Endnotes

AUTHOR’S NOTE

1Sharpe S. Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum. London: J. Russell Smith, 156.

2The Dartford Town Archives. Last modified 2017. www.dartfordarchive.org.uk/technology/paper.shtml

3Turner, E. Greek Papyri, an Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968.

4Hunter, D. 1943. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. New York: A. Knopf.

PROLOGUE

1The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep, of the Thirteenth Dynasty (1700 B.C.), where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. By 1550 B.C. it had become a very common item among the funerary objects in tombs (Source: Taylor, 2010).

2Gaudet, John. 2014. Papyrus, the Plant that Changed the World. New York: Pegasus.

3The term media is used here as a mass noun: “The word media comes from the Latin plural of medium. The traditional view is that it should therefore be treated as a plural noun in all its senses in English and be used with a plural rather than a singular verb . . . In practice, in the sense ‘television, radio, and the press collectively,’ it behaves as a collective noun (like staff or clergy, for example), which means that it is now acceptable in standard English for it to take either a singular or a plural verb.” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com).

1: THE INSPECTOR PUTS PEN TO PAPER AND MAKES HISTORY

1Jarus, Owen, 2013. “Giza Secret Revealed: How 10,000 Pyramid Builders Got Fed.” Live Science. www.livescience.com/28961-ancient-giza-pyramid-builders-camp-unearthed.html.

2NOVA, PBS (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/who-built-the-pyramids.html).

3Levy, J. 2005. The Great Pyramid of Giza: Measuring Length, Area, Volume, and Angles. New York: Rosen Publishing.

4Tallet, P. “The Wadi el-Jarf site: a harbor of Khufu on the Red Sea”. Jour. Anc. Egyptian Intercon.5 (2013): 76–84.

5Stille, A. 2015. “The World’s Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids: Ancient Egyptians Leveraged a Massive Shipping, Mining and Farming Economy to Propel their Civilization Forward.” Smithsonian Magazine, October 2015. http://tinyurl.com/z9hu8jo.

6Tallet, P. “Des papyrus du temps de Chéops au ouadi el-Jarf.” Bulletin de la Société française d’égyptologie 188 (2014): 25–49.

7Lehner. M. 2015. “Feeding pyramid workers.” AERA website. www.aeraweb.org/lost-city-project/feeding-pyramid-workers.

8Tallet, P. “Ayn Sukhna and Wadi el-Jarf: Two newly discovered pharaonic harbours on the Suez Gulf.” British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 18 (2012): 147–68.

9Wilkinson. T. 2001. Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security. London: Routledge.

10Tallet, P. 2014. “Des papyrus du temps de Chéops au ouadi el-Jarf.” loc. cit.

11Grubbs, M. 2015. “Google Sheets 101: The Beginner’s Guide to Online Spreadsheets.” Zapier, 2015. https://zapier.com/blog/google-sheets-tutorial.

12Lehner, M. “On the waterfront: canals and harbors in the time of Giza pyramid-building.” AERAgram Vol. 15 (2014). www.aeraweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/AG15_1_2.pdf.

13The Graham Hancock Forum, 2013. A web log (http://tinyurl.com/gurxezk) that contains an extract from some notes taken from a public briefing in Paris by Pierre Tallet.

14Stille, A. 2015. The World’s Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids. loc. cit.

15Tallet, P. 2014. “Des papyrus du temps de Chéops au ouadi el-Jarf.” loc. cit.

16Parker, R., R. Braidwood, T. Jacobsen, and S. Weinberg. “Radiocarbon Dates and Their Implications in the Near and Middle Eastern Area.” Memoirs Soc. Amer. Archaeology 8 (1951): 52–53. and Dee, M., et al., “An absolute chronology for early Egypt using radiocarbon dating and Bayesian statistical modelling.” Proc. Roy. Soc. A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 469 (2013).

17Dr. Gunter Dreyer of the German Archaeological Institute, Cairo (personal communication) “. . . the earliest appearance of the sign representing a sealed papyrus scroll (Gardiner Y 2) is on a seal impression from a tomb at Saqqara (S 3504). The seal impression is well dated by the name of king Qa’, the last ruler of Dyn. 1. It is published in: W. B. Emery, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty II, London 1954, p. 127 Fig. 200.”

18Wilkinson, T. 2010. The Rise and fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House. and Dee, et al. 2013. loc. cit.

19The Met, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/papy/hd_papy.htm) and Revolvy (http://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Papyrus%20stem%20(hieroglyph).

20Ancient History Encyclopedia (http://www.ancient.eu/Egyptian_Papyrus).

21Hodgkin, T., ed. 1886. The Letters of Cassiodorus. London: Henry Frowde.

22McCrady, E. “Paper Permanence Debate Lends Drama to Paris Conference.” Vol 1, no. 1 (1994). http://cool.conservation-us.org/byorg/abbey/ap/ap07/ap07-1/ap07-102.html

2: PRISSE, LIKE MOSES, CARRIES HOME STONE TABLETS AND PAPER SCROLLS

1Norton, M. “Prisse, a Portrait.” Saudi Aramco World 41 (1990). http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/199006/prisse-a.portrait.htm.

2Norton, M. 1990. Ibid.

3Marshall, I. 1996. Passage East. Charlotesville, VA: Howell Press.

4El Shaarawi, S. 2016. “Egypt’s Own: Repatriation of Antiquities Proves to be a Mammoth Task.” http://newsweekme.com/egypts-repatriation-antiquities-proves-mammoth-task.

