collapse of this tower and the resulting death of 18 persons (possibly workmen employed on the aqueduct that Pilate was building; cf. Josephus, Wars, 2.9.4) is here cited by Jesus. Apparently the accident was well known to his hearers, although it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible.
13:11 Various disorders were caused by evil spirits: mental disturbances (Jn 10:20); a tendency toward unprovoked, violent actions (Lk 8:26–29), and bodily disease (13:11, 16). See “Demons and the Bible.”
13:14 For “healed on the Sabbath,” see the note on Mark 3:2; for “synagogue ruler,” see the note on Luke 8:41 and “Ancient Synagogues.”
13:19 For “mustard seed,” see the note on Matthew 13:31–32.
13:21 For “yeast,” see the note on Matthew 13:33.
13:28 For the meaning of gnashing with one’s teeth, see the note on Psalm 35:16.
13:31 Jesus was probably in Perea, which was under Herod’s jurisdiction (see the note on 3:1).
14:2 Dropsy, or edema, manifests itself in an excessive accumulation of fluid in the tissues and cavities of the body.
14:3 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17; for “experts in the law,” see the note on Luke 7:30.
14:7 For “places of honor at the table,” see “Triclinia.”
14:8 For Hebrew/Jewish feasting, see the note on Matthew 22:2–14.
14:16–17 It was the Jewish custom to send two invitations to a banquet: an advance invitation and a follow-up announcement when the feast was ready.
14:34 For “salt,” see the note on Matthew 5:13.
15:1 For “tax collectors,” see the notes on Matthew 5:46 and Mark 2:14.
15:8 The “silver coins” were drachmas (see the NIV text note). A drachma was a Greek coin approximately equivalent to the Roman denarius (see the notes on Mt 20:2; 22:19), worth about a day’s wage.
For “lamp,” see the note on Matthew 5:15. Near Eastern houses frequently had no windows and only earthen floors, making the search for a single coin difficult (see “Houses in the Holy Land of the First Century A.D.: Peter’s House in Capernaum; Insulae”).
15:12 The father may have divided the inheritance (with a double portion to the older son; see the note on 12:13) but retained the income from it until his death. To give a younger son his portion of the inheritance upon request was highly unusual.
15:15 To feed pigs was considered the ultimate indignity for Jews, who viewed them as “unclean” animals (Lev 11:7).
15:22–23 A long robe of distinction, a signet ring of authority, sandals like a son (slaves went barefoot) and the fattened calf for a special occasion—all these were signs of position and acceptance.
15:25 For Hebrew/Jewish feasting, see the note on Matthew 22:2–14.
15:29 A young goat was less expensive food than a fattened calf.
16:1 The “manager” was a steward or trusted slave who handled all of the business affairs of the owner (see the note on 12:42).
16:3–7 Knowing that he would lose his job, the manager planned for his future by discounting the debts owed to his master in order to obligate the debtors to himself. Interpreters disagree as to whether his procedure of discounting was in itself dishonest. Was he giving away what really belonged to his master, or was he forgoing interest payments his master did not have a right to charge? Originally the manager may have overcharged the debtors, a common way of circumventing the Mosaic Law, which prohibited taking interest from fellow Jews (see Ex 22:25–27; Lev 25:36). So, to reduce the debts, he may have returned the figures to their initial amounts, which would have both satisfied his master and gained the good favor of the debtors. In any event, the point remains the same: He was shrewd enough to use the means at his disposal to plan for his future well-being.
16:19 Garments of “purple and fine linen” symbolize wealth.
16:22 “Abraham’s side” refers to the place of blessedness to which the righteous dead go. The figure derives either from the Roman custom of reclining on the left side at meals; Lazarus being in the place of honor at Abraham’s right, leaning on his breast; or its appropriateness for expressing the closest of fellowship (Jn 1:18; 13:23). Since Abraham was the founder of the Hebrew nation, such intimacy equated to the highest honor and bliss.
16:23 For “hell,” see the note on Matthew 5:22.
16:29 “Moses and the Prophets” was a way of designating the entire Old Testament.
17:2 For “millstone,” see the note on Matthew 18:6.
17:4 See the note on Matthew 18:21.
17:6 For “mustard seed,” see the note on Matthew 13:31–32.
17:14 See the note on Mark 1:44.
17:16 For “Samaritan,” see the note on 10:33.
17:31 It was customary to relax on flat rooftops, where people could catch the cool evening breezes (see the note on Mk 2:4).
17:35 The grinding of grain into flour between two heavy stones was a domestic art usually performed by women; hence the import of Jesus’ parable (see also Mt 24:41).
17:36 A copyist probably inserted verse 36 here (see the NIV text note on v. 36) from Matthew 24:40. (see “Early Scribal Emendation.”)
18:3 Widows were particularly helpless and vulnerable because they had no family to uphold their cause (see “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).
18:10 Periods for prayer were scheduled daily in connection with the morning and evening sacrifices. People could also go to the temple at any time for private prayer.
For “tax collector,” see the notes on Matthew 5:46 and Mark 2:14.
18:12 For “fast twice a week,” see the note on Mark 2:18; see also “Fasting in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
18:13 For “beat his breast,” see the note on 23:48.
18:35 For “approached Jericho,” see the note on Mark 10:46.
19:1 For “entered Jericho,” see again the note on Mark 10:46.
19:2 The position of “chief tax collector,” referred to only here in the Bible, probably designated an individual in charge of a district, with other tax collectors under him. The region was prosperous at this time, so it was no wonder that Zacchaeus had grown rich. (For information on tax collectors, see the notes on Mt 5:46; Mk 2:14.)
19:4 A sycamore-fig tree is a sturdy tree 30–40 feet (9–12 m) high, with a short trunk and spreading branches, capable of withstanding the weight of a grown man (see the note on Am 7:14).
19:10 For Jesus as Savior, see the note on 2:11.
19:12 This parable has a historical background. Both Herod in 40 B.C. and Archelaus in 4 B.C. went to Rome to receive ruling authority from the emperor. There was a public outcry against Archelaus, who was unpopular and received a less comprehensive ruling mandate.
19:13 A mina was equivalent to about three months’ wages.
19:14 Such an incident had occurred over 30 years earlier in the case of Archelaus (Josephus, Wars, 2.6.1; Antiquities, 17.9.3), as well as in a number of other instances (see the note on v. 12).
19:23 For a discussion of interest, see the note on Ezekiel 18:8.
19:29 Bethphage was a village near the road running from Jericho to Jerusalem. For “Bethany,” see the note on Matthew 21:17. See also “The Mount of Olives.”
19:43 This prophecy was fulfilled when the Romans took Jerusalem in A.D. 70, using an embankment to besiege the city (see “Siege Warfare”).
19:45 The temple area (the outer court of the Gentiles) was the place where various items necessary for sacrifices were sold: animals, wine, oil, salt and doves. In addition, money was changed from Roman currency to the required Tyrian shekels in accordance with the law (Ex 30:11–14). This exchange had a built-in surcharge, some of which probably went to the high priest’s family.
20:1 For “chief priests,” see the note on Matthew 2:4, for “teachers of the law,” the notes on Matthew 2:4 and Luke 5:17 and for “elders,” the notes on Matthew 21:23 and Luke 7:3.
20:10 See the note on Mark 12:2.
20:14 Jewish law provided that a piece of property unclaimed by an heir would be declared ownerless and could then be claimed by others. The tenants assumed that the son came as the heir to claim his property and that if he were slain they could themselves claim the land.
20:19 For “teachers of the law,” see the notes on Matthew 2:4 and Luke 5:17 and for “chief priests” the note on Matthew 2:4.
20:22–25 Jesus was not a political revolutionary who challenged Rome, nor was he an ardent nationalist. No one could have charged him with political subversion. (See the note on Mk 12:14.)
20:24 For “denarius,” see the notes on Matthew 20:2 and 22:19.
20:25 For “Caesar,” see “Tiberius Caesar, the Caesar of Jesus’ Ministry.”
20:27 For “Sadducees,” see the note on Matthew 3:7.
20:28 The Sadducees were referring to the levirate law (see “Levirate Marriage”).
20:46–47 See the notes on Mark 12:38–40.
21:1 For “temple treasury,” see the note on Mark 12:41.
21:2 For “very small copper coins,” see the note on Mark 12:42.
21:5 In describing the beauty of the temple, Josephus noted that “whatever was not overlaid with gold was purest white” (Wars, 5.5.6). Herod donated a golden vine for one of its decorations, and its grape clusters were as tall as a man. The full magnificence of the temple as elaborated and adorned by Herod has only recently come to light through archaeological investigations on the temple site (see “Herod’s Temple”).
21:6 This was fulfilled in A.D. 70 when the Romans took Jerusalem and burned the temple (see “Josephus and the Fall of Jerusalem”).
21:11 See the note on famine at Ruth 1:1, as well as “Famine in the Ancient Near East.”
21:12 Synagogues were used not only for worship and school but also for community administration and for confinement of accused persons while they were awaiting trial. See also the note on Mark 1:21 and “Ancient Synagogues.”
21:21 When an army surrounded a city, it was natural to seek protection inside the walls, but Jesus directed his followers to seek the safety of the mountains because the city was doomed to destruction.
21:34 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.
22:1 See the note on Matthew 26:17.
22:2 For “chief priests,” see the note on Matthew 2:4 and for “teachers of the law” the notes on Matthew 2:4 and Luke 5:17.
22:4 The “officers of the temple guard” would have been Jews selected mostly from the Levites.
22:7 The Passover lamb was sacrificed on the fourteenth day of the month Nisan between 2:30 and 5:30 P.M. in the court of the priests. This was Thursday of Passion Week.
22:8 See “The Last Supper and the Passover.”
22:10 It was extraordinary to see a man carrying a jar of water, since this was normally considered women’s work.
22:14 For “reclined at the table,” see the note on Mark 14:18.
22:17 The “cup” refers either to the first of the four cups shared during regular observance of the Passover meal or to the third cup. For Hebrew/Jewish feasting, see the note on Matthew 22:2–14.
