Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. Dylann Roof, manifesto posted on personal website, lastrhodesian.com, reproduced in “Here’s What Appears to Be Dylann Roof’s Racist Manifesto,” Mother Jones, June 20, 2105; Herb Frazier, Bernard E. Powers Jr., Marjory Wentworth, We Are Charleston: Tragedy and Triumph at Mother Emanuel (New York: Harper Collins, 2016), 1–3; Edward Ball, “The Mind of Dylann Roof,” NYRB, Mar. 23, 2017, p.12.

2. Glenn Smith, Jennifer Berry Hawes, Abigail Darlington, “Testimony Shows Dylann Roof Scouted Emanuel AME Church for Months Before Mass Shooting,” CPC, Dec. 13, 2016; Edward Ball, “United States v. Dylann Roof,” NYRB, Mar. 9, 2017, p. 6; Associated Press, “Charleston Shooting Trial: Dylann Roof Had List of Other Local Black Churches,” Guardian, Dec. 12, 2016; Dana Ford, “What We Know about Dylann Roof as Told in Photographs,” CNN, June 24, 2015, cnn.com/2015/06/23/us/dylann-roof-photographs/.

3. Robert McClendon, “Mitch Landrieu Invokes ‘Public Nuisance’ Ordinance for Confederate Monuments,” NOTP, July 9, 2015; Campbell Robertson, Monica Davey, and Julie Bosman, “Calls to Drop Confederate Emblems Spread Nationwide,” NYT, June 23, 2015; Richard Fausset and Alan Blinder, “South Carolina Settles Its Decades-Old Dispute Over a Confederate Flag,” NYT, July 9, 2015.

4. Melissa Boughton, “Confederate Monument a Focus of Debate After Graffiti Appears,” CPC, June 21, 2015; Peter Holley, “‘Black Lives Matter’ Graffiti Appears on Confederate Memorials Across the U.S.,” WP, June 23, 2015; Dave Munday, “Vandal Quotes President Barack Obama with Spray Paint on Confederate Memorial Statue,” CPC, July 10, 2015; John C. Calhoun, “Remarks on Receiving Abolition Petitions (Revised Report),” in PJCC, 13: 395; “Tracking Vandalism of Confederate Monuments in 2015,” kurtluther.com/confederate/.

5. Southern Poverty Law Center, “Mapping Hate: Pro-Confederate Battle Flag Rallies Across America,” Dec. 3, 2015, splcenter.org/hatewatch/2015/07/16/mapping-hate-pro-confederate-battle-flag-rallies-across-america; Southern Poverty Law Center, “Whose Heritage? Public Symbols of the Confederacy,” Apr. 21, 2016, splcenter.org/20160421/whose-heritage-public-symbols-confederacy; Christopher Ingraham, “All 173 Confederate Flag Rallies Since the Charleston Massacre, Mapped,” WP, Aug. 17, 2015; Walter C. Jones, “Georgia Legislator Introduces Pro-Confederate Bills to Combat ‘Cultural Terrorism,’” Online Athens/Athens Banner Herald, Jan. 29, 2016, onlineathens.com/breaking-news/2016-01-28/georgia-legislator-introduces-pro-confederate-bills-combat-cultural.

6. Greg LaRose, “Contractor Working on Confederate Monuments Project Quits after Death Threats,” NOTP, Jan. 14, 2016; Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Brian M. Rosenthal, “Man Charged after White Nationalist Rally in Charlottesville Ends in Deadly Violence,” NYT, Aug. 12, 2017; Tom Grubisich and Elizabeth Bowers, “How Charleston’s Next Mayor Can Help the City Erase Its Stubborn Color Line,” CCP, Oct. 22, 2015.

7. The home was built either by Dr. Anthony V. Toomer or by his son, Dr. Henry V. Toomer. Jonathan H. Poston, The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), 591. Dr. Henry V. Toomer owned nine slaves in 1850. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1850 United States Census, Slave Schedule, Parishes of St. Philip and St. Michael, Charleston, South Carolina, ancestry.com.

8. W. Fitzhugh Brundage, “No Deed But Memory,” introduction to Where These Memories Grow: History, Memory, and Southern Identity, ed. W. Fitzhugh Brundage (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 6; Jonathan Scott Holloway, Jim Crow Wisdom: Memory and Identity in Black America since 1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 9.

9. See, for example, “The Flag of Truce,” CNC, Dec. 21, 1892; and “Most Interesting Reunion,” CNC, Apr. 28, 1899.

10. Melinda Patience, Brittany Watson, and Bing Pan, “2015 Charleston Area Visitor Intercept Survey Report,” Apr. 26, 2016, charlestoncvb.com/travel/login/research/2015_Visitor_Intercept_Report.pdf; Ashley Heffernan, “Charleston Ranked No. 1 for 5th Year in a Row,” Charleston Business, Oct. 20, 2015, charlestonbusiness.com/news/hospitality-and-tourism/67984/; “The Best Small Cities in the U.S.,” Condé Nast Traveler, Oct. 18, 2016, cntraveler.com/galleries/2015-10-08/top-small-cities-in-the-us-readers-choice-awards.

11. Roof, manifesto. Scholars have long assumed that most of the enslaved brought to Charleston as part of the transatlantic trade were briefly quarantined at the Sullivan’s Island pest house. New research by historian Nicholas Butler, however, suggests that only a tiny fraction of the slaves imported through the city spent time in the island’s pest house. Nicholas Butler, “The Pest House on Sullivan’s Island: A Brief History,” PowerPoint presentation, June 2017, in authors’ possession.

12. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York: Random House, 1956), 3; Calhoun, “Remarks on Receiving Abolition Petitions,” 392.

13. We have many excellent studies on the memory of slavery and the Civil War in the fifty years after Appomattox, as well as on the memory of slavery at historic sites and plantations today, but few works bridge this chronological divide. See, for example, David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001); Caroline E. Janney, Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton, eds., Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of American Memory (New York: The New Press, 2006); Jennifer L. Eichstedt and Stephen Small, Representations of Slavery: Race and Ideology in Southern Plantation Museums (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2002); and Karen L. Cox, Destination Dixie: Tourism and Southern History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2012). On black memory as countermemory, see Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007); Robert J. Cook, Troubled Commemoration: The American Civil War Centennial, 1961–1965 (Baton Rouge: Lousiana State University Press, 2007); and K. Stephen Prince, “Remembering Robert Charles: Violence and Memory in Jim Crow New Orleans,” JSH 83 (May 2017): 297–328.

14. W. Fitzhugh Brundage, “Contentious and Collected: Memory’s Future in Southern History,” JSH 75 (Aug. 2009): 754–55; Jeffrey K. Olick, “Collective Memory: The Two Cultures,” Sociological Theory 17 (Nov. 1999): 333–48. For a study of Charleston that skillfully traces the roots of collective memory in personal remembrances during the interwar years, see Stephanie E. Yuhl, The Making of Historic Charleston: A Golden Haze of Memory (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).

15. James W. Loewen, introduction to The Confederate and Neo-Confederate Reader, ed. James W. Loewen and Edward H. Sebesta (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2010), 8–11.

16. Pew Research Center, “Civil War at 150: Still Relevant, Still Divisive,” Apr. 8, 2011, people-press.org/2011/04/08/civil-war-at-150-still-relevant-still-divisive/; Lynn Vavreck, “Measuring Donald Trump’s Supporters for Intolerance,” NYT, Feb. 23, 2016.

PRELUDE: SLAVERY’S CAPITAL

1. Elihu Burritt, Peace Papers for the People (London: Charles Gilpin, [1851]), 40–41.

2. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1974), xiv, 13–34 (quote 25); Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 1–5; Robert Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects: The Culture of Power in the South Carolina Low Country, 1740–1790 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 5; Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 1–2.

3. Wood, Black Majority, 144–50; Philip D. Morgan, “Black Life in Eighteenth-Century Charleston,” in Colonial Southern Slavery, vol. 3, Articles on American Slavery, ed. Paul Finkleman (NY: Garland, 1989), 306; Peter A. Coclanis, The Shadow of a Dream: Economic Life and Death in the South Carolina Low Country, 1670–1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 115; Bernard E. Powers Jr., Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 58–59, 267; Michael P. Johnson, “Charleston, SC, Slavery in,” in Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, Updated, with a New Introduction and Bibliography, ed. Randall M. Miller and John David Smith (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), 97.

4. Morgan, “Black Life in Eighteenth-Century Charleston,” 306–7; Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 32–33, 95–97, 195; Coclanis, Shadow of a Dream, 30 (“Bowling ally” quote), 112, 115; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998), 142–44; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 55; Wood, Black Majority, 169–71.

5. Wood, Black Majority, 218–19; Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects, 48; South-Carolina Gazette, Aug. 27, 1772; Fredrika Bremer, The Homes of the New World: Impressions of Ameri ca, translated by Mary Howitt (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1853), 1: 264.

6. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 143–44; Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 36–37; Coclanis, Shadow of a Dream, 42; Charles William Janson, The Stranger in America (London: Albion Press, 1807), 358; Peter McCandless, Slavery, Disease, and Suffering in the Southern Low-country (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 45–46, 126–30; St. Julien R. Childs, contrib., “A Letter Written in 1711 by Mary Stafford to Her Kinswoman in England,” SCHM 81 (Jan. 1980): 4.

7. Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 12. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, which compiles statistics for documented slave voyages, 149,429 enslaved laborers disembarked in Charleston, out of a total of 308,025 slaves brought to mainland North America, which means that the city accounted for 49 percent of the documented traffic. Since the database includes only 80 percent of the total number of slaves who were transported in the transatlantic trade, it estimates that, in fact, 210,447 slaves came through South Carolina and Georgia, out of approximately 388,747 people forcibly transported to what became the United States. Because Charleston was responsible for 90 percent of the documented traffic to South Carolina and Georgia, we estimate that roughly 189,000 people disembarked there. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, slavevoyages.org/voyage/search. See also Gregory E. O’Malley, “Slavery’s Converging Ground: Charleston’s Slave Trade as the Black Heart of the Lowcountry,” WMQ 74 (Apr. 2017): 273–74; Gregory E. O’Malley, Final Passages: The Intercolonial Slave Trade of British North America, 1619–1807 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 3, 7, 188–90; David Richardson, “The British Slave Trade to Colonial South Carolina,” Slavery and Abolition 12 (Dec. 1991): 125–72; and James A. McMillan, The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), 18–48, 110–11. W. Robert Higgins, “Charleston: Terminus and Entrepôt of the Colonial Slave Trade,” in The African Diaspora: Interpretive Essays, ed. Martin L. Kilson and Robert I. Rotberg (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976): 114–31; Daniel C. Littlefield, “Charleston and Internal Slave Redistribution,” SCHM 87 (Apr. 1986): 93–105; Kenneth Morgan, “Slave Sales in Colonial Charleston,” English Historical Review 113 (Sept. 1998): 905–27; Wood, Black Majority, xvi; Sean M. Kelley, The Voyage of the Slave Ship Hare: A Journey into Captivity from Sierra Leone to South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 132–35; Michael D. Thompson, Working on the Dock of the Bay: Labor and Enterprise in an Antebellum Southern Port (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2015), 168n2; Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects, 166–67; Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 76.

8. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 162–74; Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877 (New York: Hill and Wang: 2003), 48; Margaret Washington Creel, “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community-Culture Among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988), esp. 96–99; M. Alpah Bah, “Gullah,” in The South Carolina Encyclopedia, ed. Walter Edgar (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 411–12.

9. Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects, 33–36 (Pringle quote 35); Nicholas Michael Butler, “Robert Pringle,” in South Carolina Encyclopedia, 757; O’Malley, “Slavery’s Converging Ground,” 289; Coclanis, Shadow of a Dream, 48–135; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 148–49; Morgan, “Slave Sales in Colonial Charleston,” 907; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 111–12.

10. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 121–22, 128–31; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 151; Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe, ed., “The Journal of Josiah Quincy, Junior, 1773,” Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings 49 (1915–1916): 444–45; Coclanis, Shadow of a Dream, 90; Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects, 34–35.

11. Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects, 28–32; McMillan, Final Victims, 7; Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 144; Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Random House, 1997), 146–47; Joseph Kelley, America’s Longest Siege: Charleston, Slavery, and the Slow March to War (New York: Overlook, 2013), 110–26; Richard Beeman, Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution (New York: Random House, 2009), 315–29 (quote 324).

12. McMillan, Final Victims, 46–48; Patrick S. Brady, “The Slave Trade and Sectionalism in South Carolina, 1787–1808,” JSH 38 (Nov. 1972): 601–20; Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 82–103; O’Malley, Final Passages, 264–81; Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 85–86; Janson, Stranger in America, 356; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 309–10.

13. Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 283–96; Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 5–7; Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), 12, 55–57; Frederic Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South (1931; repr., Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), 173; Michael P. Johnson and James L. Roark, Black Masters: A Free Family of Color in the Old South (New York: Norton, 1984), 177–78.

14. Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, 165–69; Ebenezer Carter Tracy, Memoir of the Life of Jeremiah Evarts, ESQ. (Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1845), 114–15; “Valuable Property By J. Simmons Bee,” City Gazette, Mar. 12, 1818; R.C. Lehmann, ed., Memories of Half a Century: A Record of Friendships (London: Smith, Edler & Co., 1908), 314.

15. Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, 169–96; Edmund L. Drago and Ralph Melnick, “The Old Slave Mart Museum, Charleston, South Carolina: Rediscovering the Past,” CWH 27 (June 1981): 140–43; Maurie D. McInnis, Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 121–25; “Proceedings of Council,” CC, Dec. 27, 1856; “Proceedings of Council,” CC, July 10, 1856; CC, July 2, 1856.

16. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 194–98, 229–31; George C. Rogers Jr., Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 114; John Radford, “The Charleston Planters in 1860,” SCHM 77 (Oct. 1976): 227–35; Michael P. Johnson, “Planters and Patriarchy: Charleston, 1800–1860,” JSH 46 (Feb. 1980): 45–72; Alston Deas, contrib., “A Ball in Charleston,” SCHM 75 (Jan. 1974): 49.

17. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community, 25th Anniversary Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 19; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in the City: The South, 1820–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 20. While 25 percent of southern white families owned slaves, more than 75 percent of white families in Charleston and more than 50 percent of white families in South Carolina were slaveholding. Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 12; Otto H. Olsen, “Historians and the Extent of Slave Ownership in the Southern United States,” CWH 18 (June 1972): 101–16.

18. Wood, Black Majority, 308–26.

19. Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey, Revised and Updated Edition (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 75–202; Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 181–85, 207–37; Francis Asbury Mood, Methodism in Charleston: A Narrative of the Chief Events Relating to the Rise and Progress of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, S.C. (Nashville: Stevenson & J.E. Evans for the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 1859), 133; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 21; Douglas R. Egerton and Robert L. Paquette, introduction to their The Denmark Vesey Affair: A Documentary History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2017), xxi. This narrative has been challenged by Michael P. Johnson, who contends that Vesey and his colleagues were, in fact, the victims of a conspiracy cooked up by Mayor James Hamilton Jr., among others, who wanted to undermine South Carolina’s overly paternalistic governor, advance their careers, and shut down the African Church. Johnson’s argument, though provocative, is ultimately unconvincing. Michael P. Johnson, “Denmark Vesey and His Co-Conspirators,” WMQ 58 (Oct. 2001): 917–76; Michael P. Johnson, “Reading Evidence,” WMQ 59 (Jan. 2002): 193–202; Jon Wiener, “Denmark Vesey: A New Verdict,” Nation, Feb. 21, 2002; Egerton and Paquette, introduction, xxii–xiv; Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free, 233–51; Douglas L. Egerton, “Of Facts and Fables: New Light on the Denmark Vesey Affair,” SCHM 104 (Jan. 2004): 8–35; Robert L. Paquette, “From Rebellion to Revisionism: The Continuing Debate about the Denmark Vesey Affair,” Journal of the Historical Society 4 (Fall 2004): 291–334; Robert Tinkler, James Hamilton of South Carolina (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 2004), 43–44n31.

20. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free, 200–221; Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 269–96; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 202–3, 219; Maurie D. McInnis, The Politics of Taste in Antebellum Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 72–82; CC, Jan. 7, 1830; William H. Buckley, The Citadel and the South Carolina Corps of Cadets (Charleston: Arcadia Publishing, 2004), 9–10. Many accounts of the Vesey affair suggest that the African Church was burned to the ground, but advertisements that we have uncovered indicate that it was actually torn down, no doubt at the insistence of the city. Afterward, church trustees tried to sell off “All the LUMBER” that “comprised the . . . Church.” SP, Aug. 16, 1822; CC, Aug. 14, 1822. See also Mood, Methodism in Charleston, 133, which states that the African Church was “demolished” by order of “the authorities.”

21. McInnis, Politics of Taste, 86–87; “City Accounts,” CC, Sept. 1, 1806; CC, June 3, 1856.

22. McInnis, Politics of Taste, 223–30; “Military Hall, Wentworth-street,” CC, June 27, 1847; CC, Feb. 6, 1850; CC, July 3, 1850; Nicholas Butler, emails to Ethan J. Kytle, June 25, 2017 and Aug. 7, 2107; John J. Navin, “A New England Yankee Discovers Southern History,” in Becoming Southern Writers: Essays in Honor of Charles Joyner, ed. Orville Vernon Burton and Eldred E. Prince Jr. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2016), 184–91; James Redpath, The Roving Editor: Or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States (New York: A.B. Burdick, 1859), 51–54; Laura M. Towne, The Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne, ed. Rupert Sargent Holland (1912; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 160–61; Norrece T. Jones Jr., Born a Child of Freedom, Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1990), 76–78; Karl Bernhard, Travels through North America, During the Years 1825 and 1826 in Two Volumes (Philadelphia: Care, Lea & Carey, 1828), 2: 9–10; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 203; Wade, Slavery in the Cities, 95–96.

23. McInnis, Politics of Taste, 180–81; Sam Aleckson, Before the War, and After the Union: An Autobiography (Boston: Gold Mind Publishing, 1929), 32–33; Abiel Abbot, journal, Nov. 11, 1818, in “The Abiel Abbot Journals: A Yankee Preacher in Charleston Society, 1818–1827,” ed. John Hammond Moore, SCHM 68 (Apr. 1967): 59.

24. Wade, Slavery in the Cities, 55–72, 99; Salley E. Hadden, Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 57–58; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 203–4, 238; “Reminiscences of Charleston, S.C., 1830–1832,” Monthly Religious Magazine 25 (Feb. 1861): 113. See also Thomas Coffin Amory travel diary, 1843, Vol. 58, AFP; and Ivan D. Steen, “Charleston in the 1850’s: As Described by British Travelers,” SCHM 71 (Jan. 1970): 42–44. “Charleston Neck Work House,” LIB, Aug. 3, 1849; “Office Comm’s Cross Roads, Charleston Neck, Jan. 28, 1848,” SP, Jan. 29, 1848; “Proceedings of the Council,” CC, Feb. 21, 1856; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 9–35.

25. Harlan Greene, Harry S. Hutchins Jr., and Brian E. Hutchins, Slave Badges and the Slave-Hire System in Charleston, South Carolina, 1783–1865 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., 2004), 1–66; Harlan Greene and Harry S. Hutchins Jr., “Slave Hire Badges—The 2014 Update,” North South Trader’s Civil War 38 (2014): 69–71.

26. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 279–80, 282–83; Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 395–403; Sinha, Counterrevolution of Slavery, 33–61.

27. William H. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 255–59 (quote 257); Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 404–10; Sinha, Counterrevolution of Slavery, 33–61.

28. “Incendiary Publications,” SP, July 30, 1835; “Incendiary Publications,” CC, July 30, 1835; “Attack on the Post Office,” CC, July 31, 1835; CC, July 31, 1835; SP, July 30, 1835; Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 482–85; Richard R. John, Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 257–80; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 428–30.

29. James Silk Buckingham, The Slave States of America, in Two Volumes (London: Fisher, Son, and Co., 1842), 1: 54–55; Robert Bunch, quoted in Christopher Dickey, Our Man in Charleston: Britain’s Secret Agent in the Civil War South (New York: Broadway Books, 2015), 19.

30. Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 512–15, 609–11; Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 500–503; Daniel Wirls, “‘The Only Mode of Avoiding Everlasting Debate’: The Overlooked Senate Gag Rule for Antislavery Politicians,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (Spring 2007): 115–38; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. 1, Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 308–52; George C. Rable, “Slavery, Politics, and the South: The Gag Rule as a Case Study,” Capitol Studies 3 (Fall 1975): 69–87.

31. John C. Calhoun, “Further Remarks in Debate of His Fifth Resolution,” in PJCC, 14: 84; James Henry Hammond, Two Letters on Southern Slavery, Addressed to Thomas Clarkson, Esq. (Columbia: Allen, McCarter, & Co., 1845), 42–43; Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 505–16.

32. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil, 257–62, 524–27, 498–99 (quote 260).

33. Calhoun, “Further Remarks,” 84; John C. Calhoun, “Speech on Abolition Petitions,” in PJCC, 13: 105.

34. Dickey, Our Man in Charleston, 45–46; The Pro-Slavery Argument, as Maintained by the Most Distinguished Writers of the Southern States (Charleston: Walker, Richards, & Co., 1852); Kelley, America’s Longest Siege, 266–67; Robert N. Rosen, Confederate Charleston: Illustrated History of the City and the People during the Civil War (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 19; Edward J. Pringle, Slavery in the Southern States by a Carolinian (Cambridge, MA: John Bartlett, 1852), 8–9; Richard N. Côté, Mary’s World: Love, War, and Family Ties in Nineteenth-century Charleston (Mt. Pleasant, SC: Corinthian Books, 2001), 144–47; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. 2, Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 54–56; “Proceedings of Council,” CC, Jan. 10, 1856; Michael Tadman, “The Interregional Slave Trade in the History and Myth-Making of the U.S. South,” in The Chattel Principle: Internal Slave Trades in the Americas, ed. Walter Johnson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 135.

35. Eric H. Walther, The Fire-Eaters (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), 2, 125–26, 138–49.

36. Robert Bunch, quoted in Dickey, Our Man in Charleston, 125; “A Committee of Safety,” CM, Dec. 13, 1859; “To the Public,” CC, Dec. 15, 1859; “Committee of Safety,” CC, Dec. 15, 1859; “Citizens of Charleston!” CC, Dec. 6, 1859; Steven A. Channing, Crisis of Fear: Secession in South Carolina (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970), 34, 37–38; William C. Davis, Rhett: The Turbulent Life and Times of a Fire-Eater (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 384–85; Freehling, Road to Disunion, vol. 2, 294–306; Rosen, Confederate Charleston, 32–34; Robert Barnwell Rhett Sr., quoted in Charles Edward Cauthen, South Carolina Goes to War, 1860–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1950), 18n12.

37. Michael P. Johnson and James L. Roark, eds., No Chariot Let Down: Charleston’s Free People of Color on the Eve of the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 8–9, 147 (Johnson quote).

38. Circular, Robert N. Gourdin, Chairman of the Executive Committee of “the 1860 Association” to R.F.W. Allston, Nov. 19, 1860, in Broadsides, Digital Collections, SCL; Channing, Crisis of Fear, 255–56; Stephanie McCurry, Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 43–46; Freehling, Road to Disunion, vol. 2, 388–94; William Kauffman Scarborough, Masters of the Big House: Elite Slaveholders of the Mid-Nineteenth-Century South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003), 287; James D.B. DeBow, The Interest of the Southern Non-Slaveholder (1860), reprinted in Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860–April 1861, ed. Jon L. Wakelyn (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 84.

39. John Townsend, quoted in Sinha, Counterrevolution of Slavery, 233; Southern-Rights Lady, quoted in William L. Barney, The Road to Secession: A New Perspective on the Old South (New York: Praeger, 1972), 186.