3: THE UNDERTAKER’S SPECIAL AND THE WORLD’S FIRST BESTSELLER

1Deuel, L. 1965. Testaments of Time: The Search for Lost Manuscripts and Records. New York: A. Knopf.

2Goelet, O. 1998. “A commentary on the corpus of literature and tradition which constitutes the Book of Going Forth by Day.” In The Egyptian Book of the Dead, edited by J. Wasserman. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.

3Deuel, L. 1965. Ibid.

4Deuel, L. 1965. Ibid.

5Allen, J. 2015. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Atlanta: SBL Press.

6Spurlock Museum. “Mummification.” 2016. www.spurlock.illinois.edu/exhibits/online/mummification/artifacts6.html.

7Taylor, J. 2010. Journey through the Afterlife: Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

8Taylor, J. 2010. Ibid.

9British Museum Tumblr. https://tinyurl.com/y9u4ndd7

4: THE BOOK OF THE DEAD, GUARDIAN OF IMMORTALITY

1Taylor, J. 2010. Journey through the Afterlife. loc. cit.

2Scalf, F. 2017. “12. The Death of the Book of the Dead.” In Book of the Dead: Becoming God in Ancient Egypt edited by F. Scalf, 139–147. Chicago: Oriental Institute University of Chicago.

3Reeves, N. 1990. The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. New York: Thames and Hudson.

4Dorman, P. “2. The Origins and Early Development of the Book of the Dead,” 29–40 and Kockelmann, H. “5. How a Book of the Dead Manuscript was Produced,” 67–74. In Book of the Dead: Becoming God in Ancient Egypt, edited by F. Scalf. Chicago: Oriental Institute University of Chicago.

5Black, J. “The Instruction of Amenemope: A Critical Edition and Commentary Prolegomenon and Prologue.” PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 2002.

6Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA), http://timea.rice.edu/NileCruise.html.

7Budge, E. A. Wallis. 1920. By Nile and Tigris: A Narrative of Journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on Behalf of the British Museum between the Years 1886 and 1913. London: John Murray.

8Taylor, J. 2013. Journey through the Afterlife. loc. cit.

9Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Book of the Dead; The Papyrus of Ani. London: British Museum, 1895.

5: PAPYRUS PAPER, YOUR TICKET TO PARADISE

1Drake, N., R. Blench, S. Armitage, C. Bristow and K. White. “Ancient Watercourses and Biogeography of the Sahara Explain the Peopling of the Desert.” PNAS, 2011. www.pnas.org/content/108/2/458.full.

2Larrasoaña, J., A. Roberts, and E. Rohling. “Dynamics of Green Sahara Periods and Their Role in Hominin Evolution.” PLOS One, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076514.

3Van der Merwe, N., F. Masao, and M. Samford. “Isotopic evidence for contrasting diets of early hominids Homo habilis and Australopithecus boisei of Tanzania.” 2008. loc. cit.

4Förster, F., and H. Riemer, eds. 2013.The Desert Road in Ancient Egypt and Beyond. Cologne: H. Barth Institut.

5Sikes, S. K. 1972. Lake Chad. London: Eyre Methuen.

6Gaudet, J. 2014. Papyrus, the Plant that Changed the World. New York: Pegasus.

7Bergmann, C., 2013 “Expedition of Winter 2012/13.” Advance Report, 2013. www.carlo-bergmann.de.

8Ward, C., and C. Zazzaro. “Evidence for Pharaonic Seagoing Ships at Wadi Gawasis, Egypt.” Internat. J. Nautical Archaeology 39 (2009): 27–43.

9Yeakel, J., et. al. 2014. “Collapse of an Ecological Network in Ancient Egypt.” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (Sept. 8).

10Taylor, J. “The Amduat papyrus of Panebmontu.” British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 23 (2016): 135–151.

11Schneider, T. “The West beyond the West: The Mysterious ‘Wernes’ of the Egyptian Underworld and the Chad Palaeolakes.” Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 2 (2010): 1–14.

12Aaru, the place where Osiris rules, Wikipedia.

13Taylor, J. 2013. Journey through the Afterlife. loc. cit.

14Immega, G. “Ancient Egypt’s Lost Legacy? The Buduma Culture of Lake Chad.” Friends of Niger, 2012. www.friendsofniger.org/pdf/Buduma_Master_V4.pdf.

15As I discuss in my earlier book, Papyrus, the Plant That Changed the World. New York: Pegasus, 2014.

16Fischer, S. 2001. A History of Writing. London: Reaktion Books.

17Fischer, S. 2001. Ibid.

18Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet).

19Fischer, S. 2001. Ibid. Stephen Fischer is former Director of the Institute of Polynesian Languages and Literatures, Auckland, New Zealand, and is the first person ever to decipher two wholly different historical scripts.

20Fischer, S. 2001. Ibid.

21Scalf, F. 2017. Ibid.

22Johnson, P. 1999. The Civilization of Ancient Egypt. New York : Harper Collins.

23Pritchard, J. 2016. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.

6: THE SANDS OF THE NILE GIVE UP THEIR TREASURES

1Courcelle, P. “Nouvelles recherches sur le monastere de Cassiodore.” Actes des V Congres Internat. d’archiol. chretienne (1954): 511–528.