22:25 See “The Benefactor.”
22:34 See the note on Matthew 26:34.
22:47 The “crowd,” sent by the chief priests, elders and teachers of the law, carried swords and clubs. Included was a detachment of soldiers with officials of the Jews.
For “kiss,” see “The Jewish Custom of Kissing.”
22:54 The high priest was Caiaphas (see the note on Mt 26:3). The gathering may have taken place at his house to ensure secrecy.
22:59 Peter was suspected on the basis of his Galilean accent (see the notes on Mt 26:73; Mk 14:70).
22:64 Jesus’ guards—probably the temple police who had arrested him—were mocking this unusual and vulnerable prisoner. The game appears to have been an early version of blindman’s bluff, in which the guards blindfolded him and taunted him to “prophesy.” One interpretation of Isaiah 11:2–4 was that the Messiah could judge by smell, without the need for sight.
22:66–23:25 Luke recounted four trials preceding Jesus’ crucifixion. The first was conducted before the Sanhedrin, composed of leading Jews. Jesus then appeared twice before Pilate and once before a curious Herod.
22:66 Only after daylight could a legal trial take place for the whole council (the Sanhedrin) to pass the death sentence. (For information on the Sanhedrin, see the note on Mk 14:55.)
23:1 The “whole assembly” refers to the body of the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55), who had met at the earliest hint of dawn.
For information on Pilate, see the note on Luke 3:1. Pilate’s headquarters was in Caesarea, but he was in Jerusalem during Passover to prevent trouble from the large number of Jews assembled for the occasion (see the note on Mark 14:2).
23:5 “Judea” may here refer to the whole of the land of the Jews (including Galilee) or to the southern section only, where the region of Judea proper was governed by Pilate.
23:7 Herod Antipas was the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (see the note on Mt 14:1). His headquarters was in Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee (see “Tiberias”); but, like Pilate, he had come to Jerusalem on account of the crowds at Passover (see the note on Lk 23:1).
23:16 Although Pilate found Jesus innocent as charged, he was willing to have him illegally beaten in order to satisfy the chief priests and the people and to warn against any possible trouble in the future. Scourging, though not intended to kill, was in reality sometimes fatal (see the note on Mt 27:26).
23:18 For “Barabbas,” see the note on Matthew 27:16.
23:19 For “insurrection,” see the note on Mark 15:7; see also “The Intertestamental Period.” For “prison,” see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”
23:26 Cyrene was a leading city of Libya, west of Egypt (see the note on Ac 6:9). Simon was probably a Jew who was in Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover.
Men condemned to death were usually forced to carry a beam of their own cross, often weighing 30–40 pounds (14–18 kg), to the place of crucifixion.
23:33 See “The Crucifixion.”
23:34 It was the accepted right of the executioner’s squad to claim the minor possessions of the victim. Jesus’ clothing probably consisted of an under and an outer garment, a belt, sandals and possibly a head covering.
23:36 For “wine vinegar,” see the note on Matthew 27:48.
23:38 For “written notice,” see the note on Mark 15:26.
23:39 For “criminals,” see the note on Matthew 27:38 (“robbers”).
23:41 The criminals crucified with Jesus must have been robbers or brigands, judging by the severity of the punishment and the fact that one of them acknowledged that the death penalty imposed on them was just.
23:44 The “sixth hour” was 12:00 noon and the “ninth hour” 3:00 P.M., by the Jewish method of designating time. Jesus had been put on the cross at the third hour (9:00 A.M., see Mk 15:25). The “sixth hour” of John (Jn 19:14) may be Roman time (6:00 A.M.), when Pilate gave his decision (but see the note on Jn 19:14).
23:45 For “curtain,” see the note on Mark 15:38.
23:48 Beating one’s breast was a sign of anguish, grief or contrition (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
23:51 For “Arimathea,” see the note on Matthew 27:57.
23:52 See the note on Mark 15:45.
23:53 For “linen cloth,” see “The Shroud of Turin Controversy.” In New Testament times linen was extensively used by Jews for burial shrouds, as at the burial of Jesus (see also Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Jn 19:40; 20:5ff). Egyptian mummies throughout Biblical times were also wrapped in linen sheets of vast proportions.
Rock-hewn tombs were usually made to accommodate several bodies (see “Tombs in Ancient Israel”). This one, though finished, had not yet been used (see “The Location of Jesus’ Tomb” and “Jewish Burial Practices”).
23:54 “Preparation Day” refers to Friday, the day before the Sabbath, when preparation was made for keeping the Sabbath. It could be used for Passover preparation, but since in this instance it is followed by the Sabbath, it indicates Friday.
23:56 Yards of cloth and large quantities of spices were used in preparing a body for burial (see “Jewish Burial Practices”). Seventy-five pounds (34 kg) of myrrh and aloes were already used on that first evening (see Jn 19:39–40 and its note; see also “Perfumes and Anointing Oils”). More was purchased for the return of the women after the Sabbath.
24:1 By Jewish time, Sunday began at sundown on Saturday. The women bought spices after sunset on Saturday and were ready to set out early the next morning. When they started out, it was dark (see Jn 20:1), and by the time they arrived at the tomb it was still early dawn (see Mt 28:1).
For New Testament burial practices, see the note on Matthew 26:12. See also “Jewish Burial Practices” and “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”
24:2 A tomb’s entrance was ordinarily kept closed to prevent vandals and animals from disturbing the bodies. This stone, however, had been sealed by Roman authority for a different reason (see the note on Mt 27:66). Such stone doors weighed from one to three tons (.9 to 2.7 metric tons); hence the miracle of the stone being rolled away from Jesus’ tomb (cf. Jn 20:1).
24:13 Emmaus is thought to have been about 6–7 miles (10–11 km) west of Jerusalem (see “Emmaus”). For commentary on Jesus’ resurrection appearances, see “The Resurrection of Jesus.”
24:21 The “third day” may be a reference to (1) the Jewish belief that after the third day the soul left the body or (2) Jesus’ prophecy that he would be resurrected on the third day (9:22).
24:27 “Moses and all the Prophets” was a way of designating the entire Old Testament.
24:36 For a discussion of salutations in the Bible, see the note on Ruth 2:4.
24:44 The “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” are the three parts of the Hebrew Old Testament (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).
24:50 For “Bethany,” see the note on Matthew 21:17.
24:53 During the period of time immediately following Jesus’ ascension the believers met continually at the temple (Ac 2:46; 3:1; 5:21, 42), where many rooms were available for meetings (see the note on Lk 2:37).
1:1 Tradition holds the apostle John to have been the author of this Gospel, as well as that the date and place of authorship were sometime toward the close of the first century A.D. in Asia Minor (see the introduction). This tradition can be traced back from the ancient church historian Eusebius at the beginning of the fourth century (see Ac 1:1). The major witnesses, besides Eusebius, are Origen, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian and Irenaeus, the writer of the Muratorian Canon. Irenaeus, one of the earliest of these witnesses, was a disciple of Polycarp, who, in turn, had been a disciple of the apostle John. The inference seems to be legitimate that this tradition can be traced back to the disciple whom Jesus loved. Moreover, because of his wide travels, the witness of Irenaeus may be called a representative testimony, the first conviction of the early church that this Greek church father knew so well. In fact, the early writers (mentioned above) show that in the last quarter of the second century the fourth Gospel was known and read throughout Christendom—in Africa, Asia Minor, Italy, Gaul, Syria—and that it was ascribed to the well-known apostle John.
Among even earlier witnesses, Justin Martyr (Apology, 1.61) quoted from John 3:3–5. He used a number of expressions from this Gospel (cf. his Dialogue With Trypho, ch. 105). His doctrine of the Logos (see “The Logos in Greek and Jewish Literature” and “Greek Philosophical Schools”) presupposes acquaintance with the fourth Gospel, which his pupil Tatian included in his Diatessaron or Harmony. Ignatius, who went to his martyrdom about the year A.D. 110, alluded to John’s Gospel again and again (Epistles of Ignatius, Short Recension). Very significant also is the testimonial of the elders of Ephesus (21:24). The traditional belief regarding the authorship and date of the fourth Gospel has received strong confirmation in the discovery of a very early Gospel of John fragment of a papyrus codex, which seems to have originated in the Christian community of Middle Egypt—see “John Rylands Papyrus (p52).” On the basis of solid evidence it has been established that this papyrus scrap belonged to a codex that circulated in that general region in the first part of the second century.
1:15 In ancient times the older person was given respect and regarded as greater than the younger. People would ordinarily have ranked Jesus lower in terms of respect than John, who was older. John the Baptist explained that this age relationship was only apparent, since Jesus, as the Word, had existed before he was born on Earth.
1:19 Here “Jews” refers to the delegation commissioned by the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55) to investigate the activities of an unauthorized teacher.
“Levites” refers to the descendants of the tribe of Levi, who were assigned to specific duties in connection with the tabernacle (Nu 3:17–37) and later the temple. They also had teaching responsibilities (2Ch 35:3; Ne 8:7–9), and it was probably in this role that they were sent with the priests to John the Baptist.
1:21 The Jews remembered that Elijah had not died (2Ki 2:11) and believed that he would come back to Earth to announce the end time.
1:23 The Baptist applied the prophecy of Isaiah 40:3 to his own ministry of calling people to repent in preparation for the coming of the Messiah. The men of Qumran (see “Qumran and the New Testament”) applied the same words to themselves, but they prepared for the Lord’s coming by isolating themselves from the world in an attempt to secure their own salvation. John concentrated on helping people come to the Messiah.
1:24 The Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17) were the conservative religious party.
1:25 “The Christ” means “the Anointed One.” In Old Testament times anointing signified being set apart for service, particularly as king (cf. 1Sa 16:1, 13) or priest (Ex 28:41; 29:7; 30:30; 40:13, 15). But people were looking not just for an anointed one but for the Anointed One, the Messiah.
1:26 See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”
1:27 Disciples would perform all sorts of service for their rabbis (teachers), but loosing sandal thongs was expressly excluded, as this was considered a menial task, fit only for a slave.