40. Sinha, Counterrevolution of Slavery, 233–37; McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 46–49; “Our Barnwell Correspondence,” CM, Nov. 21, 1860.

41. Sinha, Counterrevolution of Slavery, 237–44; Freehling, Road to Disunion, vol. 2, 395–423.

42. Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union; and the Ordinance of Secession (Charleston: Evans & Cogswell, 1860), 7–8; Thomas Jefferson Withers, quoted in Ulysses Robert Brooks, South Carolina Bench and Bar (Columbia: The State Company, 1908), 1: 148; “What Shall the South Carolina Legislature Do,” CM, Nov. 3, 1860.

43. William Gilmore Simms, quoted in David Moltke-Hansen, “When History Failed: William Gilmore Simms’s Artistic Negotiation of the Civil War’s Consequences,” in William Gilmore Simms’s Unfinished Civil War: Consequences for a Southern Man of Letters, ed. David Moltke-Hansen (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2012), 11; Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 38–39, 74–81.

44. Bruce Levine, The Fall of the House of Dixie: The Civil War and the Social Revolution that Transformed the South (New York: Random House, 2013), 43–44 (“the right of property” quote 44); Alexander Stephens, quoted in Dew, Apostles of Disunion, 14.

45. Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Knopf, 1997), 408–11; Adam Goodheart, 1861: The Civil War Awakening (New York: Knopf, 2011), 4–15, 136–66; David Detzer, Allegiance: Fort Sumter, Charleston, and the Beginning of the Civil War (New York: Harcourt, 2001), 254–59; Freehling, Road to Disunion, vol. 2, 520–21.

46. Mary Boykin Chesnut, diary, Apr. 12, 1861, in Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, ed. C. Vann Woodward (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 46–47; Mary Boykin Chesnut, diary, [Apr. 12, 1861], in The Private Mary Chesnut: The Unpublished Civil War Diaries, ed. C. Vann Woodward and Elisabeth Muhlenfeld (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 59; Detzer, Allegiance, 272–73; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 250–51; Rosen, Confederate Charleston, 68–72.

47. William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South in Two Volumes (Boston: T.O.P. Burnham, 1863), 1: 98–99, 110; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 251; Klein, Days of Defiance, 416–30.

48. Russell, My Diary North and South, 1: 110.

49. “Reminiscences of Charleston, S.C, 1830–1832,” 113; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 252–55.

50. “The Faithful Negro,” CC, June 20, 1861; “A Loyal Slave,” CC, Aug. 13, 1862; “A Faithful Slave,” CC, Dec. 2, 1862; “Dr. North’s Treatment in a Yankee Prison—A Faithful Negro,” CC, Feb. 28, 1863; South Carolina slaves, interviewed, 1861, in Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies, ed. John W. Blassingame (Baton Rouge: Louisiana University Press, 1977), 360; Louis Manigault, Manigault Plantation Journal, May 1861–May 1862, p. 23, Digital Collections, SHC; Chesnut, diary, Apr. 13, 1861, in Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, 48.

51. “Escaped Union Prisoners of War to the Provost Marshal General of the Department of the South,” Dec. 7, 1864, in Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, ser. 1, vol. 1, The Destruction of Slavery, ed. Ira Berlin et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 810; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953), 269–70; Benjamin M. Holmes, interview, 1872, in Slave Testimony, 618–20.

52. McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 244–45; Okon Edet Uya, From Slavery to Public Service: Robert Smalls, 1839–1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 12–21; Philip Dray, Capitol Men: The Epic Story of Reconstruction through the Lives of the First Black Congressmen (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2008), 1–10; Andrew Billingsley, Yearning to Breathe Free: Robert Smalls of South Carolina and His Families (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2007), 51–61 (quote 59), 75.

53. South Carolina slaves, interviewed, 1861, in Slave Testimony, 359; LIB, Jan. 9, 1863; Douglass’ Monthly 5 (Feb. 1863): 798; Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post–Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 24–25; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 67; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 258–59; Johnson Hagood, Memoirs of the War in Charleston (Columbia: The State Co., 1910), 1: 71; Yael A. Sternhell, Routes of War: The World of Movement in the Confederate South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 129–30.

54. Dickson D. Bruce, Archibald Grimké: Portrait of a Black Independent (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 1–15.

55. Kelley, America’s Longest Siege, 15–17, 306–10; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 264–67; Rosen, Confederate Charleston, 119–40; Alva C. Roach, The Prisoner of War, and How Treated (Indianapolis: Railroad City Publishing, 1865), 137; Willard W. Glazier, The Capture, the Prison Pen, and the Escape, Giving an Account of Prison Life in the South (Albany, NY: S.R. Gray, 1865), 141.

56. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 267–68; CM, Jan. 16, 1865; CM, Jan. 17, 1865; CM, Jan. 19, 1865.

57. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 268–69.

1. THE YEAR OF JUBILEE

1. Berwick [James Redpath], “The Fall of Charleston,” NYTR, Mar. 2, 1865. James Redpath often reported using the pen name “Berwick,” taken from the Scottish town in which he was born. John McKigivigan, Forgotten Firebrand: James Redpath and the Making of Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), 2, 9, 98. Theodore Cuyler, “A Trip to Fort Sumter, and the Doomed City,” LIB, May 5, 1865; Kane O’Donnell, “Charleston. Details of the Evacuation and Occupation,” PHP, Mar. 3, 1865; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 268; E. Milby Burton, The Siege of Charleston, 1861–1865 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1982), 320–21; Noah Andre Trudeau, Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War, 1862–1865 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998), 356–57; John C. Gray to John C. Ropes, Feb. 24, 1865, in War Letters, 1862–1865, of John Chipman Gray and John Codman Ropes (Boston: Riverside Press for the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1927), 459; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953), 325–27; Frank [Frances] A. Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany, Sub-Assistant Commissioner Bureau Relief of Refugees, Freedmen, and of Abandoned Lands, and Late Major 104th U.S. Colored Troops (1968; repr., New York: Arno Press, 1969), 198–99; C.H. Corey to Nathan Bishop, Feb. 20, 1865, in IND, Mar. 16, 1865.

2. Redpath, “Fall of Charleston”; Charles Carleton Coffin, The Boys of ’61; or, Four Years of Fighting (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1884), 481; O’Donnell, “Charleston”; Charles Barnard Fox, Record of the Service of the Fifty-Fifth Regiment of Massachusetts Infantry (Cambridge, MA: Press of John Wilson and Son, 1868), 58–59; Trudeau, Like Men of War, 356–58; J.H.W.N. Collins, letter to the editor, CR, Apr. 15, 1865; Luis F. Emilio, History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863–1865 (Boston: Boston Book Co., 1894), 283–84.

3. Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Random House, 1979), 310–16; Henry W. Ravenel, journal, June 14, 1865, in The Private Journal of Henry William Ravenel, 1859–1887, ed. Arney R. Childs (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1947), 244; “The South As It Is,” Nation 1 (Dec. 28, 1865): 82–83; Bernard E. Powers Jr., Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 101.

4. Henry Ward Beecher, “Narrative of His Trip to South Carolina,” IND, May 11, 1865; Douglas R. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), 81; Redpath, “Fall of Charleston”; James Lynch, letter to the editor, CR, Mar. 18, 1865; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 69–70, 75; “Recruiting,” NAAS, Mar. 18, 1865; “Recruiting,” CC, Mar. 1, 1865; “Recruiting,” CC, Mar. 10, 1865; James Redpath, “The Work at Charleston,” Freedmen’s Record 1 (Oct. 1865): 157; “From Charleston!” ADC, Mar. 9, 1865; Dickson D. Bruce, Archibald Grimké: Portrait of a Black Independent (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 16.

5. William C. Nell, quoted in Mitch Kachun, Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1908–1915 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), 261n4.

6. James Redpath, “From South Carolina. Grand Procession of Colored Loyalists,” NYTR, Apr. 4, 1865; “Affairs at Charleston,” NYT, Mar. 30, 1865; “Affairs in Charleston,” NYT, Apr. 4, 1865; “Freedmen’s Jubilee,” CC, Mar. 22, 1865; Carole Emberton, Beyond Redemption: Race, Violence, and the American South after the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 15; Kathleen Ann Clark, Defining Moments: African American Commemoration and Political Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 35.

7. “Freedmen’s Jubilee”; Redpath, “From South Carolina,” Apr. 4, 1865; “Affairs in Charleston”; “Letter from Charleston, South Carolina,” Newark Daily Advertiser, Apr. 13, 1865; Clark, Defining Moments, 34–38; Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), 28–29; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 177–78; Mark Auslander, “Touching the Past: Materializing Time in Traumatic ‘Living History’ Reenactments,” Signs and Society 1 (Spring 2013): 161–83; “A Taxable Citizen in Ward No. 4 to the Honorable the City Council,” SP, Sept. 19, 1835; Richard C. Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 169–71; Winthrop D. Jordan, “Familial Politics: Thomas Paine and the Killing of the King, 1776,” JAH 60 (Sept. 1973): 306–8; Albert J. Von Frank, The Trials of Anthony Burns: Freedom and Slavery in Emerson’s Boston (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 209; Bruce Laurie, Beyond Garrison: Antislavery and Social Reform (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 241.

8. “Affairs in Charleston.”

9. H.M. Gallaher, “The Cradle of Treason,” IND, May 4, 1865; “The Oath of Allegiance in Charleston,” NYT, Mar. 30, 1865; “The Bombardment of Charleston,” LIB, Mar. 10, 1865.

10. Cuyler, “Trip to Fort Sumter.” During and after the war, commentators referred to Charleston interchangeably as “the cradle of secession,” “the cradle of the confederacy,” and “the cradle of the rebellion,” which is what minister Theodore Cuyler called it. See, for example, “Charleston at Bay,” Edgefield Advertiser, Aug. 12, 1863; and “The Flag of Truce,” CNC, Dec. 21, 1892.

11. “1861–1865, The Old Flag on Fort Sumter Once More,” New York World, Apr. 21, 1865; Wendell Phillips Garrison and Francis Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 1805–1879: The Story of His Life Told by His Children (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1889), 4: 135–36; “Off for Charleston!” LIB, Apr. 7, 1865; George T. Garrison to Daniel Eldredge, Feb. 18, 1895, MOLLUS; Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: Norton, 1998), 577.

12. Elizabeth Hyde Botume, First Days amongst the Contrabands (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1892), 172; “Fort Sumter,” NYT, Apr. 18, 1865; James Redpath, “From Charleston,” NYTR, Apr. 18, 1865; James Redpath, “From Charleston,” NYTR, Apr. 20, 1865; “Fort Sumter,” CC, Apr. 15, 1865; “Sumpter [sic]. The Flag Again Floating Over Its Ruins,” PHP, Apr. 18, 1865; Esther Hill Hawks, diary, Apr. 14, 1865, in A Woman Doctor’s Civil War: Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Gerald Schwartz (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 130.

13. Theodore Tilton, “The Excursion to Fort Sumter,” IND, Apr. 27, 1865; “1861–1865, The Old Flag”; “Fort Sumter,” NYT; Gallaher, “Cradle of Treason”; William A. Spicer, The Flag Replaced on Sumter: A Personal Narrative (Providence, RI: Providence Press Company, 1885), 41–43, 51–52; [Justus Clement French], The Trip of the Steamer Oceanus to Fort Sumter and Charleston, S.C. (Brooklyn: “The Union” Steam Printing House, 1865), 43–81 (Beecher quotes 67, 58); Cuyler, “Trip to Fort Sumter”; “Fort Sumter,” CC.

14. “The Fort Sumter Celebration,” NYT, Apr. 20, 1865; Spicer, Flag Replaced on Sumter, 56–57; “Banquet in Charleston,” LIB, May 12, 1865.

15. Cuyler, “Trip to Fort Sumter”; James Redpath, “From South Carolina. Our Martyr and His Mourners,” NYTR, May 13, 1865; Maria Middleton Doar to Maria H. Middleton, Apr. 14, 1865, Folder 8, Box 161, DMFP.