2Černý, J. 1952. “Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt.” 1947. Inaugural Lecture, University College, London. Chicago: Ares Publishers. See also oldest papyrus and parchment fragments of the Koran dated to within thirty to seventy years of the Prophet’s death (http://www.library.leiden.edu)

3Deissmann, G. A. & L. Strachan, 1908. New Light on the New Testament: From Records of the Graeco-Roman Period. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 14–15.

7: THE AFFAIR OF THE ORANGES

1Budge, E. A. Wallis. 1920. By Nile and Tigris: A Narrative of Journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on Behalf of the British Museum Between the Years 1886 and 1913. London: John Murray.

2Jebb, R. 1905. Bacchylides: The Poems and Fragments by Bacchylides. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

8: THE FLOODGATES OPEN

1Cuvigny, H. 2009. “Chapter 2. The Finds of Papyri: The Archaeology of Papyrology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology. New York: Oxford University Press.

2Marouard, G. “Wadi al-Jarf—An early pharaonic harbour on the Red Sea coast.” Egyptian Archaeology 40 (2012): 40–43.

3Turner, E. Greek Papyri, an Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968.

9: THE BIRTH OF MEMPHIS AND PAPER

1Saqquara.nl website maintained by the Friends of Saqquara Foundation (http://www.saqqara.nl/ichiga/location).

2Rennell, J. 1830. The Geographical System of Herodotus, Examined and Explained. London: F. Rivington.

3Redford, D. 2001. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

4Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

5Lewis, N. 1934. L’industrie du papyrus dans l’Egypte ichi-romaine. Paris: Univ. of Paris, Sorbonne.

6N. Garis Davies, 1922. The Tomb of Puyemre at Thebes, Vol. I. The Hall of Memories. Metropolitan Mus. Of Art, NY.

7Dr. I. Hendriks, in a series of papers, proposed that the ancient papermakers used a peeling method by which they would rotate papyrus pulp against a razor edge or strip it with a needle to produce an endless sheet, similar to the process used to produce plywood veneers, a process that results in large thin sheets. Hendriks’ method, summarized by Leach and Tait (2000), seems now to have little support, being slow, technically cumbersome and producing sheets of uneven surface.

8Leach, Bridget. 2009. “Papyrus Manufacture.” In UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, edited by Willeke Wendrich. Los Angeles : UCLA. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5n53q5fc.

9Bülow-Jacobsen, A. 2009. “Chapter 1: Writing materials in the ancient world.” In The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

10Lewis, N. 1992. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity: An Update. loc. cit., and Leach, B. and J. Tait. 2000. “Chapter 9 Papyrus.” In Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, edited by P. T. Nicholson and I. Shaw, 227–253. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

11Skeat, T.C. “Was papyrus regarded as ‘cheap’ or ‘expensive’ in the ancient world?” Aegyptus 75 (1995): 75–93.

12According to Smith and Gronovius the drachma was almost equal to the denarius. Even after drachmae had fallen off in weight, there was no doubt that they were at one time nearly enough equal to pass for equal. Smith, W. 1875. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray.

13During the Roman Republic the sesterce was a small, silver coin issued only on rare occasions. During the Roman Empire it was a large brass coin. It would today be worth about $2.25 based on the value of wheat. (Since 6.67 kg of wheat in 79 A.D. Pompeii cost 7 sestertii according to Wikipedia.org, and the retail cost of organic hard red wheat, 25 lb. bag, would today be about $US 31.00). Olive oil (1 kg) cost 3 sestertii, vs. the modern cost of olive oil (1 kg) $5.00 (Sandra’s guide to Roman money http://tinyurl.com/jz7znnr). If based on the price of silver it would be worth about $2.00 (http://tinyurl.com/z7koffo).

14Blumell, L. “The Message and the Medium: Some Observations on Epistolary Communication in Late Antiquity.” J. Greco-Roman Christianity & Judaism 10 (2014): 24–67.

15Ammianus Marcellinus, History, Book XV. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/15*.html.

10: A GIFT FROM THE GODS

1Terer, T., L. Triest, and M. Muasya. “Effects of harvesting Cyperus papyrus in undisturbed wetland, Lake Naivasha, Kenya.” Hydrobiologia 680 (2012):135–148.

2The same study showed that selective harvesting is best, versus clear cutting, which, if done twice a year, would diminish the whole population and results in a smaller crop each year (see also M. Jones, F. Kansiime, M. Saunders. 2016. “The potential use of papyrus [Cyperus papyrus L.] wetlands as a source of biomass energy for sub-Saharan Africa.” GCB Bioenergy.)

3McKenzie, J. 2007. The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt 300 B.C.–400 A.D. New Haven, CN: Yale Univ. Press.

11: THE MONOPOLY

1Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

2Lewis, N. 1974. Ibid.

3Strabo, 18 A.D. 1856. The geography of Strabo, translated by Hamilton and Falconer, 1801–1885. London: H. Bohn, London, 237.

4Table 3.1 in Bagnall, R. 2009. Early Christian Books in Egypt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

5Sharpe S. 1862. Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum. London: J. Russell Smith, 156.

6Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

7Bülow-Jacobsen, A. 2009. Writing Materials in the Ancient World. loc. cit.

12: GROWING AND MANAGING PAPYRUS FOR PAPER

1Lewis, N. 1992. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity: An Update. loc. cit.,

2Terer, T., L. Triest and M. Muasya, 2012. “Effects of harvesting Cyperus papyrus.” Loc, cit.

3Pollard J. & H. Reid. 2006. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria, 79. New York: Viking.

4Baikie, J. 1925. Egyptian Papyri and Papyrus-Hunting. London: The Religious Tract Society.

