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Contents

List of Illustrations

Preface

1. Historical Overview

      Prehistory

      The Predynastic Period

      The Early Dynastic or the Archaic Period

      The Old Kingdom

      The First Intermediate Period

      The Middle Kingdom

      The Second Intermediate Period

      The New Kingdom

      The Late Dynastic Period

      The Ptolemaic Period

      The Roman Period

2. Geography, Climate, and People

      Red Sea

      Eastern Desert

      Climate

      Historical Background

         Prehistory

         Pharaonic Period

         Ptolemaic Period

         Roman Period

      Controlling the Eastern Desert

         Desert Dwellers

         Desert Travel

         Modern Interest in the Eastern Desert

         Archaeological and Anthropological Work in the Eastern Desert

3. A Roman Imperial Road and the Northern Part of the Eastern Desert

      Antinoopolis

      The Via Nova Hadriana

      Sites along the Via Nova Hadriana

      Sites in the Northern Eastern Desert

      Abu Sha‘r

4. Shrines, Bathtubs, and Stone Quarries: How the Stone was Quarried and Moved along the Desert Roads to the Nile

      Stone Quarries in the Late Predynastic to Late Pharaonic/Late Dynastic Periods

         Gebel Umm Naqqat

         Gebel Manzal al-Seyl

         Wadi Hammamat

         Rod al-Gamra

      Stone Quarries in the Roman period

         Mons Porphyrites

         Satellite Settlements of Mons Porphyrites

         Mons Claudianus

         Wadi Umm Wikala (Mons Ophiates)

         Quarry Roads, Water Stops, and Forts

5. The Joys and Sorrows of the Desert Survey

      Site Extensive Surveying

         Global Positioning System Technology

      Site Intensive Surveying

      Surveying in Actual Practice

         Some of the More ‘Interesting’ Surveys

      The Burning Land Rover Survey, January 1989

      Stuck in the Sand for Three Days: The Aborted January 1999 Survey

      The Hottest Survey We Ever Had: Summer 2001

6. Gods of the Desert: The Temples and Shrines of the Eastern Desert

      Pharaonic Temples and Shrines

      Ptolemaic Sanctuaries

         Bir Abu Safa

         Wadi Abu Diyeiba

      Roman and Early Christian Sanctuaries

      Sanctuaries at the Hard Stone Quarry Settlements

         Mons Porphyrites

         Mons Claudianus

         Umm Huyut

         Fatireh al-Beida

         Mons Ophiates

      Sanctuaries at the Emerald Mining Settlements

         Sikait

         Nugrus

         Ka‘b Marfu‘

      Sanctuary at a Settlement of Unknown Function

      Bir Kareim

      Sanctuaries in Praesidia

      Sanctuaries at Red Sea Ports

         Myos Hormos and Marsa Nakari

         Berenike

      Christian Remains in the Eastern Desert

      Judaism

      Islam

7. The Horn of Plenty: International Trade

      Pharaonic Period

      Ptolemaic Era

      Ptolemaic Ports in Egypt

         Berenike

         Marsa Nakari

      Other Ptolemaic Red Sea Ports

         Philoteras/Aenum

      Roman Period

         Leukos Limen

         Leuke Kome

      Archaeological Remains of Ports

         Myos Hormos

         Berenike

      Causes of Death of the Harbors

      Extent and Nature of the Trade

         Ptolemaic Era

         Roman Era

      Costs of the Trade in Roman Times

      The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

      Individuals Involved in the Commerce

      Written Evidence from the Desert Roads

8. Burying the Dead in the Eastern Desert

      Bir Asele

      Berenike and Environs

      Conclusion

9. El Dorado: Gold Mines in the Eastern Desert

      Gold Mining Methods

      Status of Gold Miners

      Gold Mining Sites in the Eastern Desert

         Bir Umm Fawakhir

         Abu Gerida

         Al-Ghuzza

         Umm Howeitat al-Qibli

      Conclusion

10. Living in the Desert

      The Earliest Inhabitants of the Desert

      Settlements of the Ptolemaic and Roman Period

         Stone Quarry Settlements

         Mining Settlements

         Apollonos Fort in Wadi Gemal

         Forts on the Myos Hormos–Coptos Road

         Red Sea Ports

         Settlements with Unknown Functions

      Construction of Houses in the Roman Period

      Conclusion

11. The Ma‘aza, ‘Ababda, and Bisharin Bedouin

      Boundaries of the Tribes

         The Ma‘aza

         The ‘Ababda

         The Bisharin

      Bedouin Housing

      Foods

      Fuel

      Drinking Coffee

      Livestock

      Appearance

      Earning a Living

      Religious Beliefs

12. Land of Gemstones: Emerald and Amethyst Mines in the Eastern Desert

      Amethysts

         Wadi al-Hudi

         The Wadi al-Hudi Inscriptions

         Wadi Abu Diyeiba

      Beryl/Emerald Mines

         Sikait

         Middle Sikait

         North Sikait

         Nugrus

         Wadi Umm Harba

      Lack of Fortifications

      Beryls/Emeralds in Jewelry

13. Water, The Desert Elixir

      Pharaonic Period

         Old Kingdom

         New Kingdom

      Ptolemaic and Roman Periods

         Times of Year to Travel in the Eastern Desert

      Sources of Water in the Eastern Desert

         Qulut

         Springs

         Wells

         Pipelines and Aqueducts

         Water Lifting Devices

      Water Uses

14. The Roads from Berenike to the Nile

      Ptolemaic Period

      Roads Leading to and from Berenike

      Berenike–Apollonopolis Magna (Edfu) Road

      Berenike–Coptos (Quft) Road

15. The Last Frontier: The Southernmost Sites in the Eastern Desert

      Prehistory

      Pharaonic Period

      Ptolemaic Era

         Abraq

         Al-Ileigha

      Roman Period

         Wadi Kalalat and Siket

         Wadi Shenshef

         Hilltop Fort at Shenshef

         Indigenous Peoples and ‘Immigrants’ in the Eastern Desert in Ptolemaic and Roman Times

         Enigmatic Settlements in the Eastern Desert

Suggestions for Further Reading

Index