16. Emma Holmes, diary, May 1, 1865, in The Diary of Miss Emma Holmes, 1861–1866, ed. John F. Marszalek (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 441–42.

17. Caroline R. Ravenel to Isabella Middleton Smith, Mar. 31, 1865, in Mason Smith Family Letters, ed. Daniel E. Huger Smith et al. (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1950), 188; Mrs. J.J. Pringle Smith to Mrs. William Mason Smith, Mar. 23, [1865], in Mason Smith Family Letters, 179; “From South Carolina,” Richmond Whig, Mar. 31, 1865; “Late from Charleston,” ADC, Apr. 6, 1865; “Trade[?] in Charleston,” ADC, Apr. 20, 1865; “Served Him Right for Staying There,” Tri-Weekly (Newberry, SC) Herald, Apr. 6, 1865; LeConte, diary, Apr. 13, 1865, in When the Word Ended: The Diary of Emma LeConte, ed. Earl Schenck Miers (1957; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 85; “Favors,” Columbia Phoenix, Mar. 21, 1865.

18. LeConte, diary, July 5, 1865, p.115. The various editions of the New-York Tribune alone had a combined circulation of more than 200,000. Adam-Max Tuchinsky, Horace Greeley’s New-York Tribune: Civil War-Era Socialism and the Crisis of Free Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 145–46.

19. Teresa Barnett, Sacred Relics: Pieces of the Past in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 21–23, 50–105; Joan E. Cashin, “Trophies of War: Material Culture in the Civil War Era,” JCWE 1 (Sept. 2011): 339–67; Megan Kate Nelson, Ruin Nation: Destruction and the American Civil War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 154–57, 229–32; Brian Matthew Jordan, Marching Home: Union Veterans and Their Unending Civil War (New York: Liveright, 2015), 95–97; Jennifer R. Bridge, “Tourist Attractions, Souvenirs, and Civil War Memory in Chicago, 1861–1915” (Ph.D. diss., Loyola University of Chicago, 2009), esp. 24–84.

20. Tilton, “Excursion to Fort Sumter”; Redpath, “Fall of Charleston.” Institute Hall burned down during the Charleston fire of 1861.

21. Redpath, “Fall of Charleston”; Charles C. Coffin, “The Slave Mart,” NYT, Mar. 6, 1865; O’Donnell, “Charleston”; Kane O’Donnell, “Charleston. Loyalty of the Irish and German Residents,” PHP, Mar. 30, 1865; Gallaher, “Cradle of Treason”; Edmund L. Drago, ed., Broke by War: Letters of a Slave Trader (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 1–2, 5–11; “Various Items,” Springfield Republican, Mar. 13, 1865; Edmund L. Drago and Ralph Melnick, “The Old Slave Mart Museum, Charleston, South Carolina: Rediscovering the Past,” CWH 27 (June 1981): 138–54; Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 204–5.

22. “Curiosities of the Charleston Slave Market,” Providence Evening Press, Mar. 31, 1865; “Various Items”; “News and Miscellaneous Items,” BET, Mar. 17, 1865; O’Donnell, “Charleston. Loyalty of the Irish.”

23. “The Steps to the Slave Block of Charleston,” BDA, Mar. 6, 1865; “An Immense Meeting in Music Hall,” LIB, Mar. 17, 1865; “A Memorable Scene,” NAAS, Mar. 18, 1865; Drago, ed., Broke by War, 3; Ethan J. Kytle, Romantic Reformers and the Antislavery Struggle in the Civil War Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 29–71; Garrison and Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 4: 135; William Lloyd Garrison to Jacob Horton, Mar. 17, 1865, in The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, vol. 5, Let the Oppressed Go Free, 1861–1867, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1979), 262–63; “City and Vicinity,” LDCN, Mar. 15, 1865; “Lowell Freedmen’s Aid Society,” LDCN, Mar. 16, 1865; “City and County,” Worcester Aegis, Mar. 20, 1865; Z.E. Stone, “George Thompson, the English Philanthropist in Lowell,” in Contributions of the Old Residents’ Historical Association, Lowell, Mass. (Lowell, MA: Old Residents’ Historical Association, 1883), 131–32.

24. A.P. Putnam, “Abolitionists in Charleston,” IND, Apr. 27, 1865; Laura M. Towne, The Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne, ed. Rupert Sargent Holland (1912; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 160–61.

25. Gallaher, “Cradle of Treason”; James Redpath, “The Excursion to Charleston,” NYTR, Apr. 22, 1865. Clinckscales and Boozer was, in fact, the name of an auction firm. CC, Sept. 13, 1862.

26. Beecher, “Narrative of His Trip.”

27. Putnam, “Abolitionists in Charleston”; “Yankees in Charleston,” Lowell Daily Courier, Apr. 27, 1865; Beecher, “Narrative of His Trip”; Redpath, “Excursion to Charleston”; Cuyler, “Trip to Fort Sumter”; Theodore L. Cuyler, “Etchings at Fort Sumter,” IND, Apr. 27, 1865; Mayer, All on Fire, 582; French, Trip of the Steamer Oceanus, 96.

28. Hawks, diary, Apr. 15, 1865, pp. 131–33; French, Trip of the Steamer Oceanus, 96–112; Elizabeth G. Rice, “A Yankee Teacher in the South,” Century Magazine 62 (May 1901): 151; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 70–71, 165, 172; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 212–13; “Another Great Rejoicing!” CC, Apr. 17, 1865; Redpath, “Excursion to Charleston”; Cuyler, “Etchings”; Putnam, “Abolitionists in Charleston”; Cuyler, “Trip to Fort Sumter.”

29. Beecher, “Narrative of His Trip”; Tilton, “Excursion to Fort Sumter”; William Lloyd Garrison to his wife, Apr. 15, 1865, in Garrison and Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 4: 140; George T. Garrison, diary extract, Apr. 17, 1865, MOLLUS.

30. James Redpath, “Eye and Ear Notes: May-Day in Charleston, S.C.,” The Youth’s Companion, June 1, 1865; “Decoration Day,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, June 16, 1869; David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001), 68–70.

31. Randy J. Sparks, “Gentleman’s Sport: Horse Racing in Antebellum Charleston,” SCHM 93 (Jan. 1992): 20–30; George C. Rogers Jr., Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 114; Charles Fraser, Reminiscences of Charleston (Charleston: John Russell, 1854), 61–63; Kevin R. Eberle, A History of Charleston’s Hampton Park (Charleston: History Press, 2012), 30–38.

32. Lonnie R. Speer, Portals of Hell: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 214–15, 334; Robert H. Kellogg, Life and Death in Rebel Prisons (Hartford, CT: L. Stebbins, 1865), 290–94; Warren Lee Goss, The Soldier’s Story of His Captivity at Andersonville, Belle Isle, and Other Rebel Prisons (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1867), 187–96; Samuel S. Boggs, Eighteen Months a Prisoner Under the Rebel Flag (Lovington, IL: S.S. Boggs, 1887), 46–47.

33. “The Charleston Race-Course Prisoners,” BDA, Aug. 11, 1865; A.P. Putnam, “More About Charleston,” IND, May 4, 1865; Charles W. Sanders Jr., While in the Hands of the Enemy: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 226–27; Speer, Portals of Hell, 213–14; William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 198–203; “Charleston, S.C.,” The Student and Schoolmate: An Illustrated Monthly for All Our Boys and Girls 17 (Mar. 1866): 98; James Redpath, “Eye and Ear Notes: May-Day in Charleston Again,” The Youth’s Companion, June 8, 1865; A.O. Abbott, Prison Life in the South (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1865), 126; Beecher, “Narrative of His Trip.”

34. William B. Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons: A Study in War Psychology (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1930), 155; Putnam, “More About Charleston”; James Redpath, “From South Carolina. Monument to the Martyrs of the Race-Course,” NYTR, Apr. 8, 1865.

35. McKivigivan, Forgotten Firebrand, x, 105–8; James Redpath, The Roving Editor: Or, Talks with Slaves in Southern States (New York: A.B. Burdick, 1859), 50; Hawks, diary, Apr. 6, 1865, p. 126.

36. Redpath, “From South Carolina,” Apr. 8, 1865; “Decoration Day.”

37. Redpath, “From South Carolina,” Apr. 8, 1865; Morse, “Unofficial Memorial Day,” 117; “Memorial to the Loyal People of South Carolina,” CC, Mar. 28, 1865; “From Charleston,” ADC, Apr. 5, 1865; James Redpath, “Honor to Our Martyrs,” NYTR, May 13, 1865.

38. Marilyn Richardson, “Taken from Life: Edward M. Bannister, Edmonia Lewis, and the Memorialization of the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment,” in Hope & Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment, ed. Martin H. Blatt, Thomas J. Brown, and Donald Yacovone (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press in association with the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2001), 94–95; Frances D. Gage to Francis George Shaw, Sept. 6, 1863, in Memorial R.G.S. (Cambridge, MA: University Press, 1864), 153–55; Emilio, History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment, 228–30; Virginia Matze Adams, ed., On the Altar of Freedom: A Black Soldier’s Civil War Letters from the Front (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991), 66; Blight, Race and Reunion, 155–56.

39. “Our Charleston Correspondence,” NYT, May 14, 1865; “The Martyrs of the Race Course,” CC, May 2, 1865; Henry O. Marcy, “First Memorial Day May 1, 1865,” clipping from unidentified Boston or Cambridge newspaper, [May 29], 1923 (Concord Free Public Library, Concord, MA); Quartermaster General’s Office, Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers Who, In Defence of the American Union, Suffered Martyrdom in the Prison Pens Throughout the South (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1868), 14: 238; Redpath, “Honor to Our Martyrs”; Redpath, “Eye and Ear Notes,” June 1, 1865; James Redpath, “A Defense of General Hatch,” NAAS, July 22, 1865; James Redpath, “The Work at Charleston,” Freedmen’s Record 1 (Oct. 1865): 157; Hawks, diary, Apr. 8 and May 1, 1865, pp. 128, 137–38.

40. “Martyrs of the Race Course”; Redpath, “Honor to Our Martyrs”; “Scenes of the Reconstructed South,” IND, Feb. 22, 1866; Blight, Race and Reunion, 65.

41. Hawks, diary, May 1, 1865, p. 137; Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey, Revised and Updated Edition (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), 188–91.

42. “Our Charleston Correspondence”; “Martyrs of the Race Course”; Hawks, diary, May 1, 1865, p. 138; Earl Marble, “Origin of Memorial Day,” New England Magazine 32 (June 1905): 470; “Decoration Day”; Redpath, “Honor to Our Martyrs.”

43. Mrs. Francis J. Porcher [Abby Louisa Porcher] to Anna Mason Smith, July 29, [1865], in Mason Smith Family Letters, 227; Johnathan H. Poston, The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), 223; Henry William DeSaussure to his father, June 12, 1865, Folder 22, Box 121, DFP.

44. William Middleton to his sister in Philadelphia, n.d., quoted in Robert N. Rosen, Confederate Charleston: Illustrated History of the City and the People during the Civil War (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1994), 142; DeSaussure to his father, June 12, 1865; Henry W. Ravenel to Augustin L. Taveau, June 27, 1865, Box 3, ALTP; Henry W. Ravenel, Apr. 30, 1865, May 30, 1865, in The Private Journal of Henry William Ravenel, 1859–1887, ed. Arney Robinson Childs (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1947), 228.

45. Augustin L. Taveau, letter to editor, NYTR, June 10, 1865, and Louis Manigault’s comments on it, in Louis Manigault, Manigault Plantation Journal, [June 1865], p. 39, Digital Collections, SHC; Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Random House, 1974), 111–12.

46. Carl Schurz, quoted in Joseph H. Mahaffey, ed., “Carl Schurz’s Letters from the South,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 35 (Sept. 1951): 235–36; Affy to Amie, Sept. 5, 1865, quoted in Powers, Black Charlestonians, 227.