5Bernhardt, T. 2008. The Papyri Pages. (http://papyri.tripod.com/texts/cartonnage.html)

13: THE EMPEROR AND THE LEWD PAPERMAKER

1Orias website (http://orias.berkeley.edu/spice/textobjects/imports-exports.htm).

2Morley, N. 2005. “Feeding ancient Rome.” BRLSI web site, Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution (https://tinyurl.com/ybahev6u).

3An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt (http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/ichi).

4Lewis, N. 1999. “Life in Egypt under Roman Rule.” Oakville, CT: Amer. Soc. Papyrologists. Professor Lewis (p. 139) cites the high cost of local ‘chaparral’ wood in Roman times, i.e., the wood of arid regions (acacia, tamarisk, and sycamore fig).

5Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit. (p. 112).

6Diringer, D. 2012. The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: Dover Publications.

7Černý, J. 1952. Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt. loc. cit.

8The Romans, like the Greeks, had separate words for plant and paper. The Latin word, papyrus means “the paper plant, or paper made from it,” but also the word charta in Latin means “paper/papyrus (sheet),” according to the Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1982.

9Libraries and Archives of the Roman Empire. Professor Martha Carlin Home Page (http://tinyurl.com/kgu6hk7)

10Houston, G. 2014. Inside Roman Libraries. Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. N.C. Press.

11In reference to standard sizes and the measurements given by Pliny, an argument has raged in the literature about whether or not Pliny meant height or width of the paper grades. William Johnson, professor of classical studies at Duke points out that Pliny never mentioned height. He defends Pliny’s measurements. He feels that he was correct, the measurements he reported refer to widths. Since no one has ever found papyrus paper that matched these grades and “heights,” Johnson’s reading would seem to be as correct as any other. Johnson feels that width would be an indication of the writing surface available, an important quality in defining the value of different grades of paper. His argument proposes that Pliny never bothered to mention height because it was of no importance, the important measure was width and especially the space left after the sheets were joined into a roll. He backs up his argument with reference to extant rolls and sheets where height/width ratios vary in excess of what would be expected if Pliny meant height. See: Johnson, W. “Pliny the Elder and standardized roll heights in the manufacture of papyrus.” Classical Philology 88 (1993): 46–50.

12Diringer, D. 2012. The Book Before Printing. loc. cit.

13Suetonius Tranquillus C. 1914. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Volume 13: Grammarians and Rhetoricians. Loeb Classical Library. https://tinyurl.com/y9zzzm2s”.

14Suetonius Tranquillus C. 1914. Ibid.

15Sheppard, J. “Self-education and late-learners in The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius.” MA Thesis, Victoria University, Wellington, NZ, 2008.

16Lewis, N. “Papyrus in Classical Antiquity: A Supplement.” Papyrologica Bruxellensia 23 (1989), 42.

17Budge, W. 1895. The Book of the Dead, An English Translation of The Chapters, Hymns, Etc., Of The Theban Recension, With Introduction, Notes. 3 Vols. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., London, and Budge, W., 1912. The Greenfield Papyrus in the British Museum. Harrison & Sons, London.

14: TAKING ON THE WORLD—AND LEAVING A LEGACY

1The Zenon Papyri. Reading the Papyri. 2004. www.lib.umich.edu/reading/Zenon.

2Harris, W. 1989. Ancient Literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

32015. Select Papyri. Orig. Text PSI 333. Attalus (https://tinyurl.com/y8cxhsxz)

42015. Catalog Recordichigan.apis.1808-Bus. Letter (http://www.papyri.info/hgv/1924)

5According to Shepherd 2008 this is: rel. hum. 45–55 percent, 18-22 degrees Celsius and light levels at less than 50 lux, with ultraviolet less than 75 microwatts per lume. See also an extensive discussion of deterioration, preservation and restoration in Leach, B. and J. Tait. 2000. “Chapter 9 Papyrus.” In Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, edited by P. T. Nicholson and I. Shaw, 227–253. Cambrdige: Cambridge University Press.

6Parkinson, R. and S. Quirke. 1995. Papyrus. Austin: Univ. Texas Press.

7For a detailed account of the manufacture, history and preservation of papyrus paper see the comprehensive review by Bridget Leach, Conservator of Papyrus, British Museum and J. Tait, Univ. Coll., London (“Chapter 9 Papyrus” in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. 2000. Camb. Univ. Press).

8See my earlier book, Gaudet, J. 2014. Papyrus, the Plant That Changed the World. New York: Pegasus.

9Terer, T., L. Triest and M. Muasya, 2012. Effects of harvesting Cyperus papyrus. Loc, cit.

10British Association of Paper Historians—BAPH (http://baph.org.uk/ukpaperhistory.html)

11British Association of Paper Historians. Ibid.

12“Papyrus paper: a craft on the verge of collapse.” Egypt Independent, November 23, 2014.

13Statista. Production volume of paper and cardboard in major countries from 2009 to 2016. (https://tinyurl.com/yd8hvksu.

14The story of paper from ancient times to present is retold in On Paper by Nicholas Basbanes (2013) and in Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World by Jonathan Bloom (2001).

15: EARLY LIBRARIES, PAPER, AND THE WRITING BUSINESS

1Black, J. R. “The Instruction of Amenemope: A Critical Edition and Commentary Prolegomenon and Prologue.” PhD Thesis, University Of Wisconsin–Madison, 2002.