1:28 The Bethany mentioned elsewhere in the Gospels was only about 2 miles (3.2 km) from Jerusalem (see the note on Mt 21:17). The site of this other Bethany is uncertain, except that it was located on the eastern side of the Jordan (see “Bethany on the Other Side of the Jordan”).
1:35–37 John the Baptist encouraged two of his own disciples to follow Jesus. One was Andrew (v. 40), and the other is not named. In Matthew, Mark and Luke, the earliest converts to Jesus are identified as Andrew, Peter, James and John (see Mk 1:16–20). The unnamed disciple may be a concealed reference to the apostle John, the author of this Gospel and likely the mystery person behind the title “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 13:23; 21:7, 20; see also 19:26; 20:2).
1:39 The tenth hour was about 4:00 P.M.
1:40 Andrew, one of the 12 apostles (Mt 10:2), was from Bethsaida but later lived with Peter at Capernaum (see Mk 1:29 and its note; see also the note on Mt 4:13), where they fished for a living (see Mt 4:18).
1:44 For “Bethsaida,” see the note on Mark 8:22.
1:45 Joseph was Jesus’ legal, though not his natural, father.
1:46 For “Nazareth,” see the notes on Matthew 2:23 and 4:12–16.
1:48 The shade of a fig tree was a favorite place for study and prayer in hot weather.
2:1 Cana is mentioned only in John’s Gospel. It lay west of the Sea of Galilee, but the exact location is unknown. Most scholars believe that Khirbet Qana, situated about 9 miles (14.5 km) north of Nazareth and just north of the Beit Netofa Valley, is a likely candidate (see “Cana of Galilee”).
See “Weddings in Ancient Israel.”
2:3 Running out of wine was more than a minor social embarrassment, since the family had an obligation to provide a feast of the socially required standard. There was no great variety in beverages, and people normally drank water or wine (see “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World”).
2:6 Jews became ceremonially defiled during the normal circumstances of daily life, and they were cleansed by pouring water over their hands. For a lengthy feast with many guests, a large amount of water was required for this purpose.
2:8–9 The “master of the banquet” was apparently one of the guests charged with serving as master of ceremonies (see “Weddings in Ancient Israel”).
2:10 Ordinarily, after the guests’ taste buds were dulled, the “cheaper wine” was served.
2:12 Situated on the shore of the lake, Capernaum was at a lower level than Cana; thus, one “went down” to Capernaum. For information on Capernaum, see the note on Matthew 4:13.
For “brothers,” see the note on Luke 8:19.
2:13 See the note on Luke 2:41.
2:14 See the note on Luke 19:45.
2:20 Herod’s new temple was not finally completed until A.D. 63/64. The meaning here is that work on the edifice had been going on for 46 years. Since construction had begun in about 19 or 20 B.C. (see “Herod’s Temple”), the year of the event recorded here is about A.D. 27.
3:1 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.
3:22 This is the only record that Jesus had a baptizing ministry, although 4:2 makes clear that his disciples, not Jesus himself, baptized people (see “Baptism in the Ancient World”).
3:23 The location of Aenon is uncertain; it may have been about 8 miles (nearly 13 km) south of Scythopolis (Beth Shan), west of the Jordan.
3:25 The Dead Sea (Qumran) Scrolls show that some Jews were deeply interested in the right way to achieve ceremonial purification. (see “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis” and “Qumran and the New Testament.”)
3:29 See “Weddings in Ancient Israel.”
4:1 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.
4:4 “Samaria” here refers to the whole region, not simply the city. Jews often avoided Samaria by crossing the Jordan and traveling on its eastern side (see the notes on Mt 10:5; Lk 9:52). Perhaps the necessity of going through Samaria had to do with Jesus’ mission rather than with geography.
4:5 Sychar was a small village near Shechem (see “Shechem”).
4:6 At its most basic, a well is a pit or hole dug in the earth down to the water table (the level at which the ground is permanently saturated with water). For both safety and permanence, wells in Bible times were generally surrounded by walls of stone. In the case of some famous wells, like that of Jacob of Sychar (ch. 4), the walls were beautifully constructed with dressed stone. A well is to be distinguished from a cistern (which is merely for storing water; Jer 2:13), a spring (which is found at the surface of the ground) or a fountain (from which water actively flows; Jos 15:9). For additional commentary on wells, see the note on Joel 1:20. See also “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World.”
Modern Bir Ya‘kub is doubtless the well referred to in this verse as “Jacob’s well.” For more than 23 centuries Samaritans and Jews have believed this to be true. The ground mentioned by John had been purchased by Jacob (Ge 33:19), and the area was later wrested by force from the Amorites (Ge 48:22). The well is near the base of Mount Gerizim, whose bluffs may have been intended in Jesus’ phrase “this mountain” (Jn 4:21). A narrow opening 4 feet (1.3 m) long was dug through limestone. One explorer in A.D. 670 claimed that it was 240 feet (75 m), while another reported in 1697 that it was 105 feet (33 m). In 1861 a Major Anderson declared it to be only 75 feet (23 m) deep. When the well was cleaned out in 1935, it was found to be 138 feet (42 m) deep. For centuries tourists cast pebbles into the well until Greek Catholics purchased the site and put it under guard.
The sixth hour was 12:00 noon.
4:7 People normally drew water at the end of the day rather than in the heat of midday (see Ge 24:11). But the practice is attested by Josephus, who stated that the young women whom Moses helped (Ex 2:15–17) came to draw water at noon.
4:9 Jews would become ceremonially unclean if they used a drinking vessel handled by a Samaritan, since they held that all Samaritans were “unclean” (see “The Samaritans”).
4:18 The Jews held that a woman might be divorced twice or at the most three times. If the Samaritans had the same standard, this woman’s life had been exceedingly immoral. Apparently she had not married her present partner.
4:20 The proper place of worship had long been a source of debate between Jews and Samaritans. Samaritans held that Mount Gerizim was especially sacred. They had built a temple there in about 400 B.C., which the Jews destroyed in 128 B.C. (see “The Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim” and “The Samaritans.”)
4:22 The Samaritan Bible contained only the Pentateuch. Samaritans worshiped the true God, but their failure to accept much of his revelation meant that they knew little about him.
4:25 The Samaritans expected a Messiah, but their rejection of all the inspired writings after the Pentateuch meant that they knew little about him. They thought of him mainly as a teacher.
4:26 This is the only occasion before his trial in which Jesus specifically said that he was the Messiah (but see Mk 9:41). The term “Messiah” did not have the political overtones in Samaria that it had in Judea, which may be part of the reason Jesus used the designation here.
4:27 Jewish religious teachers rarely spoke with women in public.
4:39 “That town” is Sychar (v. 5).
4:42 For Jesus as Savior, see the note on Luke 2:11.
4:46 Evidently the “royal official” was an officer in Herod’s service.
4:52 The seventh hour was about 1:00 P.M.
5:1 The “feast of the Jews” probably refers to Passover, Pentecost or Tabernacles (see “The Festivals of Israel”).
5:2 Use of the present tense (“there is”) may mean that the pool was still in existence when John wrote his Gospel, which has led some to suggest that John wrote before the destruction of Jerusalem. However, others observe that John sometimes used the present tense when speaking of the past.
Bethesda is generally identified with the twin pools near the present-day Saint Anne’s Church. There would have been a colonnade on each of the four sides and another between the two pools (see “The Pool of Bethesda in Jerusalem”).
5:10 It was not the Law of Moses itself but its traditional interpretation that prohibited carrying loads of any kind on the Sabbath (see the note on Mt 15:2).
5:17 The Jews did not refer to God as “my Father,” regarding the term as too intimate—although they might have used “our Father” or, in prayer, “my Father in heaven.”
5:18 The Jews did not object to the idea that God is the Father of all, but they strongly protested Jesus’ claim that he stood in a special relationship to the Father—a relationship so close as to make himself equal with God.
5:21 The Jews (with the exception of the Sadducees) firmly believed that God raises the dead. They also held that God did not give this privilege to anyone else. Jesus claimed a prerogative that, according to his opponents, belonged only to God.
5:22 The Jews believed that the Father is Judge of the world, so this teaching seemed heretical to them.
5:46 The authors of the New Testament books at times stressed and everywhere assumed that the Old Testament, rightly read, pervasively points to Christ (see Lk 24:25–27, 44).
6:1 The “far shore” refers to the northeastern shore, probably near Bethsaida (see Lk 9:10; see also the note on Mk 8:22).
The Sea of Tiberias was probably the official Roman name for the Sea of Galilee (see the note on Mk 1:16). The name came from the town of Tiberias (named after the emperor Tiberius Caesar), founded about A.D. 20 (see “Tiberias”).
6:5 Since Philip came from nearby Bethsaida (see the note on Mk 8:22), it was appropriate to ask him where they could purchase bread.
6:9 For “barley loaves,” see the note on Mark 6:38.
6:10 See the note on Matthew 14:21.
6:12 For “gather the pieces,” see the note on Mark 6:43.
6:13 For “basket,” see the note on Matthew 14:20.
6:15 The people wanted to force Jesus to define his mission and work politically—to become a king who would rival the Herodians or the Romans. Jesus wanted no part of such a kingship.
6:45 “The Prophets” refers to the section of the Old Testament from which this quotation was taken. This section includes not only the “Latter Prophets”—Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, which we call the Major Prophets, and the 12 Minor Prophets (lumped together by the Jews as “the Book of the Twelve”)—but also the “Former Prophets” (Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings).
6:59 See “The Capernaum Synagogue.”
6:60 The thought of eating the flesh of the Son of Man and drinking his blood was doubtless shocking to most of Jesus’ Jewish hearers.
6:69 For “Holy One of God,” see the note on Mark 1:24.
6:71 For “Iscariot,” see the note on Mark 3:19.
7:1 Since 6:4 refers to the Passover Feast and 7:2 to the Feast of Tabernacles, the interval was about six months.
7:2 The Feast of Tabernacles celebrated the completion of harvest and commemorated God’s goodness to the people during the desert wanderings (see “The Festivals of Israel”).