47. Redpath, “Defense of General Hatch”; James Redpath, “General Hatch Again,” NAAS, July 29, 1865; “The Situation,” New York Herald, July 13, 1865; “Eighty-ninth Anniversary,” CC, July 6, 1865; “Fourth of July Celebration,” CC, July 10, 1865; “Charleston Correspondence,” CR, July 15, 1865; “From Charleston,” NYT, July 12, 1865.

48. Katchun, Festivals of Freedom, 54–96; “Emancipation Celebration,” CR, Aug. 26, 1865; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 426–30; Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 249–52.

49. “Letter from Charleston, S.C.,” Christian Advocate, Jan. 18, 1866; “The Day We Celebrate,” SCLE, Jan. 6, 1866; Botume, First Days amongst the Contrabands, 204–6; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 194; “Speech of Gen. Saxton,” SCLE, Jan. 13, 1866.

50. “Letter from Charleston, S.C.”

51. Jacob F. Schirmer, diary, Jan. 1, 1866, SFJR; “Glory, Hallelujah!” CDN, Jan. 3, 1866. See also “Affairs About Home,” SCLE, Jan. 13, 1866.

2. RECONSTRUCTING CHARLESTON IN THE SHADOW OF SLAVERY

1. Walter Edgar, South Carolina: A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), 383–84; “Incidents of the Convention,” CM, Jan. 15, 1868; “The Convention,” CDN, Jan. 15, 1868; “The Great South. The South Carolina Problem; The Epoch of Transition,” Scribner’s Monthly 8 (June 1874): 147; Appleton’s Illustrated Hand-book of American Cities; Composing the Principal Cities in the United States and Canada, with outlines of Through Routes, and Railway Maps (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1876), 133; Richard L. Hume and Jerry B. Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags: The Constitutional Conventions of Radical Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008), 435n9.

2. “The Convention,” Jan. 15, 1865; “Reconstruction Convention,” CC, Jan. 15, 1868; Hume and Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags, 169.

3. David Golightly Harris, journal, Jan. 13, 1868, in Piedmont Farmer: The Journals of David Golightly Harris, 1855–1870, ed. Philip N. Racine (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990), 456; “The Convention,” CDN, Jan. 14, 1868; “The Convention,” Jan. 15, 1865.

4. “The Great Ring-Streaked and Striped Negro Convention,” CM, Jan. 15, 1868; “Incidents of the Convention,” CM, Jan. 15, 1868; “Desecration of the Gray,” CM, Jan. 15, 1868.

5. “The Great Ring-Streaked and Striped Negro Convention”; “Sketches of the Delegates to the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped, The Delegates from Sumter [Number One],” CM, Jan. 15, 1868; “Sketches of the Delegates to the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped, The Greenville Delegation [Number Two],” CM, Jan. 16, 1868; “Incidents of the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped-Convention,” CM, Feb. 1, 1868; “Incidents of the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped-Convention,” CM, Feb. 4, 1868; “Incidents of the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped-Convention,” CM, Feb. 20, 1868; “Sketches of the Delegates to the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped, The Edgefield Delegation [Concluded],” CM, Feb. 3, 1868; “The Great-Ring-Streaked-and Striped. Comments By a ‘Looker On,’” CM, Jan. 20, 1868.

6. Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of South Carolina, held at Charleston, S.C., beginning January 14th and ending March 17th, 1868 (Charleston: Denny and Perry, 1868), 16; Hume and Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags, Appendix C, Delegate Biographical Data, n.p.; Richard Zuczek, State of Rebellion: Reconstruction in South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1996), 48.

7. Emma Holmes, diary, June 10, 1865, in The Diary of Miss Emma Holmes, 1861–1866, ed. John F. Marszalek (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 451; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 183; “Interview Between the South Carolina Delegation and President Johnson,” BET, June 26, 1865; Hyman Rubin III, South Carolina Scalawags (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 3–4; Francis Butler Simkins and Robert Hilliard Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932), 32–34.

8. Edgar, South Carolina, 383–84; Acts of the General Assembly of the State of South Carolina, Passed at the Sessions of 1864–65 (Columbia: Julian A. Selby, Printer to the State, 1866), 292; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction, 48–51; Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 74–79; Bernard E. Powers Jr., Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 80–82; William C. Hine, “Frustration, Factionalism, and Defeat: Black Political Leadership in Reconstruction Charleston, 1865–1877” (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1979), 30–32.

9. Williamson, After Slavery, 73–74; Edmund Rhett, quoted in Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 15.

10. Richard H. Abbott, For Free Press and Equal Rights: Republican Newspapers in the Reconstruction South, ed. John W. Quist (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004), 32–33; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 277; “Loyalty and the Planters,” SCLE, Dec. 16, 1865; “Servants in South Carolina,” SCLE, Dec. 16, 1865; Thomas David Russell, “Sale Day in Antebellum South Carolina: Slavery, Law, Economy, and Court-Supervised Sales” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1993), 1; Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 168–69.

11. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 279; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction, 57; Rubin, South Carolina Scalawags, 6; Dan T. Carter, When the War Was Over: The Failure of Self-Reconstruction in the South, 1865–1867 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985), 230–31; “Secession Gleams,” SCLE, Jan. 6, 1866; “Secession Gleams,” SCLE, Jan. 13, 1866.

12. “South Carolina,” NYT, May 20, 1866.

13. “Colour and Race,” CM, Jan. 30, 1868; “Negro Schools and Negro Homesteads,” CM, Apr. 2, 1868; “The South Vindicated,” CM, Apr. 2, 1868.

14. “Wade Hampton on the Crisis,” CC, Oct. 10, 1866.

15. Robert K. Ackerman, Wade Hampton III (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2007), xi; Rod Andrew Jr., Wade Hampton: Confederate Warrior to Southern Redeemer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 16–17; “Wade Hampton on the Crisis,” CC, Oct. 10, 1866.

16. “Speech of General Wade Hampton,” CC, Mar. 23, 1867; Ackerman, Wade Hampton, 109–10; Thomas Holt, Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 29; “Mass Meeting in Columbia,” SCLE, Mar. 23, 1867. For national coverage of this speech, see “The Charleston Negroes,” Albany Evening Journal, Mar. 27, 1867; and “Reconstruction According to Wade Hampton and the Negroes,” NYTR, Mar. 29, 1867.

17. “The Northern Press,” CDN, Mar. 27, 1867; “A Black Man’s View of the Situation,” CC, Mar. 21, 1867; Herbert Ravenel Sass, Outspoken: 150 Years of the News and Courier (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1953), 35; “The Colored Race and the Ballot,” CC, Mar. 26, 1867; “Legislature of South Carolina,” CC, Dec. 19, 1859; Steven A. Channing, Crisis of Fear: Secession in South Carolina (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970), 16. On the moral capital of opposition to slavery, see Christopher Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), esp. 451–62.

18. Abbot, For Free Press and Equal Rights, 83; “Wade Hampton,” Charleston Advocate, Mar. 23, 1867; “Public Meeting,” CC, Mar. 22, 1867.

19. Hume and Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags, 161, Appendix C, n.p.; Edgar, South Carolina, 385–86.

20. “An Act to provide for the more efficient Government of the Rebel States,” Mar. 2, 1867, in Statutes at Large, 39th Cong., 2d sess., 14: 429, memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=014/llsl014.db&recNum=460; Foner, Reconstruction, 276–77; Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 218.

21. James M. Banner Jr., “The Problem of South Carolina,” in The Hofstader Aegis: A Memorial, ed. Stanley M. Elkins and Eric L. McKitrick (New York: Knopf, 1974), 60–93; Hume and Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags, 168–69; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. 1, Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 220–23; Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 12–14.

22. Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 455, 874–75; Cole Blease Graham Jr., The South Carolina State Constitution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 30–32; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction, 96–98.

23. Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 824–27, 830–31, 834–35; Benjamin Ginsberg, Moses of South Carolina: A Jewish Scalawag during Radical Reconstruction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 79–81; Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Random House, 1979), 456, 467, 471; Williamson, After Slavery, 206–7; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 205–6; Douglas R. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), 8–9; Philip Dray, Capitol Men: The Epic Story of Reconstruction through the Lives of the First Black Congressmen (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2008), 40–41.

24. Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 198–99, 227–29; Rubin, South Carolina Scalawags, 18–19, 29.

25. Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 219, 226–27; Hume and Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags, 172.

26. Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 231.

27. Ibid., 237–38, 243, 249; Hume and Gough, Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags, 173; Lamson, Glorious Failure, 52. This measure was later deemed an unconstitutional violation of the obligation of contracts. Simkins and Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction, 100.

28. Benjamin F. Perry, quoted in Lou Faulkner Williams, The Great South Carolina Ku Klux Klan Trials, 1871–1872 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 8; Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, 27–29; Dray, Capitol Men, 42–43; Peggy Lamson, The Glorious Failure: Black Congressman Robert Brown Elliott and the Reconstruction in South Carolina (New York: Norton, 1973), 48–49.

29. “Sketches of the Delegates . . . [Number One]”; “Sketches of the Delegates . . . [Number Two]”; “Sketches of the Delegates to the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped, The Beaufort Delegation [Number Twenty-Six],” CM, Feb. 20, 1868.

30. “Sketches of the Delegates to the Great Ringed-Streaked-and-Striped, The Abbeville Delegation [Number Five],” CM, Jan. 20, 1868; “Negro Schools and Negro Homesteads.”

31. Edgar, South Carolina, 386–88; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 287–89; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 90; Hine, “Frustration, Factionalism,” 132–52.

32. Robert B. Rhett Jr., “A Farewell to the Subscribers of the Charleston Mercury,” [late 1868], SCHS; William C. Davis, Rhett: The Turbulent Life and Times of a Fire-eater (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 556–57, 665n19.

33. Henry L. Swint, ed., Dear Ones at Home: Letters from Contraband Camps (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1966), 180; “Scenes in the Reconstructed South,” IND, Feb. 22, 1866; “Martyrs of the Race-Course,” HW, May 18, 1867; “Charleston, S.C.,” The Student and Schoolmate: An Illustrated Monthly for All Our Boys and Girls 17 (Mar. 1866): 98; Quartermaster General’s Office, Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers Who Died in Defense of the Union, Interred in the National Cemeteries (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 17: 7; Caroline Janney, Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 98–99; Maurie D. McInnis, The Politics of Taste in Antebellum Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 223–24; “A Federal Memorial Meeting,” CDN, June 1, 1868; A.J. Willard, “At Charleston, South Carolina,” in Frank Moore, Memorial Ceremonies at the Graves of Our Soldiers: Saturday, May 30, 1868 (Washington, DC:, n.p., 1869), 101–109.

34. “Decoration of the Graves of Federal Dead,” CDN, May 31, 1869; “Honors the Nation’s Dead: The Celebration at Charleston,” South Carolina Weekly Republican, June 5, 1869; Memorial Ceremonies on the Occasion of Decorating the Graves of the Federal Dead at Magnolia Cemetery, May 29th, 1869 (Charleston: Republican Job Office, 1869), 3; “The Union Dead,” CDN, May 31, 1870; “Decoration of the Graves of the Federal Dead,” CC, May 31, 1870.

35. Memorial Ceremonies on the Occasion of Decorating the Graves, 6–7; “Union Dead”; “Decoration of the Graves of the Federal Dead.”

36. “Honors to the Federal Dead,” CC, June 1, 1868; “A National Cemetery in South Carolina,” NYTR, July 17, 1869; “A National Cemetery,” CDN, Aug. 25, 1869; Roll of Honor, 17: 7; John R. Neff, Honoring the Civil War Dead: Commemoration and the Problem of Reconciliation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), 138; Mark Hughes, Bivouac of the Dead (Westminster, MD: Heritage Books, 2008), 240; Willard, “At Charleston, South Carolina,” 101; “Jottings About the State,” CDN, Jan. 27, 1873; “Memorial Day,” CNC, May 11, 1875; “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 9, 1877; “South Carolina Society,” AM 39 (June 1877): 683.

37. Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008), 77–78; “Emancipation Celebration,” CDN, Jan. 3, 1871; Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post–Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 134; “Mayor’s Office,” CC, May 20, 1843.

38. “Emancipation Day,” FLN, Feb. 3, 1877; “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1874; “A Humiliating Spectacle,” Orangeburg Times, Jan. 22, 1874; “The Emancipation Celebration,” CDN, Jan. 3, 1871; “Emancipation Day,” CDN, Jan. 2, 1872; “The Glorious Fourth,” CDN, July 5, 1872; “The Day of Jubilee,” CDN, Jan. 2, 1873; “Independence Day,” CNC, July 5, 1873; “The Fourth in the City,” CNC, July 6, 1874; “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1875; “The Fourth in the City,” CNC, July 5, 1876; “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 9, 1877; Adam Rothman, “‘This Special Picnic’: The Fourth of July in Charleston, South Carolina, 1865–1900,” May 1995, unpublished paper in authors’ possession, 16; Kathleen Ann Clark, Defining Moments: African American Commemoration and Political Culture in the South, 1863–1913 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 126–27; Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), 265–313.

39. “The Glorious Fourth,” CDN, July 5, 1872.

40. “The Day of Jubilee”; “Independence Day,” CNC, July 6, 1873; “The Fourth in the City,” CNC, July 6, 1874; “The Fourth in the City,” CNC, July 5, 1876; “The Glorious Fourth”; Shane White and Graham White, The Sounds of Slavery: Discovering African American History Through Songs, Sermons, and Speech (Boston: Beacon Press, 2005), 111–14, 171–72; Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 16–17, 37–38, 164–65; Rothman, “‘This Special Picnic,’” 18–19; Jeffery Strickland, “African-American Public Rituals on the Fourth of July and Citizenship in South Carolina during Reconstruction,” Citizenship Studies 10 (Feb. 2006): 106–8.

41. “The Observance of the Glorious Fourth,” CDN, July 5, 1871; “The Glorious Fourth”; Holt, Black over White, 54; “Humiliating Spectacle”; CDR, July 5, 1870, quoted in Jeffery G. Strickland, “Ethnicity and Race in the Urban South: German Immigrants and African-Americans in Charleston, South Carolina, during Reconstruction” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2003), 146n77; “The Emancipation Celebration,” CDN, Jan. 3, 1871.

42. Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, “Affairs in South Carolina,” in A Brighter Coming Day: A Frances Ellen Watkins Harper Reader, ed. Frances Smith Foster (New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1990), 124; CC, Sept. 3, 1869.

43. N.R. Middleton to his daughter, July 6, [ca. 1866], Folder 29, Box 2, NRMP; Jenkins, Seizing the Day, 40; “The Fourth of July,” CDN, July 9, 1866.

44. “South Carolina,” NYT, Jan. 7, 1867; Jenkins, Seizing the Day, 107; “City Affairs,” CC, July 5, 1869; “The Fourth,” CC, July 6, 1869.

45. Jacob F. Schirmer, diary, July 4, [1866], July 4, 1867, July 4, [1871], July 4, [1872], Jan. 1, 1870, Jan. 1, 1872, SFJR.

46. “Mills House,” Charleston, SC, Minutes, May 14, 1866, p. 1, LMAR; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 92–95; Gaines M. Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 38–39, 44, 220n23; Alice A. Gaillard Palmer, “South Carolina, Ladies’ Memorial Association of Charleston, South Carolina,” in History of the Confederate Memorial Associations of the South (New Orleans: Graham Press, 1904), 241; A Brief History of the Ladies’ Memorial Association of Charleston, S.C. (Charleston: H. P. Cooke & Co., 1880), 5; “Celebration of the Sixteenth of June, in Memory of the Confederate Dead,” CDN, June 18, 1866; “South Carolina,” NYT, July 14, 1866.

47. “Survivors’ Association of Charleston District,” CDN, Nov. 2, 1866; “The Survivors’ Association,” CM, Nov. 23, 1866; “The Survivors’ Association—No. 2,” CM, Nov. 29, 1866; “Survivors’ Association—No. 3,” CM, Dec. 4, 1866; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 279; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 96–97.

48. “Gen. Sickles’ Report,” CDN, Dec. 7, 1866; “Ladies’ Memorial Association,” CC, June 6, 1867; “Semicentennial Celebration in Charleston,” Confederate Veteran 24 (July 1916): 326–27; Minutes, n.d., pp. 14, 26, 67–68, LMAR; Brief History of the Ladies’ Memorial Association, 9; Thomas J. Brown, Civil War Canon: Sites of Confederate Memory in South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 69–71; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 97–98.

49. Confederate Memorial Day at Charleston, S.C., . . . (Charleston: William G. Mazyck, Printers, 1871); “The Survivors’ Association,” KC, Oct. 8, 1869; “Survivor’s Association of Charleston District,” CC, Nov. 11, 1869; “The Survivors of the War,” CDN, Nov. 19, 1869; “The State Survivors’ Association,” AI, Nov. 25, 1869; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 140; Sam Jones to [Edward McCrady Jr.], Mar. 21, 1871, Folder 6, SASCR; David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001), 261.

50. Edward A. Pollard, The Lost Cause; A New Southern History of the War of the Confederates (New York: E.B. Treat & Co., 1866); Blight, Race and Reunion, 258–59, 273–74; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 136–37; Alan T. Nolan, “The Anatomy of a Myth,” in The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History, ed. Gary W. Gallagher and Alan T. Nolan (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2000), 11–34.

51. John Hammond Moore, ed., The Juhl Letters to the Charleston Courier: A View of the South, 1865–1871 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1974), 21; [John Bell Hood], address to South Carolina Survivors’ Association, [Dec. 12, 1872], Folder 13, SASCR; Blight, Race and Reunion, 2; “Address of Rev. Dr. Bachman Before the Ladies’ Association to Commemorate the Confederate Dead,” CDN, May 17, 1866.

52. “Memorial Celebration,” CDN, May 11, 1871; Confederate Memorial Day, 8, 17, 22; Edger, South Carolina, 422–23.

53. Blight, Race and Reunion, 79–80; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 148–53.

54. John S. Preston, untitled address, [Nov. 10], 1870, Folder 12, SASCR; “The State Survivors’ Association,” CDN, Nov. 12, 1870; Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 68–75.

55. Davis, Rhett, 556–57, 570, 586, 665n19; William C. Davis, ed., A Fire-Eater Remembers: The Confederate Memoir of Robert Barnwell Rhett (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000), xvii, 13, 16, 111n24 (Rhett quote).

56. George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 213; Yael Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 10; Baker, What Reconstruction Meant, 8–10; Thavolia Glymph, “‘Liberty Dearly Bought’: The Making of Civil War Memory in Afro-American Communities in the South,” in Time Longer Than Rope: A Century of African American Activism, 1850–1950, ed. Charles M. Payne and Adam Green (New York: New York University Press, 2003), 116.

57. Blight, Race and Reunion, 51–52, 102–3; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 126–32; Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 357–58, 450n29; Stephen Budiansky, The Bloody Shirt: Terror after the Civil War (New York: Viking, 2008), 2–3.

58. R.W.E., letter to the editor, FP, Apr. 11, 1868; “Taxation Without Representation Is Tyranny,” FP, Apr. 11, 1868; “How Radicalism Is Bolstered Up,” CDN, Aug. 24, 1868; “A Radical Campaign Document,” CDN, Aug. 24, 1868.

59. “The Custom House War,” CC, July 29, 1869; Hine, “Frustration, Factionalism,” 146; “Speech of Hon. A.J. Ransier,” CDN, Supplement, Oct. 8, 1870; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction, 447–48.

60. “Speech of Hon. A.J. Ransier”; “Public Meetings,” FP, Apr. 5, 1868; Abbot, For Free Press and Equal Rights, 83.

61. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 291–92 (quote 292).

62. “The Parrot Cry of the Ring,” CNC, Oct. 23, 1874; CDN, Oct. 14, 1870.

63. Sass, Outspoken, 40; “Parrot Cry of the Ring”; “A Ring Lie Nailed—Georgetown Solid for Green and Delany,” CNC, Nov. 2, 1874; “The New Alliance,” CNC, Nov. 7, 1874; “Burying the Dead Past,” CNC, Nov. 11, 1874.

64. “Who Brought Negroes to Charleston and Sold Them as Slaves,” CM, Oct. 10, 1868; “Phases of State History,” CNC, May 20, 1876.

65. “The Party of Revolution,” CC, Aug. 19, 1868; James Oakes, Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865 (New York: Norton, 2012), 483–85; Carter, When the War Was Over, 84–85.

66. Charles Reagan Wilson, “Foreword” to Vale of Tears: New Essays in Religion and Reconstruction, ed. Edward J. Blum and W. Scott Poole (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005), vii; Carole Emberton, Beyond Redemption: Race, Violence, and the American South after the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 14; Edmund L. Drago, Hurrah for Hampton! Black Shirts in South Carolina During Reconstruction (Fayetteville: University Press of Arkansas, 1999), 7–13; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 174–80.

67. Benjamin Perry, “Who Freed the Slaves?” CNC, Sept. 27, 1876.

68. “Hampton at Chester,” CNC, Oct. 17, 1876; “The Summerville Precinct Democratic Club,” CNC, Sept. 19, 1876.

69. Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 174–75, 190–97; Edgar, South Carolina, 402–6; Drago, Hurrah for Hampton, 43.

70. Foner, Reconstruction, 580–82; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 197–201; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 300–301; Edgar, South Carolina, 405–9.

71. “State Politics,” CNC, Aug. 10, 1880.

72. “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 9, 1877; “Emancipation Day,” FLN, Feb. 3, 1877; “Emancipation Day in Charleston, South Carolina,” FLN, Feb. 10, 1877; “All Africa Was Here,” CNC, Jan. 3, 1892.

73. “A Hampton Fourth of July,” CNC, July 5, 1877; “Too-la-loo,” Winnsboro News and Herald, July 7, 1877; “The Glorious Fourth,” CNC, July 5, 1878; “The Colored Celebrants,” CNC, July 5, 1879; “The Fifth for the Fourth,” CNC, July 6, 1880; “‘The Fourth’ Under a Cloud,” CNC, July 5, 1881; “The Colored Troops,” CNC, July 5, 1881; “The Glorious Fourth,” CEP, July 3, 1897; George Tindall, South Carolina Negroes, 1877–1900 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1952), 286–88; “A Fin De Siecle Fourth,” CNC, July 5, 1895; “Now for ‘Glorious Fourth,’” CNC, July 4, 1906; Rothman, “‘This Special Picnic,’” 25.

74. See “Decoration Day at Beaufort,” CNC, June 11, 1880; and “At Hampstead Mall,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1889.

3. SETTING JIM CROW IN STONE

1. CNC, Sept. 3 and 4, 1886; “The Earthquake, 1886,” in City of Charleston Year Book—1886 (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1886), Appendix; Susan Millar Williams and Stephen G. Hoffius, Upheaval in Charleston: Earthquake and Murder on the Eve of Jim Crow (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), esp. 1–16, 53; Kenneth E. Peters, “Earthquakes,” in The South Carolina Encyclopedia, ed. Walter Edgar (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 281; “Out of the Depths,” CNC, Oct. 12, 1884; “Keep Off the Citadel Green,” CNC, Oct. 19, 1888.

2. “A Day of Gloom,” CNC, Sept. 3, 1886; “Life in the Camps,” CNC, Sept. 10, 1886.

3. Williams and Hoffius, Upheaval in Charleston, 138, 166, 184; “Here, There and Everywhere,” CNC, Sept. 10, 1886; “Other Places,” CNC, Sept. 6, 1886; A History of the Calhoun Monument at Charleston, S.C. (Charleston: Lucas Richardson, 1888), 36.