2Ryholt, K. 2013. “Libraries in ancient Egypt.” In Ancient Libraries, edited by König, J., et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

3Dollinger, A. 2016. An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt, website. Libraries (http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/institutions/house_of_books.htm)

4Reclus, E. 1886. The Earth and its Inhabitants, Vol. 1. New York: D. Appleton.

5Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. loc. cit.

6Black, J. R. 2002. The Instruction of Amenemope. Ibid.

7Parkinson, R. and S. Quirke, 1995. Papyrus. loc. cit. (esp. see page 38.)

8Parkinson, R. and S. Quirke, 1995. Papyrus. loc. cit.

9Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Alma-Tadema

10Danzing, R. 2010. “Pigments and Inks Typically Used on Papyrus.” (http://www.brooklynmuseum.org)

11Rasmussen, K. et al. 2011. “The constituents of the ink from a Qumran inkwell: new prospects for provenancing the ink on the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Jour. Archaeological Science 39: 2956–2968

12Carvalho, D. 1904. Forty Centuries of Ink; A Chronological Narrative Concerning Ink and Its Backgrounds. Huntington, S. “Think ink!” Christian Science Monitor, September. 21, 2014.

13Avrin, L. 1991. Scribes, Script, and Books. loc. cit.

14Krutzsch, pers. comm. and also see: Krutzsch, M. 2016. “Reading papyrus as writing material.” British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 23: 57–69.

15Leach, B. and J. Tait. 2000. “Chapter 9 Papyrus.” loc. cit.

16A good comparison of all inks used in ancient times is given in Thomas Christiansen’s recent paper, “Manufacture of black ink in the ancient Mederterranean,” Bull. Amer. Soc. Papyrologists 54 (2017):167–195.

17Gunther, M. 2016. “Ancient scrolls roll back first use of metallic inks by centuries. Chemistry World.” (http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2016/03/ancient-scrolls-herculaneum-papyrus-x-ray-fluorescence-ink) and Tack, P. 2016. “Tracking ink composition on Herculaneum papyrus scrolls.” Scientific Reports 6 (http://www.nature.com/articles/srep20763).

18Houston, G. 2014. Inside Roman Libraries. loc. cit.

19An early recipe for iron gall ink can be found in the Encyclopedia of Seven Free Arts by Martianus Capella, who lived in Carthage in the 5th century A.D. In it, Capella describes “Gallarum gummeosque commixtio” as a writing ink.

20Milbank, D. 2007. “Denying Genocide in Darfur—and Americans Their Coca-Cola.” Washington Post, June 2007.

16: A LIBRARY TO END ALL LIBRARIES AND THE SWEET SMELL OF HISTORY

1Cherf, W. 2008. “Earth Wind and Fire: The Alexandrian Firestorm of 48 B.C.” In (ed. M. el-Abbadi & O.M. Fathallah) What happened to the great library of Alexandria? BRILL, Leiden, Netherlands.

2Hannam, J, 2003. The Mysterious Fate of the Great Library of Alexandria. Bede’s Library, Website (http://www.bede.org.uk/library.htm).

3Bowie, E. 2013. Libraries for the Caesars. In König, J, et al. (Eds.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4Pollard, J .& H. Reid. 2006. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria. loc. cit.

5Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

6Blakey, H. 2014. Mouseion. House of the Muse Website. (http://www.dailywriting.net/Mouseion.htm)

7Cherf, W. 2008. Earth Wind and Fire. loc. cit.

8Pollard, J.&H. Reid. 2006. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria. loc. cit. (Page 79).

9Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. loc. cit.

10Casson, L. 2001. Ibid.

11McKenzie, J. 2007. The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt 300 B.C.-400 A.D. loc. cit.

17: THE ROMANS AND THE BOOK TRADE

1Affleck, M. 2013. Libraries in Rome before 168 B.C.. König et al. (Eds.) Ancient Libraries. loc. cit.

2Winsbury, R. 2009. The Roman Book: Books, Publishing and Performance in Classical Rome. London: Duckworth Press.

3Flood, A. 2014. Authors’ incomes collapse to “abject” levels. The Guardian July 8, 2014.

4Grafton, A., and M. Williams. 2008. Christianity and the Transformation of the Book: Origen, Eusebius, and the Library of Caesarea. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

5Houston, G. 2014. Inside Roman Libraries. loc. cit.

6Grafton, A., and M. Williams. 2008. Christianity and the Transformation of the Book. loc. cit.

7The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. IX (Transcribed by B. Johnson.) New York: Robert Appleton Company.

8Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. and Winsbury, R. 2009. The Roman Book. Locs. cit.

9Winsbury, R. 2009. The Roman Book. loc. cit.

10Anon, 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica (https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaBritannica1911HQDJVU)

11Norman, J. 2014. From Cave Paintings to the Internet (http://tinyurl.com/m29xkov).

12Houston, G. 2014. Inside Roman Libraries. loc. cit.

13Parsons, P. 2007. City of the Sharp-Nosed Fish: Greek lives in Roman Egypt. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.

14Dando-Collins, S. 2010. The great Fire of Rome. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.

18: ROMAN LIBRARIES

1Spoon, J. 1999. Ancient Libraries of Greece and Rome (http://www.ithaca.edu/history/journal/papers/sp02ancientlibraries.html)

2Houston, G. 2014. Inside Roman Libraries. loc. cit.

3Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. loc. cit.

4Houston, G. 2014. Inside Roman Libraries. loc. cit.