7:3 For “brothers,” see the note on Luke 8:19.
7:14 The crowds would have reached their peak halfway through the Feast. Teaching in the temple courts at such a time would have reached many (see “The Rabbis’ Teaching Steps at the Southern Wall Excavations”).
7:15 The Jews wanted to know where Jesus had gone to school. Educational standards for rabbis were well established by Jesus’ day. Advanced study under a rabbinic scholar was common (cf. Paul with Gamaliel in Ac 22:3). Jesus possessed no such credentials.
7:22 See “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”
7:32 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17. For “chief priests,” see the note on Matthew 2:4.
7:35 From the time of the exile, many Jews lived outside the Holy Land and were found in most cities throughout the Roman Empire (see “The Jewish Diaspora in the First Century A.D.”).
7:37–38 The Feast of Tabernacles lasted seven days (Lev 23:34; Dt 16:13, 15) but included a “closing assembly” on the eighth day (Lev 23:36). The celebration included a daily procession from the temple to the Pool of Siloam (see “The Pool of Siloam”). There a priest drew water that was then returned and poured out as an offering at the altar, accompanied by a recitation of Isaiah 12:3. On the final day of celebration (either the seventh or eighth day), Jesus announced that he himself was the source of “living water.”
Teachers usually sat, so Jesus drew special attention to his message by standing.
7:42 There were different ideas about the Messiah’s place of origin (see v. 27).
7:46 The guards knew they would be in trouble for failing to make the arrest but did not mention the hostility of the crowd, which would have given them something of an excuse before the Pharisees. They were favorably impressed by the teaching of Jesus and were not inclined to cause him trouble.
7:47 The Pharisees must have been greatly irritated. Ordinarily the chief priests would have rebuked the temple guards.
7:49 The Pharisees exaggerated the people’s ignorance of Scripture (cf. v. 42), although the average Jew paid little attention to the minutiae that mattered so much to the Pharisees. The law (traditions of the elders; see the note on Mt 15:2) was too great a burden for people who earned their living by hard physical work, and consequently these regulations were widely disregarded.
7:52 For “Galilee,” see the note on Matthew 4:12–16. The chief priests and the Pharisees were angry—and wrong. Jonah had come from Galilee, and perhaps other prophets had as well.
7:53–8:11 Evidence indicates that this story was not originally contained in John’s Gospel. No early New Testament text from either the east or west, and no early church father, includes these verses. Some suggest that they existed as an independent account that circulated freely for some time and was only later placed here in John’s Gospel.
8:1 See “The Mount of Olives.”
8:3 For “teachers of the law,” see the notes on Matthew 2:4 and Luke 5:17.
This sin cannot be committed by one individual alone, so the question arises as to why only one offender was brought in. The incident was staged to trap Jesus (see Jn 8:6 and its note), and provision had been made for the man to escape. The woman’s accusers must have been especially eager to humiliate her, since they could have kept her in private custody while they spoke to Jesus.
8:4 Compromising circumstances were insufficient evidence of adultery; Jewish law required witnesses who had seen the act.
8:5 The accusers altered the law slightly. Stoning was not in fact prescribed unless the woman was a betrothed virgin (Dt 22:23–24). And the law required the execution of both parties (Lev 20:10; Dt 22:22), not just the woman.
8:6 The Romans did not allow the Jews to carry out death sentences (see 18:31 and its note), so if Jesus had indicated that she should be stoned he could have been seen as in conflict with the Romans. If he had stated the opposite, however, he could have been accused of lack of support for the law.
8:7 Since Jesus spoke of throwing a stone, he could not be accused of failure to uphold the law. But the qualifications for doing so prevented anyone from acting. (The phrase “without sin” is quite general, meaning “without any sin,” not “without this sin.”)
8:12 The Feast of Tabernacles included spectacular ceremonies that symbolized multiple themes: harvest, drought, the coming winter darkness and the desert wandering after the exodus. Four stands, each holding four golden bowls, were placed in the heavily used court of women. These large bowls were filled with oil and lit during the feast. On this final day of Tabernacles, Jesus was teaching in the treasury located within the court of women. It was in this setting, standing beneath 16 lit bowls of oil, that Jesus identified himself as the true light of the world.
8:13 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.
8:33 The Jews’ statement that they had “never been slaves of anyone” was an amazing disregard of their Roman overlords—as well as of their Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian and Syrian oppressors. Perhaps they meant that they had never accepted servitude to others as their proper status, since they were descendants of Abraham.
8:44 Jesus’ words here did not apply to the Jewish people as a whole but to his Jewish opponents.
8:48 The Jews may have called Jesus a “Samaritan” to suggest that he was lax in Jewish observances or that he was a Samaritan by birth. (For information on Samaritans, see the note on Lk 10:33; see also “The Samaritans.”)
8:57 Jesus was about thirty years old when he began his ministry (see Lk 3:23 and its note).
8:59 Those who heard Jesus could not interpret his claim as other than blasphemy, for which stoning was the prescribed penalty (Lev 24:16).
9:2 The rabbis taught, based on Exodus 34:7, that if a person suffered from a physical ailment from birth this must have been (1) because the individual’s parents or grandparents had committed some sin or (2) because the sick person had sinned before birth.
9:6 See “Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World” and “Miracle Workers and Magicians in the First Century A.D..”
9:7 The Pool of Siloam, a rock-cut pool on the southern end of the main ridge on which Jerusalem was built, served as part of the major water system developed by King Hezekiah (see the note on Joel 1:20, “The Pool of Siloam” and “Hezekiah’s Tunnel”). This pool is still in existence today.
9:13 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.
9:14 See the note on Mark 3:2, as well as “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee.”
9:22 Excommunication was reported as early as the time of Ezra (10:8), but there is practically no information about the way it was practiced in New Testament times. The synagogue was the center of Jewish community life (see the notes on Mk 1:21 and Lk 21:12; see also “Ancient Synagogues”), so excommunication cut a person off from many social relationships (though, in some forms, at least in later times, not from worship).
9:34 “Threw him out” may mean “excommunicated him” (see the note on v. 22).
9:40 The Pharisees found it incredible that anyone would consider them spiritually blind (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17).
10:1–30 These verses should be understood in light of the Old Testament concept of a “shepherd” as a royal caretaker of God’s people. The concept of a ruler being the “shepherd” of his nation and its people was common in the ancient Near East (see the note on Isa 44:28; see also “Shepherding in the Ancient World”).
10:1 The sheep pen was an enclosure with only one entrance. Its walls kept the sheep from wandering away.
10:3–4 The watchman was apparently in charge of a large sheep pen, where several flocks were kept.
Shepherds in the Holy Land led their sheep (as opposed to driving them) and did not call sheep randomly, calling instead only those that belonged to them. The sheep responded to the voice of their own shepherd and followed only him.
10:22 The Feast of Dedication was the commemoration of the dedication of the temple by Judas Maccabeus in December, 164 B.C., after it had been profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes (see “Antiochus IV Epiphanes” and “The Intertestamental Period”). This was the last great deliverance the Jews had experienced.
10:23 Solomon’s Colonnade was a porch along the inner side of the wall enclosing the outer court. It had rows of columns 27 feet (over 8 m) high and a roof of cedar. Somewhat similar to a Greek stoa (see “The Ancient City”), it is commonly but erroneously thought to date back to Solomon’s time.
10:30–31 Jesus’ claim to be “one” with the Father could not have been clearer. In the people’s minds, this “blasphemy” demanded death by stoning.
10:34 The “Law” in its strictest sense meant the Pentateuch, but the term was often used, as here, of the whole Old Testament (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).
11:2 For “poured perfume,” see the note on 12:3.
11:17 Many Jews believed that the soul remained near the body for three days after death in the hope of returning to it. If this idea was in the minds of these people, they obviously thought that all hope was gone—Lazarus was irrevocably dead.
11:18 For “Bethany,” see the note on Matthew 21:17.
11:19 Jewish custom provided for three days of very heavy mourning, then four of heavy mourning, followed by lighter mourning for the remainder of 30 days. It was usual then, as now, for friends to visit the family to comfort them.
11:28 That Martha called Jesus “Teacher” is significant: Rabbis would ordinarily not teach women, although Jesus did so frequently.
11:31 Wailing at a tomb was common, and the Jews immediately assumed that this was in Mary’s mind. (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation” and “Jewish Burial Practices.”)
11:33 The Greek word for “weeping,” used twice in this verse, denotes a loud expression of grief, that is, “wailing.”
11:35 The Greek word for “wept” in this verse is not the one for loud grief (as in v. 33) but refers instead to quiet mourning (“shed tears”).
11:38 A “cave with a stone laid across the entrance” was a common type of burial place in the Holy Land at this time, especially for the wealthy (see “Bethany and the Tomb of Lazarus”).
11:39 For “four days,” see the note on verse 17. See also the note on Matthew 26:12, “Jewish Burial Practices” and “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”
11:44 The “strips of linen” were narrow, like bandages. Sometimes a shroud, like a large sheet, was used. The “cloth around his face” was a separate item.
11:47 In all four Gospels, the Pharisees appear as Jesus’ principal opponents throughout his public ministry (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17). But they lacked political power, and it was the chief priests (see the note on Mt 2:4) who were prominent in the events that led to Jesus’ crucifixion.
11:49 For information on Caiaphas, see the note on Matthew 26:3; see also “The High Priests Annas and Caiaphas” and “The Jewish Priesthood and Religious Life in the First Century A.D..”
Caiaphas was a Sadducee (see the note on Mt 3:7). Josephus noted that Sadducees “in their intercourse with their peers [were] as rude as to aliens” (Wars, 2.8.14).
11:54 After Lazarus’s raising, Jesus withdrew to Ephraim, most likely a small town about 12 miles (19 km) north of Jerusalem. But as the Passover approached he returned to Bethany (12:1).
11:55 Being ceremonially clean was especially important at a time like Passover (see “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East” and “The Passover”). Otherwise, it would not have been possible to keep the Feast (see the notes on 2:6; 18:28).