4. John C. Calhoun to Floride Calhoun, Oct. 1, 1807, in PJCC, 1: 38; Richard Hofstader, The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It (New York: Knopf, 1948), 94; George C. Rogers Jr., Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 167–68; Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 204; John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of the Union: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1988), xv, 157, 344 (“cast iron man” quote); Fredrika Bremer, The Homes of the New World: Impressions of America, translated by Mary Howitt (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1853), 1: 305.

5. Thomas J. Brown, “The Monumental Legacy of Calhoun,” in Memory of the Civil War in American Culture, ed. Alice Fahs and Joan Waugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 132–33; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. 1, Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 272–75.

6. Irving Bartlett, John C. Calhoun: A Biography (New York: Norton, 1993), 17, 27, 61, 217–28; Kelly, America’s Longest Siege, 173–74; John C. Calhoun to A[ugustin] S. Clayton and Others, Athens, Ga., Aug. 5, 1836, in PJCC, 13: 263; John C. Calhoun, “Remarks on Receiving Abolition Petitions (Revised Report),” in PJCC, 13: 395; Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 496–504; Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), esp. 84–117; John C. Calhoun, “Speech on the Slavery Question,” in PJCC, 27: 198.

7. Maurie D. McInnis, The Politics of Taste in Antebellum Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 151–56, 352n82; Richard P. Wunder, Hiram Powers: Vermont Sculptor, 1805–1873, vol. 2, Catalogue of Works (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1991), 115, 198; Charles Capper, Margaret Fuller: An American Romantic Life, vol. 2, The Public Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 503–12; Thomas J. Brown, Civil War Canon: Sites of Confederate Memory in South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 41–44.

8. “Narrative of the Funeral Honors Paid to the Hon. J.C. Calhoun, at Charleston, S.C.,” in The Carolina Tribute to Calhoun, ed. John Peyre Thomas (Columbia: Richard L. Bryan, 1857), 65–66; “Mr. Calhoun’s Last Speech,” CC, May 15, 1850; CC, May 15, 1850; CC, May 16, 1850; McInnis, Politics of Taste, 154; J[ohn] C. Calhoun [Jr.] to Governor W[hitemarsh] B. Seabrook, Apr. 19, 1850, in PJCC, 27: 259; “Postscript, April–August, 1850,” in PJCC, 27: 253; John Stillwell Jenkins, The Life of John Caldwell Calhoun (Auburn and Buffalo: John E. Beardsley, 1850), 444–45; “Grave of Calhoun,” CNC, Mar. 25, 1880; Brown, Civil War Canon, 40–41.

9. “An Ordinance,” CC, Oct. 28, 1850; “Arrival of the James Adger,” NYT, Mar. 23, 1854; “Honorable N.P. Tallmadge on Spiritual Matters,” CC, May 31, 1853; “Spiritual Manifestations,” CC, May 31, 1853; “The Ghostology Business,” CC, June 1, 1853; Brown, Civil War Canon, 39–41.

10. “South-Carolina Mourns for her Dead,” CC, Apr. 27, 1850; “Obsequies of Mr. Calhoun,” CM, Apr. 27, 1850; “Narrative of the Funeral Honors,” 78–82; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 228; Rogers, Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys, 167–68; McInnis, Politics of Taste, 153–54; Brown, “Monumental Legacy,” 133.

11. Bremer, Homes of the New World, 1: 305; Elijah Green, in ASCA, 2(2): 196; “Dug Grave for Calhoun,” newspaper clipping, [Jan. 5, 1940], OSMMP. See also Henry Brown, in ASCA, 2(1): 125.

12. James Redpath, “The Fall of Charleston,” NYTR, Mar. 2, 1865; “The Dark Iconoclast,” HW, Mar. 25, 1865, 178; Edmund L. Drago, ed., Broke by War: Letters of a Slave Trader (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 25n6.

13. “Calhoun’s Grave,” NYT, May 7, 1865; Henry Ward Beecher, “Narrative of His Trip to South Carolina,” IND, May 11, 1865; New York World, Apr. 25, 1865; William M. Meigs, The Life of John Caldwell Calhoun (1917; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), 2: 466.

14. “The Great Carolinian,” CNC, Apr. 26, 1887; “Carolina to Calhoun,” CNC, Nov. 15, 1884; Philip N. Racine, ed., Gentlemen Merchants: A Charleston Family’s Odyssey, 1828–1870 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2008), xiii–xxii; Mary Ringhold Spencer, “John C. Calhoun: Post Mortem,” Emory University Quarterly 11 (June 1955): 98–102; John N. Gregg, “Exhumation of the Body of John C. Calhoun 1863,” SCHM 57 (Jan. 1956): 57–58; “The Reinternment of John C. Calhoun,” CDN, Apr. 10, 1871.

15. “Carolina to Calhoun”; “Calhoun’s Remains,” NYT, Nov. 22, 1884; “The Bones of John C. Calhoun,” Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, Nov. 23, 1884; “A Joint Resolution Appropriating Funds for the Construction and Erection of a Sarcophagus for the Remains of John C. Calhoun,” in the Acts and Joint Resolutions of the General Assembly of the State of South Carolina, Passed at the Regular Session of 1883 (Columbia: Charles A. Calvo Jr., State Printer, 1884), 661; “The Grave of Calhoun,” CNC, Nov. 15, 1884.

16. Brown, Civil War Canon, 45–63; History of the Calhoun Monument; “Narrative of the Funeral Honors,” 65–66; “The Calhoun Monument,” CNC (Supplement), Apr. 29, 1882; “Proceedings of the Council,” CC, July 10, 1854.

17. William Gilmore Simms, “Charleston, The Palmetto City,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 15 (June 1857): 12; Brown, “Monumental Legacy,” 138; “The Calhoun Monument,” CNC (Supplement); John P. Radford, “Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 4 (Oct. 1976): 333–34; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 228–29.

18. History of the Calhoun Monument, 14.

19. McInnis, Politics of Taste, 155–58; “Postscript, April–August, 1850,” 253–54; Brown, “Monumental Legacy,” 133–34, 142; Anna Wells Rutledge, Artists in the Life of the Charleston: Through Colony and State, From Restoration to Reconstruction (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1949), 146; Anna Wells Rutledge, Catalogue of Paintings and Sculpture in Council Chamber, City Hall, Charleston, South Carolina (Charleston: The City Council of Charleston, ca. 1943), 33; Harlan Greene, “Charleston or Bust!” Charleston Magazine, Apr. 2011, charlestonmag.com/features/charleston_or_bust. The Mills bust, which had been removed from City Hall by Charleston’s first Republican mayor, Gilbert Pillsbury, was returned in 1931 by Thomas E. Miller.

20. History of the Calhoun Monument, 28–29, 32, 36; “The Calhoun Monument,” CNC, June 16, 1885; “Placed on the Pedestal,” CNC, Feb. 17, 1887; “The Calhoun Monument,” CNC, Feb. 15, 1887.

21. Brown, Civil War Canon, 81–82; “Calhoun’s Wife,” CEP, Dec. 15, 1894; “Thanksgiving Day,” CNC, Nov. 29, 1895; “‘He Wife’s’ Turn Next,” CNC, Nov. 29, 1895. Three of the four allegorical figures were to echo the motto from Powers’s sculpture of Calhoun—“Truth, Justice, and the Constitution”—a motto that Powers indicated was chosen by the senator himself. McInnis, Politics of Taste, 152.

22. Minutes, n.d., p.26, LMAR; “Thirty Years After,” CNC, July 21, 1891; “The Memory of Manassas,” CNC, July 22, 1891; “The Ripley Monument,” CNC, Apr. 2, 1893; “Survivor’s Association of Charleston County,” CNC, Apr. 3, 1893; Robert N. Rosen, Confederate Charleston: Illustrated History of the City and the People during the Civil War (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1994), 161; Alexander Baring, My Recollections, 1848–1931 (Santa Barbara, CA: Schauer Printing, 1933), 27–28.

23. Kirk Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 129; Thomas J. Brown, The Public Art of Civil War Commemoration: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 2004), 5.

24. Archibald H. Grimké, “John Caldwell Calhoun,” 31–32, 12, Folder 334, Box 18, AGP; Dickson D. Bruce, Archibald Grimké: Portrait of a Black Independent (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 18–49.

25. “At Washington,” Huntsville Gazette, Apr. 30, 1887; Joan Waugh, U.S. Grant: American Hero, American Myth (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 279.

26. Mamie Garvin Fields with Karen Fields, Lemon Swamp and Other Places: A Carolina Memoir (New York: Free Press, 1983), 57; W. Fitzhugh Brundage, “Meta Warrick’s 1907 ‘Negro Tableaux’ and (Re)Presenting African American Historical Memory,” JAH 89 (Mar. 2003): 1369.

27. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 308; Charles J. Holden, In the Great Maelstrom: Conservatives in Post–Civil War South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 51–57; Walter Edgar, South Carolina: A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), 414–15; Hyman S. Rubin III, “Eight Box Law,” in South Carolina Encyclopedia, 292; C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 32–33.

28. “Calhoun Unveiled,” CNC, Apr. 27, 1887; “A Tribute to Calhoun,” NYT, Apr. 27, 1887; “Unveiling of His Statue,” BS, Apr. 27, 1887; “Doing Honor to Calhoun,” NYTR, Apr. 27, 1887; “The Earthquaked City,” NYF, May 7, 1887.

29. “Calhoun Unveiled”; “The Great Carolinian,” CNC, Apr. 26, 1887; “The Calhoun Monument,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Apr. 22, 1887; Robert K. Ackerman, Wade Hampton III (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2007), 199; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 524–25; Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2006), 67–69, 104–34, 180–81.

30. “Calhoun Unveiled”; L.Q.C. Lamar, “Oration on the Life, Character and Public Services of the Hon. John C. Calhoun, Delivered before the Ladies’ Calhoun Monument Association and the Public,” in History of the Calhoun Monument, 102–4.

31. “Doing Honor to Calhoun”; “A Tribute to Calhoun”; Henry S. Holmes, diary, Dec. 2, 1895, pp. 16, 20, CLS.

32. “Charleston News,” NYF, May 28, 1887.

33. Ibid.; “All Around Town,” CNC, June 2, 1887; “The Calhoun Monument,” CNC, Oct. 31, 1895; “The New Monument,” CNC, Dec. 15, 1895; “A Picture in Bronze,” CNC, June 10, 1896; “All Around Town,” CNC, Dec. 2, 1895; “Backward Glances,” CNC, Dec. 2, 1945; “The Calhoun Monuments,” HW, Apr. 3, 1897; Brown, “Monumental Legacy,” 148; Williams and Hoffius, Upheaval in Charleston, 183; “The City by the Sea,” Augusta Chronicle, Mar. 8, 1890; Holmes, diary, Dec. 2, 1895, p. 20.

34. “All About Town,” CNC, Feb. 12, 1888; “A Vandal’s Work,” CNC, Sept. 5, 1893; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Lowcountry Hurricanes: Three Centuries of Storms at Sea and Ashore (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 179–82.

35. “Calhoun’s Wife,” CEP, Dec. 15, 1894; “The Dangerous Toy Pistol,” CNC, Dec. 14, 1894; “Caught the Little Rascals,” CNC, Dec. 15, 1894.

36. “Arrival of the New Statue,” CNC, June 9, 1896; “Thanksgiving Day,” CNC, Nov. 29, 1895; “The Calhoun Monument,” Oct. 31, 1895; “‘He Wife’s’ Turn Next”; “Under the Post’s Eyes,” CEP, Dec. 3, 1895; “Pythian Castle Hall,” CEP, Aug. 6, 1896; “Sold As Old Metal,” CEP, Aug. 8, 1896; Brown, Civil War Canon, 85–86.