5Schodde, C. 2013. Ancient scrolls: where are the wooden handles? Found in antiquity web page. July 17. (https://tinyurl.com/y93f2hav).

6Anon, 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica. loc. cit.

7Bowie, E. 2013. Libraries for the Caesars. In König, J, et al. (Eds.) Ancient Libraries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

8Nicholls, M. 2013. Roman libraries as public buildings in the cities of the Empire. In König, J., et al. (Eds.) Ancient Libraries. loc. cit.

9Nicholls, M. 2013. Roman libraries as public buildings in the cities of the Empire. In König, J., et al. (Eds.) Ancient Libraries. loc. cit.

10Rodriguez, J. 2015. A Brief History of Roman Libraries. Roman Empire Net (http://www.roman-empire.net/articles/article-005.html).

11Boyd, C. 1915. Public Libraries and Literary Culture in Ancient Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

12If one sesterce is valued in comparison to the current value of wheat and olive oil, as previously suggested, it would have been worth about $2.25. Thus he received the equivalent of $22,500.

13Boyd, C. 1915. Ibid.

14Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. loc. cit.

15Tucci, P. 2013. “Flavian libraries in the city of Rome.” In Ancient Libraries, edited by J. König, et al. Cambridge University Press. loc. cit.

16Grout, J. 2016. Encyclopaedia Romana (http://tinyurl.com/psxcmyd).

17Affleck, M. “Roman Libraries during the Late Republic and Early Empire: With Special Reference to the Library of Pliny the Elder.” PhD Thesis, Univ. Queensland, Australia, 2012.

18Tutrone, F. 2013. “The case of the Aristotelian corpus.” In Ancient Libraries, edited by J. König, et al. Cambridge University Press loc. cit.

19Anon, 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica, and Casson, L. 2001. Libraries in the Ancient World. Locs. cit loc. cit.

20Spoon, J. 1999. Ancient Libraries of Greece and Rome. loc. cit.

19: THOSE PRECIOUS, TENDER-HEARTED SCROLLS

1Arensberg, S., and R. Molholt, 2008. Pompeii and the Roman Villa. Catalog, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

2Sider, D. 2005. The Library of the Villa dei Papiri. Los Angeles: Getty Publications.

3Sider, D. 2005. Ibid.

4Harris, J. 2007. Pompeii Awakened, A Story of Rediscovery. London: I. B. Tauris.

5Sider, D. 2005. The Library of the Villa dei Papiri. loc. cit.

6Banerji, R. 2016. “Unlocking the scrolls of Herculaneum.” BBC News Magazine. (http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25106956).

7History of the Getty Villa. 2013. Video www.getty.edu.

8Porter, J. 2007. “The Herculaneum papyri and classical scholarship.” In Antiquity Recovered: The Legacy of Pompeii and Herculaneum, edited by V. Coates and J. Seydl. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.

20: SAVING THE DAY

1O’Donnell, J. 1979. Cassiodorus. (www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/jod/texts/cassbook/toc.html).

2Arvine, K. 1853. Cyclopaedia of Anecdotes of Literature and the Fine Arts. Boston: Gould and Lincoln, Boston. Google Books: http://tinyurl.com/ljjawwf.

3Standage, T. 2013. Writing on the Wall: Social Media, The First 2,000 Years. New York: Bloomsbury.

4König, J., K. Oikonomopoulou, and G. Woolf (Eds.). 2013. Ancient Libraries. loc. cit.

5Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

21: MEDIA ONE MAKES ITS MARK IN THE WORLD

1Bagnall, R., and R. Cribiore, 2014. Women’s Letters from Ancient Egypt, 300 B.C.–A.D. 800. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

2Standage, T. 2013. Writing on the Wall. loc. cit.

3Suetonius, 1913. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars (Augustus 49.3). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

4Turner, E. 1968. Greek papyri, an Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

5Head, P. 2009. Named Letter-Carriers among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. JSNT 31: 279-300

6Blumell, L. 2014. The Message and the Medium: Some Observations on Epistolary Communication in Late Antiquity. Jour. of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism Vol. 10.

7Deuel, L. 1965. Testaments of Time. loc. cit.

8Anon., 2015. Greek and Roman History—Attalus. Cicero: Letters to and from Cassius. (http://www.attalus.org/translate/cassius.html).

9Barnish, S. 1992 (Transl.) Cassiodorus: Variae. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

10Blechman, A. 2007 Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World’s Most Revered and Reviled Bird. New York: Grove Press.

11Pliny. Nat. Hist. X.37 and Frontinus, Sextus Julius, Stratagems Book III 90 A.D. Loeb edition, (trans. 1925. C. Bennett. http://penelope.uchicago.edu).

12Bloom, J. 2001. Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

13Especially see Simblet, S. 2010. Botany for the Artist. New York: DK. and Marganne, M-H. 1981. “Inventaire analytique des papyrus grecs de medecine.” Geneva: Droz.

14Anon. 2004. Encarta Encyclopedia Standard; Illustrated Manuscripts (section III).

22: THE LAST BASTION, THE CHURCH OF ROME

1Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

2Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

3Lewis, N. 1999. Life in Egypt under Roman Rule. Oakville, CT: Amer. Soc. Papyrologists.

4Morgan, R. 2016. History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. Victoria BC, Canada: Fiesen Press.

5Kilgour, F. 1998. The Evolution of Books. loc. cit.

6Clement, R 2014. Europe and the Invention of Modern Bookmaking, Manuscript Books. New Age World webpage (http://www.nawpublishing.com/expansionpages/ephemera/european_publishing.htm).