12:1 For “Bethany,” see the note on Matthew 21:17.
12:3 “Nard” is the name of both a plant and the fragrant oil it yielded. Since it was exorbitantly expensive, Mary’s act of devotion was costly—the pint (473 ml) of nard would have cost about a year’s wage for a day-laborer. Her action was also unusual, both because she poured the oil on Jesus’ feet (normally it was poured on the head) and because she used her hair to wipe them (a respectable woman did not unbind her hair in public).
12:4 For “Iscariot,” see the note on Mark 3:19.
12:5 It was a Jewish custom to give gifts to the poor on the evening of Passover.
12:7 Perfume was normally associated with festivity, but it was also used in burials. For New Testament burial practices, see the note on Matthew 26:12. See also “Jewish Burial Practices” and “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”
12:12 During the Passover and the week-long Feast of Unleavened Bread, the population of Jerusalem increased from about fifty thousand to several hundred thousand.
12:13 Palm branches were used in celebrations of victory (see “Palm Branches in Israel”). For “Hosanna!” see the note on Matthew 21:9.
12:14 See “A King Riding on a Donkey: Cultural/Political Significance in the Ancient Near East.”
12:19 For “Pharisees,” see the notes on Matthew 3:7 and Luke 5:17.
12:20 “Greeks” probably refers to “God-fearers,” people attracted to Judaism by its monotheism and morality but repelled by its nationalism and requirements such as circumcision. They worshiped in the synagogues but did not become proselytes (cf. the note on Ac 16:14).
12:21 For “Bethsaida,” see the note on Mark 8:22.
12:34 The “Law” here seems to mean the Old Testament Scripture in general (see “The Old Testament of the Early Church”).
12:42 Many Jewish leaders believed in Jesus, though they remained secret devotees for fear of excommunication (see the note on 9:22). Two such cases in this Gospel are Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea (see 3:12; 19:38–39).
13:1 See “The Passover.”
13:5 The people of Jesus’ time walked the dusty roads shod only in sandals, and their feet became dirt-encrusted. Etiquette demanded that, when a traveler entered a home as a guest, the host provide for the washing of his or her feet. This distasteful chore was generally delegated to the lowliest servant in the household (see the note on 1:27).
13:10 A man would bathe himself before going to a feast (see “Bathing”). When he arrived, he needed only to wash his feet to be considered entirely clean again.
13:18 To eat bread together was a mark of close fellowship.
13:23 At a dinner, guests reclined on couches, leaning on the left elbow with the head toward the table (see “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs” and “Triclinia”).
13:26 See the note on Matthew 26:23.
14:16 “Counselor” means “Helper” or “Advocate.” It is a legal term but carries a broader meaning than “counsel for the defense,” referring instead to any person who helped someone in trouble with the law.
14:26 For “Counselor,” see the note on verse 16.
15:15 A servant was simply an agent, doing whatever his master commanded, often not understanding the purpose. But Jesus took his friends into his confidence.
15:16 Disciples normally chose the particular rabbi to whom they wanted to be attached, but this was not the case with Jesus’ disciples: He chose them.
15:21 For “name,” see the note on Jeremiah 16:21.
15:25 For “Law,” see the note on 12:34.
15:26 For “Counselor,” see the note on 14:16.
16:2 For “put you out of the synagogue,” see the note on 9:22.
16:20 “Weep” is here the verb for loud wailing, as in 11:33 (see the note there), which carries the idea of deep sorrow and its outward expression.
16:23, 26 For “name,” see the note on Jeremiah 16:21.
17:1 The customary posture in prayer was looking upward toward heaven, though sometimes Jesus prostrated himself (see Mt 26:39).
18:1 The Kidron Valley lies east of Jerusalem and is dry except during the rainy season.
For “olive grove,” see the note on Matthew 26:36–56.
18:3 The “officials” were equivalent to the temple guard sent by the chief priests and Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 2:4; 3:7; Mk 14:55).
Torches were long poles with oil-drenched rags at the top, whereas lanterns were terra-cotta holders into which household lamps could be inserted.
18:12 The reason for the bonds is not clear. Perhaps their use was standard procedure, much like the modern use of handcuffs.
18:13 Annas had been deposed from the high priesthood by the Romans in A.D.15 but was still regarded by many as the true high priest (see the note on Lk 3:2; see also “The High Priests Annas and Caiaphas” and “The Jewish Priesthood and Religious Life in the First Century A.D.”).
In Jewish law no one could be sentenced on the same day their trial was held. The two examinations—this one and that before Caiaphas—may have been conducted to give some form of legitimacy to the proceedings.
18:15 “Known” refers to more than casual acquaintance; this disciple (perhaps John) had entrée into the high priest’s house.
18:17 Slave girls were the least important persons imaginable at that time (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”).
18:18 See the note on coal/charcoal at Psalm 120:4.
18:19–21 In a formal Jewish trial, the judge did not ask direct questions of the accused. Instead he called witnesses, whose words determined the outcome. If two or more agreed on the charge, the verdict was sealed. The accused was not required to prove his innocence. But the scene here was more like a police interrogation than a trial. Perhaps Annas regarded this as a preliminary inquiry, not a trial. By pointing out that Annas should be talking to witnesses, Jesus unmasked Annas’s attempt to make Jesus incriminate himself. In essence, Jesus was demanding a trial.
18:22 The word “struck” means a blow or slap with the open hand—another illegality.
18:26 The light in the garden would have been dim, as it was in the courtyard (a charcoal fire glows but does not flame).
18:27 See the note on Matthew 26:34.
18:28 The Roman governor at that time was Pontius Pilate (see the note on Lk 3:1).
The chief priests evidently held a second session of the Sanhedrin (see “The Sanhedrin”) after daybreak to give some appearance of legality to what they were doing. This occasion would have been immediately after that, perhaps between 6:00 and 7:00 A.M.
Jews became ceremonially unclean as a result of entering a Gentile residence; hence their caution.
“Passover” here may refer to the combined festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread, which together lasted seven days and included a number of meals.
18:31–33 See “John Rylands Papyrus (p52).”
18:31 The Jews were looking for an execution, not a fair trial. The Sanhedrin (see “The Sanhedrin”) had been deprived by the Roman government of the right to carry out capital punishment, except in the case of a foreigner who entered the sacred precincts of the temple. So Jesus had to be handed over to Pilate for execution. This restriction was important, for otherwise Rome’s supporters could have been quietly removed by local legal executions. Sometimes the Romans seem to have tolerated local executions (e.g., of Stephen, Ac 7), but normally they retained the sole right to inflict the death penalty.
18:32 Jewish execution was by stoning, but Jesus’ death was to be by crucifixion, whereby he would bear the curse associated with that particular form of capital punishment (see Dt 21:22–23). The Romans, not the Jews, had to put Jesus to death.
18:39 Prisoners are known to have been released on special occasions in other places during this time period.
18:40 Barabbas was a rebel and a murderer (see the notes on Mt 27:16; Mk 15:7).
19:1 For information on Roman flogging, see the note on Matthew 27:26.
19:2 See the note on Matthew 27:28–31.
19:3 “Hail” is an interjection found only in the Gospels (see also Mt 27:29; Mk 15:18) as a translation of chaire, used as a greeting or salutation. A similar greeting is still to be heard in modern Greece.
19:12 Some people had official status as “Friends of Caesar,” but the term seems to be used here in a general sense.
19:13 For “judge’s seat,” see “The Judgment Seat.”
19:14 For “day of Preparation,” see the note on verse 31.
The sixth hour was 12:00 noon. It is possible that Mark’s Gospel contains a copyist’s error (see “Textual Criticism” and “Early Scribal Emendation”), in that the Greek numerals for three and six could be confused. Or it may be that John was using Roman time, in which case the appearance before Pilate would have been at 6:00 A.M. and the crucifixion at 9:00 A.M. (the third hour according to Jewish reckoning).
19:15 The chief priests’ emphatic statement that they had no king but Caesar was a direct contradiction of the Old Testament declaration that God alone was Israel’s king (1Sa 8:7; 10:19).
19:17 A cross might have been shaped like a T, an X, a Y or an I, as well as in the traditional form. A condemned man would normally carry a beam of his own cross to the place of execution (see the note on Mk 15:21).
19:18 For “crucified,” see “Crucifixion.”
19:19 For “notice,” see the note on Mark 15:26 and “Constantine and Queen Helena’s Role in Preserving Holy Sites.”
19:20 Aramaic was one of the languages of the Jewish people at that time (along with Hebrew); Latin was the official language of Rome and Greek the common language of communication throughout the empire. The threefold inscription may account for the slight differences in wording in the four Gospels.
19:23 Jesus’ clothing probably consisted of an under and an outer garment, a belt, sandals and possibly a head covering. Since the undergarment was seamless, it was too valuable to be cut up.
19:27 By taking Mary to his home, the disciple took responsibility for her. It may be that Jesus’ brothers still did not believe in him (see the note on Lk 8:19).
19:29 For “wine vinegar,” see the note on Matthew 27:48.
Hyssop is the name given to a number of plants (see “Hyssop and the Rituals of Cleansing”). See the note on Mark 15:36 for the procedure used in offering Jesus this liquid on a sponge lifted to his lips on a stalk of the hyssop plant.
19:31 The “day of Preparation” was normally Friday, the day people prepared for the Sabbath. Here the meaning is Friday of Passover week. “Special Sabbath” refers to the Sabbath that fell at Passover time. The Passover meal had been eaten on Thursday evening, the day of Preparation was Friday and the Sabbath came on Saturday. (see “The Last Supper and the Passover.”)
The victims’ legs were broken to hasten death by prohibiting them from putting weight on their legs to facilitate breathing.
19:34 Jesus’ side was most likely pierced to make doubly sure that he was dead, though perhaps this was simply an act of brutality. The “sudden flow of blood and water” was the result of the spear piercing his pericardium (the sac that surrounds the heart) and his heart itself.
19:35 See “Can John’s Gospel Be Trusted?.”