7Skeat, T. C. “Was papyrus regarded as ‘cheap’ or ‘expensive’ in the ancient world?” Aegyptus 75 (1995): 75–93.

8Johnson, W. 2013. “Bookrolls and scribes in Oxyrhynchus.” In Studies in Book and Print Culture. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.

9Oikonomides, N. 2002. “Writing Materials, Documents, and Books.” In (Angeliki E. Laiou, Ed.) The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Studies. www.doaks.org/etexts.html.

23: CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE LONG GOODBYE

1O’Donnell, James. 1979. Cassiodorus. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Postprint in 1995 (www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/jod/texts/cassbook/toc.html).

2Cassiodorus—see Barnish, S., trans. 1992. Cassiodorus: Variae. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

3Hutton, W. 2013. A Short History of Constantinople. San Diego: Didactic Press.

4Oikonomides, N. 2002. Writing Materials, Documents, and Books. loc. cit.

5McCormick, M. 2001. The Origins of the European Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

6Malczycki, M. “The Papyrus Industry in the Early Islamic Era.” Jour. Economic and Social History of the Orient 54 (2011): 185–202.

7Abbott, N. 1938. The Kurrah Papyri from Aphrodito in the Oriental Institute. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

8Oikonomides, N. 2002. Writing Materials, Documents, and Books. loc. cit.

9Bowman, A. and D. Thomas. 1994. The Vindolanda Writing Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandenses II). London: British Museum Press.

10Bowman, A. and D. Thomas. 1994. Ibid.

11Wikipedia and Lowe. E., 1972. A Key to Bede’s Scriptorium, from: Palaeographical Papers 1907–1965. edited by L. Bieler. Oxford: Clarendon. https://tinyurl.com/ychuzdwt.

12Bréhier, L. “Manuscripts. (and Illustrated Manuscripts.)” The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. IX, transcribed by B. Johnson. New York: R. Appleton Company, 1910.

13Oikonomides, N. 2002. Writing Materials, Documents, and Books. loc. cit.

14Abbott, N. 1938. The Kurrah Papyri. loc. cit.

15Kleve, Kurt. In the Bellagio Report 2010, (http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/bellagio/bellag1.html).

16From an extensive list in Wikipedia based on 72 references.

17Thurston, H. 1908. “Bulls and Briefs.” In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent website. www.newadvent.org/cathen/03052b.htm. and Jones, L. 1945. “The Influence of Cassiodorus on Medieval Culture.” Speculum, 20 (1945): 433–442.

18Avrin, L. 1991. Scribes, Script, and Books. loc. cit.

19Thurston, H. 1908. “Bulls and Briefs.” In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent website. www.newadvent.org/cathen/03052b.htm.

201911. “Abbey of Saint-Denis.” In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent website. www.newadvent.org/cathen/13343b.htm.

21Geary, P. 1994. Phantoms of Remembrance: Memory and Oblivion at the End of the First Millennium. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

22Kaleem, J. 2014. “‘Gospel of Jesus’ Wife’ Papyrus Is Ancient, Not Fake, Scientists And Scholars Say.” Huffington Post, April 10, 2014. www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/10/jesus-wife_n_5124712.html.

23“The ‘Jesus’s wife’ papyrus reveals another version of the Christian story.” The Guardian (http://tinyurl.com/ltlkbca).

24: END OF THE ROAD AND THE BATTLE OF THE TALAS RIVER

1Bloom, J. 2001. Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.

2Pollard, J., and H. Reid, 2006. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria: Birthplace of the Modern Mind. New York: Viking.

3Malczycki, M. “The Papyrus Industry in the Early Islamic Era.” Jour. Economic and Social History of the Orient 54 (2011): 185–202.

4Ghazanfar, S, 2004. The Dialogue of Civilizations. Found. Sci. Technol. and Civilization (http://www.bbi.catholic.edu.au)

5Johannes Pedersen, 1984. The Arabic Book. transl. G. French, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007 (http://www.islamicmanuscripts.info/reference/books/Pedersen-1984-Arabic-Book.pdf).

6Lewis 1974 (p. 11) and Pedersen, 1984 loc. cit.

7Bloom, J. 2001. Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. loc. cit.

8Although throughout early history silk was expensive, Kurlansky in a recent book (Kurlansky, M. 2016. Paper: Paging through History. New York: W. W. Norton.) offers proof that by the 14th century in China some considered silk cheap.

9“Paper wasp.” Wikipedia, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_wasp.

10Yangtze Yan, 2006. Guangming Daily (http://www.chinaview.cn)

11Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin. 1985. “Paper and Printing,” Joseph Needham, Science and Civ. in China, Chem. and Chemical Technology. Vol. 5, part 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

12The horizontal-axle watermill is said to have appeared around 240 B.C., with Byzantium and Alexandria as the assigned places of invention (Wikipedia).

13Basbanes, N. (2013) On Paper: The Everything of Its Two-Thousand-Year History. New York: Vintage.

14International Starch Institute, Aarhus, Denmark (www.starch.dk/isi/applic/paper.htm).

15Basbanes, N. 2013. On Paper. loc. cit.

16Carter, T. 1925. The Invention of Printing in China and Its Spread Westward. New York: Columbia University Press.

17Kilgour, F. 1998. The Evolution of Books. loc. cit.

18An early specific allusion to the quill pen occurs in the writings of Saint Isidore of Seville in the early part of the seventh century, but there is no reason to assume that it was not in use at a still more remote date (according to Anon., 1911. Encyclopedia Britannica (under the heading “Pen”, www.studylight.org).

19See page 116, Bloom, J. 2001. Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. loc. cit.

20Wiegard, W. and D. Davis. 1994. Encyclopedia of Library History. Garland, NY.

21Wani, Z. and Maqbol, T. 2012. The Islamic Era and Its Importance to Knowledge and the Development of Libraries. Libr. Philos. and Practice. (http://digitalcommons.unl.edu).

25: THE MYSTERY OF THE DISAPPEARING PLANT

1Lewis, N. 1989. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity: A Supplement. loc. cit. (p. 18).

2Budge, W., 1895. The Book of the Dead, An English Translation. loc. cit.

3Leach, B. and J. Tait. 2000. “Chapter 9 Papyrus.” loc. cit. and Budge, E. A. Wallis. 1912. The Greenfield Papyrus in the British Museum. London: Harrison and Sons.

4Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

5Evans, E.A. 2002. “Papyrus a blessing upon Pharaoh.” pp. 1-12. Occasional Paper, 2002. McClung Museum, Univ. of Tenn., Knoxville.

6Kantor, H. “Plant Ornament: Its Origin and Development in the Ancient Near East.” PhD Thesis, University of Chicago, 1945.

7Gaudet, J. 2014. Papyrus, the Plant that Changed the World. loc. cit.

8Strabo, 7–18 A.D. Geography. Vol. VIII. Loeb Classical Library edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

9Gaudet, J. 2014. Papyrus, the Plant that Changed the World. loc. cit.

10Butzer, K. 1971. Environment and Archaeology: An ecological approach to prehistory. Chicago: Aldine/Atherton.

11Sloan, J. 2000. “The Crusades in the Levant (1097–1291).” Xenophon Group Military History Database. (http://www.xenophongroup.com/montjoie/crusade2.htm)

12Serag, M. “Ecology and biomass production of Cyperus papyrus L. on the Nile bank at Damietta, Egypt.” J. Medit. Ecology 4 (2003):15–24.

26: THE PHARAOH’S OWN CONQUERS THE VATICAN

1Hanna, F. 2010. “Defending the faith with physical evidence.” Chistendom College. (http://tinyurl.com/h6wxlw7).

2Viegas, J. 2007. “Earliest Gospels Acquired by Vatican,” Discovery News. (http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-religion/1823123/posts)

3See the summary in Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodmer_Papyri)

4Voicu, S. 2007. Bodmer Papyrus: History Becomes Reality. L’Osservatore Romano, Weekly Edition in English page 8.

5Tov, E. 2003. The Corpus of the Qumran Papyri. In (ed.L. Schiffman) Semitic Papyrology in Context. Boston: Brill.

6Tov, E. 2003. The Corpus of the Qumran Papyri. loc. cit.

7Crawford, S. 2016. “The Qumran Collection as a Scribal Library.” In The Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran and the Concept of a Library, edited by Crawford, S., and C. Wassen, 109–131. (Brill, Leiden and Boston; and Werrett, I. 2016. “Is Qumran a Library?” In Crawford, S. and C. Wassen, eds, 78–108. Ibid.

8Somers, B. 2006. “Scientists Decode Dead Sea Scrolls with DNA and Infrared Digital Photography.” AAAS News Archives (http://tinyurl.com/ht9k79o).

9Gaudet, J. 2014. Papyrus, the Plant that Changed the World. loc. cit.

10Avrin, L. 1991. Scribes, Script and Books: The Book Arts from Antiquity to the Renaissance. loc. cit.

11Kurlansky, M. 2016. Paper, Paging through History. New York: W. W. Norton.

12Robinson, J. 2011. The Story of the Bodmer Papyri. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books.

27: THE ROAD BACK

1Krosney, H. 2006. The Lost Gospel, the Quest for the Gospel of Judas Iscariot. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.

2Krosney, H. 2006. Ibid.

3Lewis, N. 1974. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

EPILOGUE: THE ROAD AHEAD

1Heyerdahl, T. 1971. The Ra Expeditions. loc. cit.

2Hawass, Z. 2000. Valley of the Golden Mummies. Cairo: American Univ. in Cairo Press.

3Waxman, S. 2003. Loot: The Battle over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World. New York: Times Books, NY.

4Zalewski, D. 2016. The Factory of Fakes, How a workshop uses digital technology to craft perfect copies of imperilled art. New Yorker, A Reporter at Large, November 28.

5Sherief, A. 2012. The Papyrus village. Daily News, Egypt (http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/11/15/the-papyrus-village/).

6Summers, C. 2017. The Bible: the Story behind the Museum of the Bible. Franklin, TN: Worthy Books.

7Kennicott, P. 2017. “The new Bible museum tells a clear, powerful story. And it could change the museum business.” Washington Post (https://tinyurl.com/y8vah858)

8Pietersma, A. 1980. The Edited Text of P. Bodmer XXIV. Bull. Amer. Soc. Papyrologists 17.1–2 (1980) 67–79.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1Prof. Lewis’s original text appeared in 1974 and was further amended in 1989 in a “Supplement” and again in 1992 in an “Update.”

2In Nicholson, P., and I. Shaw. 2000. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

APPENDIX

1Lewis, N. 1989. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. loc. cit.

2Rowlandson, J. 2005. “The organization of public land in Roman Egypt.” CRIPEL 25:173–196.