19:36–37 It was extraordinary that Jesus was the only one of the three whose legs were not broken (see the note on v. 31) and that he suffered an unusual spear thrust (see the note on v. 34) that did not break a bone.
19:38 Joseph, a wealthy (Mt 27:57) member of the Sanhedrin (Mk 15:43), had disagreed with Jesus’ prosecution (Lk 23:50–51). Nicodemus was also a member of the Sanhedrin (3:1; 7:50–51).
The location of Arimathea is in doubt, but it is conjectured to be Ramathaim-Zophim, the Ramah of Samuel’s residence, in the hill country of Ephraim, about 20 miles (33 km) northwest of Jerusalem.
Permission was required to take away the body of a victim of crucifixion because otherwise people could have taken away the victim before he died and revived him. Joseph’s request, however, was unusual (see the note on Mk 15:45). Joseph and Nicodemus could have been excommunicated from the synagogue (see the note on Jn 9:22) and ousted from the Sanhedrin for their actions.
19:39–40 Seventy-five pounds (34 kg) was a very large amount of myrrh and aloes, similar to what was used in royal burials (see the note on Mt 26:12; see also “Perfumes and Anointing Oils”).
The “strips of linen” (v. 40) were thin strips like bandages. There was also a shroud, a large sheet (Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Lk 23:53; see “The Shroud of Turin Controversy” and “Jewish Burial Practices”). See also the note on Matthew 26:12.
19:41 See “The Location of Jesus’ Tomb.”
20:1 For “while it was still dark,” see the note on Luke 24:1.
Tombs of New Testament times were either caves or holes dug into stone cliffs. Since only grave clothes are mentioned in connection with tombs, it seems certain that the Jews used neither caskets nor sarcophagi. Tombs carried no inscriptions or paintings. Embalming, learned long ago in Egypt (Ge 50:2), had soon become a lost art (Jn 11:39). A general opening gave access to vaults that opened on ledges to provide support for the stone doors. The door to such a grave weighed from 1 to 3 tons (.9 to 2.7 metric tons); hence the miracle of the stone being rolled away from Jesus’ tomb (see also Lk 24:2).
20:6–7 If someone had stolen Jesus’ body, the strips of linen and the burial cloth would most likely have been missing or at least strewn about the floor. However, the burial cloth was neatly folded up, separate from the linen.
20:9 See “The Resurrection of Jesus.”
20:11 As in 11:33 (see the note there), “crying” means “wailing,” a loud expression of grief.
20:12 See “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
20:17 “My brothers” probably refers to the disciples, as the members of Jesus’ family most likely did not believe in him at this point (see the note on Lk 8:19), although they evidently became disciples not long afterward (see Ac 1:14 and its note; see also the note on Jude 1).
20:19 “Peace be with you!” was a common Hebrew greeting.
20:30–31 See “Can John’s Gospel Be Trusted?.”
20:31 Jesus’ name represents all that he is and stands for (see the note on Jer 16:21).
21:1 For the “Sea of Tiberias,” see the note on 6:1.
21:3 Nighttime was favored by fishermen in ancient times (see “Fishing in New Testament Times”).
21:7 It is curious that Peter put on his outer garment (the word appears only here in the NT) before jumping into the water. But Jews regarded a greeting as a religious act that could be performed only when one was clothed. Peter may have been preparing himself to greet the Lord.
21:9 “Burning coals” is literally “charcoal” (see the note on 18:26). See also the note on coal/charcoal at Psalm 120:4.
21:18–19 The early church understood the phrase “stretch out your hands” (v. 18) as a prophecy of crucifixion. Peter would be a martyr. Tradition indicates that he was in fact crucified upside down.
1:1 For “book,” see “Scrolls, Seals and Codices.”
For “Theophilus,” see the note on Luke 1:3.
1:4–5 Agrapha (“unwritten things”) are units of tradition concerning Christ, mostly sayings ascribed to Jesus transmitted to us outside of the canonical Gospels. The entire collection of agrapha, gathered from all sources, is not large, and when what is obviously Apocryphal or unauthentic is eliminated, the small remainder is of very little value. The best authenticated agrapha are those found in the New Testament itself, outside the Gospels: four in Acts (vv. 4–5; vv. 7–8; 11:16; 20:35), two in Paul’s letters (1Co 11:24–25; 1Th 4:15–17) and one in James (1:12). Other sources of agrapha are: (1) ancient manuscripts of the New Testament (most often, sayings preserved in such manuscripts are textual variations); (2) patristic literature (the writings of the church fathers, such as Papias, bishop of Hierapolis from approximately A.D. 80–155; Justin Martyr; Clement of Alexandria; and Origen; (3) papyri discovered in Egypt during the twentieth century, especially those found by Grenfell and Hunt at Oxyrhynchus; (4) the Apocryphal gospels, such as the Gospel According to the Hebrews, the Gospel According to the Egyptians and the Gospel of Thomas, found near Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt and dated to around A.D. 150—few of which may be regarded as genuine; and (5) Islamic sources (sayings ascribed to Jesus that are for the most part of no value).
1:5 See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”
1:6 Like their fellow countrymen, the disciples were looking for the deliverance of the people of Israel from foreign domination and for the establishment of an earthly kingdom.
1:8 Judea was the region in which Jerusalem was located. Samaria was the adjoining region to the north. (see “The Geographic Expansion of the Church Under Persecution.”)
1:9 On God’s shekînâh glory (his visible presence), see the note on Exodus 14:19.
1:11 The Twelve were called “men of Galilee” because the disciples, with the exception of Judas, who was no longer present, were all from Galilee.
1:12 The ascension occurred on the eastern slope of the mount between Jerusalem and Bethany (see “The Mount of Olives”).
A “Sabbath day’s walk” was the distance drawn from rabbinical reasoning based on several Old Testament passages (Ex 16:29; Nu 35:5; Jos 3:4). A faithful Jew was to travel no farther than .75 miles (1.2 km) on the Sabbath (see the note on Mt 15:2).
1:13 The “room” was probably an upper room of a large house, such as the one where the Last Supper was held (see “The Upper Room”)—perhaps in the home of Mary, the mother of Mark (see the note on 12:12).
For “Bartholomew,” see the note on Luke 6:14 and for “Zealot” the note on Matthew 10:4. See also the note on “Thaddaeus” (listed in Mt 10:3 and Mk 3:18 in place of “Judas son of James”) at Matthew 10:3.
1:14 These “brothers” would have included James (see the note on Lk 8:19), who later became a leader in the Jerusalem church (12:17; 15:13; 21:18; Gal 1:19; 2:9).
1:18–19 These verses are a parenthesis, an explanation by Luke and not part of Peter’s speech. Akeldama was the field purchased with the money Judas had received for betraying Jesus. Matthew 27:3–10, which includes a fuller account of the purchase, states that the priests bought it “as a burial place for foreigners.” The field was called “the place of blood” (“the Field of Blood” here and in Mt 27:8) in Aramaic (the best translation, although some scholars prefer the rendering “field of sleep” or “cemetery”).
1:26 By casting lots they submitted the decision to the ascended Lord. The use of rocks or sticks to designate the choice was common (see 1Ch 26:13–16; see also “Casting Lots”).
2:1 The day of Pentecost was the fiftieth day after the Sabbath of Passover week (Lev 23:15–16), thus the first day of the week. Pentecost is also called the Feast of Weeks (Dt 16:10), the Feast of Harvest (Ex 23:16) and the day of firstfruits (Nu 28:26). See “The Festivals of Israel” and “Pentecost.”
2:5 “God-fearing Jews” refers to devout Jews from different parts of the world who were then assembled in Jerusalem either as pilgrims attending the Feast of Pentecost or as current residents (cf. Lk 2:25).
2:9–11 Several countries and peoples are mentioned as being present at Pentecost (numbers indicate the sequence in which they are listed): (1) Parthians were inhabitants of the territory from the Tigris River to India. (2) Medes were inhabitants of Media, which lay east of Mesopotamia, northwest of Persia and south-southwest of the Caspian Sea. (3) Elamites inhabited Elam, north of the Persian Gulf and bounded on the west by the Tigris. (4) Mesopotamia lay between the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers. (5) Judea was the homeland of the Jews, perhaps used here in the Old Testament sense “from the river of Egypt to … the Euphrates” (Ge 15:18), including Galilee. (6–8) Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia were districts in Asia Minor. Asia was a Roman province in western Asia Minor, now Turkish territory. (9–10) Phrygia and Pamphylia were districts in Asia Minor. (11) Egypt had become a refuge for Jews since the eighth century B.C. (Two of the five districts of Alexandria were Jewish.) (12) Libya was a region west of Egypt. (13) Cyrene was the capital of a district of Libya called Cyrenaica. (14) Rome was home to thousands of Jews. (15) Cretans lived on Crete, the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is 156 miles (250 km) long and lies directly south of the Aegean Sea (see “Crete”). (16) Arabs were from a region to the southeast.
2:9 Cappadocia was a large inland region of Asia Minor that apparently had been given this name by the Persians, although its people were called “Syrians” by the Greeks. In the latter period of the Persian Empire the region had been divided into two territories, of which the more northerly was later called Pontus and the more southerly Cappadocia, the name it retained in New Testament times. It was bounded on the north by Pontus, on the east by Syria and Armenia, on the south by Cilicia and on the west by Lycaonia. The Romans built roads through the “Cilician gates” in the Taurus range so that Cappadocia could easily be accessed from the south. The Cappadocians were Aryans. Jews from this region were among the hearers of the first Christian sermon, along with men from other Anatolian provinces.
2:10 In Bible times Phrygia was an inland province of southwestern Asia Minor. Its tablelands, which rose to 4,000 feet (1,250 m), contained numerous cities and towns considerable in size and wealth. Historians agree that the province included greater or lesser territory at different times, its boundaries shifting with almost every generation. It seems that at one point in time it included a greater part of western Asia Minor, after which it was divided into Phrygia Major and Phrygia Minor; later the Romans divided it into three parts. Some Bible students believe that the term “Phrygia” is used loosely in Acts to include small provinces like Pisidia. Although a great deal of Christian activity took place in ancient Phrygia, with this reference the region passes from the Biblical record.
Pamphylia was a small Roman province of southern Asia Minor, extending 75 miles (125 km) inland to the Taurus Mountains. It was surrounded by Pisidia on the north, Cilicia to the east and Lycia to the southwest. It never became an important province, and its boundaries were often changed by sudden and arbitrary political decisions. The emperor Claudius brought the region into the Roman provincial system during the first century A.D. It is said that most of Pampylia’s inhabitants were illiterate, and Christianity never flourished there as it did in other provinces in Asia Minor.
2:11 “Converts to Judaism” refers to Gentiles who undertook the full observance of the Mosaic Law and were therefore received into full fellowship with the Jews (see “Proselytes in Second Temple Judaism”; cf. “God-fearers” in the note on 10:2).
Crete is an island in the Mediterranean Sea with Cythera on the northwest and Rhodes on the northeast, forming a natural stepping stone between Europe and Asia Minor. The island is about 156 miles (250 km) long and about 35 miles (56 km) wide. Despite its enviable geographical position, Crete has for the most part not held a prominent place in history, partly because of internal dissensions. Crete was for a long time the center of a great power—the Minoan civilization—but that power collapsed around 1200 B.C. (see “Greece: From the Prehistoric Period Through the Mycenaean Empire”). In more modern times, Crete accepted Turkish rule and the Islamic faith until 1913, when it was formally incorporated into Greece, in which the Orthodox church predominates. See “Crete.”
2:13 In the New Testament, the primary Greek word for “wine” is oinos. The word gleukos (“new, sweet wine”) occurs only here. See “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World.”
2:15 On a festival day such as Pentecost, a Jew would not break his fast until at least 10:00 A.M. So it was extremely unlikely that a group of men would have been drunk at such an early hour.
2:18 See the note on prophetesses at Exodus 15:20–21.
2:27 For “grave,” see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
2:29 The tomb of David could be seen in Jerusalem and still contained the remains of David’s body, so the words of Psalm 16:8–11 did not fully apply to him.
2:33 For “the right hand of God,” see “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”
2:38 For “baptized,” see “Baptism in the Ancient World.”
2:41 See “Before the Gentile Expansion: The Jewish Churches in the Holy Land.”
2:42 For “the breaking of bread,” see “The Love Feast.”
2:46 “Temple courts” probably refers to Solomon’s Colonnade (see the note on Jn 10:23).
3:1 The three stated times of prayer for later Judaism were midmorning (the third hour, 9:00 A.M.), the time of the evening sacrifice (the ninth hour, 3:00 P.M.) and sunset.
3:2–3 The “gate called Beautiful” was the favorite entrance to the temple court. It was probably the bronze-sheathed gate that is elsewhere called the Nicanor Gate. Apparently it led from the court of the Gentiles to the court of women, east of the temple.
For a discussion of “begging” and almsgiving, see the note on Matthew 6:1–2.
3:8 The man proceeded from the outer court (the court of the Gentiles) into the court of women, containing the treasury, and from there into the court of Israel. From the outer court, nine gates led into the inner courts.
3:11 For “Solomon’s Colonnade,” see the note on John 10:23.
3:13 See “Pontius Pilate.”
4:1 The “captain of the temple guard” was a member of one of the leading priestly families and was next in rank to the high priest.
The Sadducees were a Jewish sect whose members came from the priestly line and controlled the temple (see the note on Mt 3:7; see also “The Sadducees”). They did not believe in the resurrection or in a personal Messiah but held that the Messianic age—an ideal time—was then present and must be preserved. The high priest, one of their number, presided over the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55; see also “The Sanhedrin”).
4:3 The evening sacrifices ended about 4:00 P.M., and the temple gates were closed for the day at that time. Any judgments involving life and death had to be begun and concluded within daylight hours.
4:4 See “Before the Gentile Expansion: The Jewish Churches in the Holy Land.”
4:5 “Rulers, elders and teachers of the law” made up the Sanhedrin (see the note on Mk 14:55).
4:6 For information on Annas, see the note on Luke 3:2.
4:13 Peter and John had not been trained in the Rabbinic schools, nor did they hold official positions in recognized religious circles.
4:15 For “Sanhedrin,” see the note on Mark 14:55 and “The Sanhedrin.”
4:22 The man’s age pointed to the fact that he had been lame for so long that any hope that his condition might someday naturally improve had vanished.
4:27 “Herod” refers to Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (see the note on Mt 14:1). Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor of Judea (see the note on Lk 3:1 and “Pontius Pilate”).
4:36 Although Levites owned no inherited land within the Holy Land, these regulations may not have applied to the Levites in other countries, such as Cyprus.
Cyprus is an island in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Jews had settled there from Maccabean times. It was the home of Barnabas (see the note on 13:1–2).
5:2 The couple had the right to keep back whatever they chose, but to make it appear that they had given all when they had not was sinful.
5:6 For New Testament burial practices, see the note on Matthew 26:12. See also “Jewish Burial Practices” and “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”
5:11 This is the first use of the term “church” in Acts. It can denote either the local congregation (see 8:1; 11:22; 13:1) or the universal church (see 20:28). The Greek word for “church” (ekklesia) was already being used for political and other assemblies (see 19:32, 41), and it appears in the Septuagint for Israel when gathered in religious assembly.
5:12 For “Solomon’s Colonnade,” see the note on John 10:23.
5:17 The official high priest recognized by Rome was Caiaphas, but the Jews considered Annas, Caiaphas’s father-in-law, to be the actual high priest since the high priesthood was to be held for life (see the note on Lk 3:2).
For background on the Sadducees, see the note on Acts 4:1. After the Day of Pentecost the Sadducees were active against the infant church. Along with the priests and the captain of the temple, they arrested Peter and John and put them in prison. A little later they arrested all of the other apostles and made plans to kill them (see also 5:33). Their hostile attitude persisted throughout the apostolic times, and there is no record of any Sadducee being admitted into the Christian church. According to Josephus (Antiquities, 20.9.1), members of this sect were responsible for the death of James, the brother of the Lord. With the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 the Sadducean party disappeared. See also “The Sadducees.”
5:18 For “public jail,” see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”
5:19 For “angel of the Lord,” see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
5:21 For “Sanhedrin,” see the note on Mark 14:55 and “The Sanhedrin.”
5:24 For “captain of the temple guard,” see the note on 4:1.
5:34 Gamaliel was the most famous Jewish teacher of his time and traditionally was listed among the “heads of the schools” (see “Gamaliel, Paul’s Teacher”). He was probably the grandson of Hillel. Like Hillel (see the note on Mt 19:3), he was moderate in his views, a characteristic that is apparent in his cautious recommendation on this occasion. Saul (Paul) was one of his students (Ac 22:3).
In New Testament times the scribes were a class of learned men who made the systematic study of the law and its exposition their professional occupation (see “The Scribe”). In the New Testament they are generally called “teachers of the law” (see the notes on Mt 2:4; Lk 5:17). These men were prominent in the Gospels, often associated with the Pharisees (Mt 5:20; 12:38; 15:1; 23:2, 13; Mk 7:5; Lk 5:21, 30; 6:7; 11:53; 15:2; Jn 8:3) but also mentioned alone, as they were not necessarily Pharisees (Mt 9:3; Mk 2:6; 3:22; 9:14; Lk 20:39). The Pharisees were a religious party (see the note on Mt 3:7 and “The Pharisees”), while the scribes held an office. The double designation distinguished these teachers of the law from the Pharisees, but many scribes belonged to the Pharisee party, which recognized the legal interpretations of the scribes. Certain expressions (e.g., “the Pharisees and the teachers of the law who belonged to their sect”) imply that the Sadducees also had their scribes (Mk 2:16; Lk 5:30; Ac 23:9).
5:36–37 Josephus (Antiquities, 20.5.1) mentioned a Theudas who led a considerable revolt in A.D. 44 or 45. This cannot have been the Theudas of Gamaliel’s speech, which was made some ten years earlier. To suggest that Luke used Josephus and confused Theudas and Judas (see the note to follow), reversing their chronological order, is to disregard Luke’s customary accuracy. There is little correspondence between Luke’s “four hundred” and Josephus’s account of a more extensive rebellion. It is quite possible that the reference in Josephus was in fact an interpolation (altering or corruption) of Acts. There could have been more than one Theudas, and our knowledge of the history of the province is far too sketchy to dispute this clear possibility.
5:37 The Jewish historian Josephus referred to Judas the Galilean as a man from Gamala in Gaulanitis who refused to give tribute to Caesar (see the previous note). His revolt was crushed, but a movement started in his time may have lived on in the party of the Zealots, a Jewish revolutionary group violently opposed to Roman rule over the Holy Land (see “The Zealots and the Essenes” and “Messianic Conflicts and the Fall of Jerusalem”).
5:40 The apostles were “flogged,” that is, beaten with the Jewish penalty of “forty lashes minus one” (2Co 11:24). (To compare Jewish flogging with Roman flogging, see the note on Mt 27:26.)
6:1 At this stage of the church’s development, it was entirely Jewish in its composition (see “The Church From the Resurrection to the Conversion of Paul”). However, there were two groups of Jews within the fellowship: (1) Grecian Jews were Hellenists—Jews born in lands other than the Holy Land who spoke the Greek language and were more Grecian than Hebraic in their attitudes and outlooks (for “Greeks” and “Grecians,” see the note on 16:1). (2) Hebraic Jews were Jews born in the Holy Land who spoke Palestinian Aramaic and/or Hebrew and preserved Jewish culture and customs.
Help was needed by widows who had no one else to care for them, so the church took on this responsibility (see “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).
6:2 At this early stage, the apostles were responsible for church life in general, including the ministry of the Word of God and the care of the needy.
6:5 It is significant that a proselyte (see “Proselytes in Second Temple Judaism”) was included in the number and that Luke pointed out his place of origin as Syrian Antioch (see the note on 11:19), the city to which the gospel was soon to be taken and which was to become the “headquarters” for the forthcoming Gentile missionary effort (see “Antioch of Syria, Center of Christianity”).
6:6 Laying on of hands was a method used in the Old Testament period to confer blessing (Ge 48:13–20), to transfer guilt from sinner to sacrifice (Lev 1:4) and to commission a person for a new responsibility (Nu 27:23). In the New Testament period laying on of hands was observed in healing (Mk 1:41; Ac 28:8), blessing (Mk 10:16), ordaining or commissioning (Ac 6:6; 13:3; 1Ti 5:22) and the imparting of spiritual gifts (Ac 8:17; 19:6; 1Ti 4:14; 2Ti 1:6).
These seven men were appointed to responsibilities turned over to them by the Twelve. The Greek word used to describe their responsibility (“wait on”) is the verb from which the noun “deacon” comes. The Greek noun for “deacon(s)” can also be translated “minister” or “servant.” The men appointed on this occasion were simply called the Seven (Ac 21:8), just as the apostles were called the Twelve. It is disputed whether the Seven were the first deacons or were later replaced by deacons (see the note on 1Ti 3:8–13).
6:7 This “large number of priests,” though involved by lineage and life service in the priestly observances of the old covenant, accepted the preaching of the apostles, which proclaimed a sacrifice that made the old sacrifices unnecessary (see Heb 8:13).
6:9 Freedmen (also called Libertines) were most likely originally captive Jews who had been brought to Rome by Pompey in 63 B.C., liberated subsequently and repatriated to Palestine, where, presumably, they had constructed a synagogue still occupied by their descendants a century after Pompey’s Palestinian campaign.
Cyrene was the chief city in Libya and northern Africa, halfway between Alexandria and Carthage. One of its population groups was Jewish.
Alexandria was the capital of Egypt and second only to Rome in the empire (see “Alexandria”). Two of the five districts in Alexandria were Jewish.
Cilicia was a Roman province in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor adjoining Syria. Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul, was one of its principal towns (see the note on 22:3 and the more extensive note on 15:23).
Asia was a Roman province in the western part of Asia Minor. Ephesus, where Paul later ministered for a few years, was its capital (see “Ephesus During the Time of Paul”).
6:11 Stephen declared that the worship of God was no longer to be restricted to the temple (7:48–49), but his opponents twisted his words to trump up an accusation that Stephen was attacking the temple, the law, Moses and, ultimately, God.
6:12 For “elders,” see the notes on Matthew 21:23 and Luke 7:3. For “teachers of the law,” see the notes on Matthew 2:4 and Luke 5:17. For “Sanhedrin,” see the note on Mark 14:55.
6:13 The “holy place” is a reference to the temple in Jerusalem.
7:1 The high priest was probably Caiaphas (see the note on Mt 26:3; see also “The High Priests Annas and Caiaphas”).
7:2–53 Stephen’s speech marks a decisive break between Judaism and Christianity and points forward to the vigorous explanations of the differences between the old faith and the new faith expounded in the writings of Paul and the author of Hebrews.
7:4 The “land of the Chaldeans” refers here to a district in southern Babylonia; the name was later applied to a region that included all of Babylonia.
7:8 For “covenant of circumcision,” see Genesis 17:10 and its note.
7:16 Josephus preserves a tradition that Joseph’s brothers were buried at Hebron. Stephen’s rhetorical device (by which he recalled that Jacob and the 12 patriarchs were buried not in Egypt but in Canaan) is strange to modern ears but would have been well understood by his hearers.
7:23 Moses was eighty years old when he was sent to speak before the pharaoh (Ex 7:7) and one hundred twenty years old when he died (Dt 34:7). Stephen’s words agree with a tradition that at Moses’ first departure from Egypt he was forty years of age.
7:30 Mount Sinai is called Horeb in Exodus 3:1 (see “The Location of Mount Sinai”).
7:38 According to Jewish interpretation at that time, the Law was given to Moses by angel mediation—after the manner of the original call of Moses (see Ex 3:2; see also Ac 7:53; Gal 3:19; Heb 2:2).
7:43 For “Molech,” see the note on Leviticus 18:21.
7:53 See the note on verse 38.
7:56 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”
7:58 Because the witnesses laid their clothes at the feet of Saul, some have thought that this gesture marked Saul as being in charge of the execution.
8:1 See “The Geographic Expansion of the Church Under Persecution” and “The Early Persecution of the Church.”
8:5 Philip, a Grecian Jew and one of the Seven in the Jerusalem church (see the note on 6:6), became an evangelist and brought the gospel to the Samaritans, a mixed race—a blend of Jews left behind after Israel’s exile and Gentiles forcibly settled in the region by Assyria (2Ki 17:24; see the note on Lk 10:33 and “The Samaritans”).
Rather than “a city in Samaria,” some manuscripts have “the city of Samaria,” a reference to the old capital of Samaria, renamed Sebaste.
8:9 In early Christian literature this “sorcerer” (Simon Magus) is described as the arch-heretic of the church and the “father” of Gnostic teaching (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).
For “sorcerer,” see the note on “Magi” at Matthew 2:1.
8:14 The Jerusalem church assumed the responsibility of inspecting new evangelistic efforts and the communities of believers they produced (see 11:22).
8:16 See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”
8:17 For “placed their hands on,” see the note on 6:6.
8:25 For “Samaritan villages,” see the note on Luke 10:33 and “The Samaritans.”
8:26 For “angel of the Lord,” see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
From Jerusalem to Gaza was a distance of about 50 miles (80 km).
8:27 Ethiopia corresponded in this period to Nubia, from the upper Nile region at the first cataract (Aswan) to Khartoum.
For “eunuch,” see “The Eunuch.”
“Candace” was the traditional title of the queen mother of Ethiopia (much as “Pharaoh” was the designated name for Egyptian kings and “Caesar” for Roman emperors), responsible for performing the secular duties of the reigning king—who was thought to be too sacred for such activities.
If not a full-fledged proselyte, the Ethiopian was a Gentile God-fearer (see the notes on Jn 12:20; Ac10:2 cf. “converts” in the note on Ac 2:11; see also “Proselytes in Second Temple Judaism”).
8:30 It was customary practice to read aloud.
8:36 There are several possible places where the eunuch could have been baptized: a brook in the Valley of Elah (which David had crossed to meet Goliath, 1Sa 17:40); the Wadi el-Hasi just north of Gaza; water from a spring or one of the many pools in the area.
8:40 Azotus, Old Testament Ashdod (see 1Sa 5:1), was one of the five major Philistine cities. It was about 19 miles (31 km) from Gaza and 60 miles (97 km) from Caesarea.
Caesarea, about 30 miles (48 km) north of Joppa, was rebuilt by Herod, and with its excellent harbor it served as the headquarters of the Roman governors (see “Caesarea Maritima”).
9:1 Saul was born in Tarsus (see the note on 22:3) and trained under Gamaliel (see “Gamaliel, Paul’s Teacher”). We do not know that Saul was directly involved in the death of anyone other than Stephen (8:1), but there appear to have been similar cases (see “The Early Persecution of the Church”).
The high priest was probably Caiaphas (see the note on Mt 26:3).
9:2 Damascus, located in the Roman province of Syria, was the hub of a vast commercial network with far-flung lines of caravan trade reaching into northern Syria, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Persia and Arabia. The city was situated in a plain watered by two rivers. Roman architecture overlaid the Hellenistic town plan with a great temple to Jupiter and a mile-long colonnaded street called Straight Street (see v. 11 and its note). The city gates and a section of the town wall may still be seen today, as well as the lengthy bazaar that ran along the line of the ancient street. Damascus, which also had a large Jewish population, was the nearest important city outside the Holy Land. The distance from Jerusalem to Damascus was about 150 miles (241 km), which equated to four to six days’ travel. Damascus is one of the oldest continuously occupied towns in the world. Today this still-thriving city, the capital of Syria, is home to 1.7 million people.
“The Way” was a name for Christianity that appears a number of times in Acts.
The prisoners were taken to Jerusalem, where the full authority of the Sanhedrin could be exercised in trial for either acquittal or death.
9:5 In Rabbinic tradition such a voice from heaven would have been understood as the voice of God himself.
9:11 Straight Street probably followed the same route of the long, straight street that today runs through the city from east to west (see the note on v. 2), in decided contrast to the numerous crooked streets of the city. In fact, this name was given to any route in antiquity extending in a straight course across a city.
For information on Tarsus, see the note on 22:3.
9:15 “Their kings” refers to King Agrippa (26:1) and to Caesar in Rome (25:11–12; 28:19).
9:18 The Greek word lepis, meaning “rind, husk or flake,” is used here to describe Saul’s recovery from temporary blindness.
9:20 It became Paul’s regular practice to preach at every opportunity in the synagogues (see the notes on Mk 1:21 and Lk 21:12; see also “Ancient Synagogues” and “The Jewish Priesthood and Religious Life in the First Century A.D.”).
9:23 It is probable that the major part of this “many days” (in actuality a period of three years; Gal 1:17–18) was spent in Arabia, away from Damascus, although the borders of Arabia extended to the environs of Damascus. Upon Paul’s return to Damascus, the governor under Aretas (see “Aretas IV of Nabatea and Petra”) gave orders for his arrest. The absence of Roman coins struck in Damascus between A.D. 34 and 62 may indicate that Aretas was in control during that period.
9:25 For information on the city walls, see “The Ancient City” and for “basket,” see the note on Matthew 14:20.
9:30 For “Caesarea,” see the note on 8:40 and for “Tarsus” the note on 22:3.
9:31 “Church” here refers not to various individual congregations but to the whole Christian body, including Christians in the districts of Judea, Galilee and Samaria.
9:32 Lydda, a town 2–3 miles (3–5 km) north of the road connecting Joppa and Jerusalem, lay about 12 miles (19 km) from Joppa (see the note on v. 36).
9:35 The fertile plain of Sharon runs about 50 miles (80 km) along the Mediterranean coast, roughly from Joppa to Caesarea. The reference here, however, may be to a village in the neighborhood of Lydda instead of to a district (an Egyptian papyrus refers to a town by that name in the Holy Land).