37. “Arrival of the New Statue”; “Completing the Monument,” CNC, June 11, 1896; “Work on the Monument,” CNC, June 12, 1896; “Calhoun on Top,” CEP, June 27, 1896; “Elevating Calhoun,” CNC, June 28, 1896; “John C. Calhoun’s Statue,” NYT, June 3, 1896; “The Calhoun Monuments,” HW, Apr. 2, 1897. The first monument was between 48 feet and 59 feet high, while the second is 115 feet tall. “In Memory of Calhoun,” Boston Daily Globe, Apr. 26, 1887; “Unveiling of His Statue,” BS, Apr. 27, 1887; “The Great Carolinian,” CNC, Apr. 26, 1887; Conservation Solutions, Inc., “John C. Calhoun Monument Conservation—Marion Square,” conservationsolutionsinc.com/projects/view/374/john-c-calhoun-monument-conservation-marion-square.

38. “Appendix to the History of the Calhoun Monument, Published in 1888” [1898], 2, off-print, Calhoun Pamphlet #5 ½, Published Materials Division, SCL; “The Calhoun Monument,” CNC, Nov. 17, 1889; Henry S. Holmes, diary, Dec. 2, 1895, p. 21; “All Around Town,” CNC, Dec. 2, 1895.

39. “‘He Wife’s’ Turn Next”; Brown, “Monumental Legacy,” 148.

40. Edmund L. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations: Charleston’s Avery Normal Institute (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 6; Fields, Lemon Swamp, 57.

41. Karen Fields, “What One Cannot Remember Mistakenly,” in History and Memory in African-American Culture, ed. Genevieve Fabre and Robert O’Meally (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 156–58; “Carolina to Calhoun”; “A Cantankerous Crank,” CNC, May 19, 1887; Timothy Messer-Kruse, The Haymarket Conspiracy: Transatlantic Anarchist Networks (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 100–105.

42. “Concerning Chalk Marks,” CNC, Dec. 2, 1894; “Calhoun’s Wife,” CEP, Dec. 15, 1894; Year Book, 1894, City of Charleston, So. Ca. (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1895), 195; Brown, “Monumental Legacy,” 156n57.

43. Brown, Civil War Canon, 84–85; Anne E. Marshall, “The 1906 Uncle Tom’s Cabin Law and the Politics of Race and Memory in Early-Twentieth-Century Kentucky,” JCWE 1 (Sept. 2011): 377; Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves, 7.

44. Daniel Ravenel, Historical Commission of Charleston, to Mayor and Aldermen of the City of Charleston, June 24, 1946, in Year Book, 1945: City of Charleston, South Carolina (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1948), 167; Historical Commission of Charleston, Minutes, Nov. 18, 1937, Mar. 31, 1938, Dec. 30, 1938, Feb. 2, 1939, Nov. 7, 1939, Feb. 15, 1945, Sept. 25, 1947, Box 2, RHCC; City of Charleston Year Book, 1939 (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1941), 148; Lucille A. Williams, interview by Edmund L. Drago, Sept. 25, 1984, Folder 69, Box 3, ELDP; Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 6, 187.

45. Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), esp. 91–115; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 336.

46. Fields, Lemon Swamp, 57; “South Carolina’s Condition,” Savannah Tribune, Apr. 7, 1894.

4. CRADLE OF THE LOST CAUSE

1. “The Survivors’ Association,” CNC, Apr. 13, 1886; “Charleston’s Ex-Confeds.,” CNC, Oct. 8, 1889; “Charleston’s Veterans,” CNC, Apr. 13, 1891; A Brief History of the Ladies’ Memorial Association of Charleston, S.C. (Charleston: H. P. Cooke & Co., 1880); “Memorial Day in Charleston,” CEP, May 10, 1897. The Citadel, which had been occupied by federal troops from 1865 until 1879, was reopened in 1882 after a lengthy campaign on the part of alumni. Alexander Macaulay, Marching in Step: Masculinity, Citizenship, and The Citadel in Post-World War II America (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 12–13.

2. “‘Camp Sumter,’” CNC, May 19, 1893; “Fall In, Veterans,” CNC, Feb. 2, 1893; “The Survivors’ Association,” CNC, July 14, 1893; “The Confederate Veterans,” CNC, Aug. 3, 1893; “The Sons of Veterans,” CNC, Nov. 14, 1894; “The Sons of Veterans,” CNC, June 15, 1896; “The Daughters of the Confederacy,” CNC, Oct. 28, 1894; “Letters from the People,” CNC, Nov. 11, 1894; Belinda Friedman Gergel, “Irene Goldsmith Kohn: An Assimilated ‘New South’ Daughter and Jewish Women’s Activism in Early Twentieth-Century South Carolina,” in South Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times, ed. Marjorie Julian Spruill, Valinda W. Littlefield, and Joan Marie Johnson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 2: 198; W. Scott Poole, Never Surrender: Confederate Memory and Conservatism in the South Carolina Upcountry (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004), 185–86.

3. “Veterans in Convention,” CNC, May 11, 1899; Minutes of the Ninth Annual Meeting and Reunion of the United Confederate Veterans, Held in the City of Charleston, S.C. (New Orleans: Hopkins’ Printing Office, 1900), 11–18; “Colonel Cornelius Irvine Walker,” in Confederate Military History, vol. 5, South Carolina, ed. Ellison Capers (Atlanta: Confederate Publishing Company, 1899), 887–89; “The Thompson Auditorium,” CEP, Mar. 3, 1899; “Confederates at Charleston,” Idaho Statesman, May 11, 1899; CNC, Feb. 9, 1900; CEP, Apr. 8, 1905; “Confederate Museum Puzzle,” CNC, Apr. 20, 1910; Walter H. Page to Horace E. Scudder, Mar. 18, 1899, in The Training of an American: The Earlier Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, 1855–1913, ed. Burton J. Hendrick (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928), 396.

4. Thomas J. Brown, Civil War Canon: Sites of Confederate Memory in South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 11–18, 69–70; “Confederate Home Honors Soldiers,” CNC, Jan. 16, 1939, in MASS; Christine Blanton, “Life of Mary Amarinthia Snowden,” Preservation Progress 37 (Fall 1994): 7–11; Edmund L. Drago, Confederate Phoenix: Rebel Children and their Families in South Carolina (New York: Fordham University Press, 2010), 106–7.

5. “A Wanton Lie,” CNC, Jan. 26, 1885; Louise Anderson Allen, A Bluestocking in Charleston: The Life and Career of Laura Bragg (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 61–62; John Bennett, “Reminiscences of Charleston,” [1920], n.p. Folder 1, Box 143, JBP; “Memorial Day,” CNC, May 3, 1889.

6. Scholars of Civil War memory have focused primarily on cities such as Richmond, Atlanta, and New Orleans and states such as Virginia, Georgia, Kentucky, and Louisiana, rather than Charleston. Charles Reagan Wilson, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980); Gaines Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Caroline E. Janney, Burying the Dead But Not the Past: Ladies’ Memorial Associations & the Lost Cause (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Anne E. Marshall, Creating a Confederate Kentucky: The Lost Cause and Civil War Memory in a Border State (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); William A. Link, Atlanta, Cradle of the New South: Race and Remembering in the Civil War’s Aftermath (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013). Exceptions to this rule are Poole, Never Surrender and Brown, Civil War Canon.

7. E. Culpeppper Clark, Francis Warrington Dawson and the Politics of Restoration South Carolina, 1874–1889 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1980), 9–33; Frank Dawson to his mother, Oct. 26, 1867, Box 6, FWDP.

8. Dale B.J. Randall, Joseph Conrad and Warrington Dawson: The Record of a Friendship (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1968), 9; Carl R. Osthaus, Partisans of the Southern Press: Editorial Spokesmen of the Nineteenth Century (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994), 159–60; N.W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual (Philadelphia: N.W. Ayer & Son, 1880), 328, 337, 656, 1273; Patricia G. McNeely, Debbra Reddin van Tuyll, and Henry H. Schulte, Knights of the Quill: Confederate Correspondents and their Civil War Reporting (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2010), 136–38; Clark, Francis Warrington Dawson, 30; Robert Hilliard Woody, Republican Newspapers of South Carolina (Charlottesville, VA: Historical Publishing, 1936), 52.

9. Clark, Francis Warrington Dawson, 13–23; “James C. Hemphill,” National Cyclopaedia of American Biography (New York: James T. White & Co., 1895), 2: 29–30; “News and Courier to Lose Its Editor,” CEP, Jan. 10, 1910; “Mr Hemphill Guest of Honor,” CNC, Feb. 11, 1910; “How the Palmetto State Aided at the Unveiling,” CNC, May 31, 1890; “Let the Good Work Go On,” CNC, Aug. 11, 1898.

10. “Two Stories of Brave Men,” CNC, Jan. 23, 1880; “No More ‘A Nameless Hero,’” CNC, Feb. 6, 1880; “An Undying Principle,” CNC, Dec. 30, 1886; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 159–88, 237; “The New South Nonsense,” CNC, May 8, 1893.

11. “For the Sake of the Truth of History,” CNC, June 25, 1885; “Gen. Lee on the Object of the War,” CNC, May 5, 1885.

12. “The Objects of the Confederate War—What Were They?” CNC, June 25, 1885; James D.B. DeBow, The Interest in Slavery of the Southern Non-Slaveholder (Charleston: Evans & Cogswell, 1860), 3–4.

13. Link, Atlanta, 138–42; Harold E. Davis, Henry Grady’s New South: Atlanta, A Brave & Beautiful City (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990), 134; “Mr. Davis and the South,” AC, Jan. 24, 1882.

14. “Mr. Davis and his Maligners,” CNC, Feb. 4, 1882; “Contemporaries in a Muddle,” AC, Feb. 8, 1882.

15. “The War and Slavery,” CNC, Feb. 18, 1882.

16. “Lincoln and Louisianans,” CNC, July 12, 1894. See also “President Polk on the War,” CNC, July 29, 1891; and “What Lincoln Fought for,” CNC, Aug. 3, 1891.

17. Charles J. Holden, In the Great Maelstrom: Conservatives in Post–Civil War South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 64–65; “An Active, Useful Life,” CNC, Nov. 2, 1903; Vernon W. Crane, “Edward McCrady,” Dictionary of American Biography, vol. 12 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933), 1–2; Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy, 49–62; Richard Starnes, “Forever Faithful: The Southern Historical Society and Confederate Historical Memory,” Southern Cultures 2 (Winter 1996): 177–94.

18. Edward McCrady Jr., “Address of Colonel Edward McCrady, Jr. Before Company A (Gregg’s Regiment), First S.C. Volunteers, at the Reunion at Williston, Barnwell County, S.C., 14th July, 1882,” in South Carolina Historical Society Papers 16 (1888): 246–47.

19. David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001), 259; “Heroes of the South,” CNC, May 11, 1900; “The State Survivors’ Association,” CC, Nov. 19, 1869; “One Day for Beauregard,” CNC, Apr. 8, 1893; Brown, Civil War Canon, 112–13; William Lee White and Charles Denny Runion, eds., Great Things Are Expected of Us: The Letters of Colonel C. Irvine Walker, 10th South Carolina Infantry (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), xix–xx; C. Irvine Walker, Guide to Charleston, S.C., with Brief History of the City and Map Thereof (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1919).

20. “Heroes of the South,” CNC, May 11, 1900. Newspaper references to Stephens in this period regularly mentioned his “cornerstone” speech. See, for example, “Death of Alexander H. Stephens,” Wisconsin State Journal, Mar. 13, 1883.

21. McCrady, “Address of Colonel Edward McCrady,” 246–52.

22. “Evangelist Varley’s Offence and Defence,” CNC, Apr. 9, 1885; “The Sin of Slavery,” CNC, Apr. 27, 1885. In response to a Camden insurrection scare, South Carolina did, in fact, ban the interstate slave trade in 1816. But state planters never considered abolishing slavery itself, and the controversial ban on the interstate slave trade lasted just three years. Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 189–92.

23. “Many Hear Col Robert E. Lee,” CNC, Jan. 20, 1909; Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy, 121, 249n1; “A Lee, of Virginia,” CNC, Jan. 22, 1909; Keystone 10 (Feb. 1909): 12.

24. “The Freedmen as Farmers,” CNC, Aug. 20, 1873.

25. “The W.L.I. Anniversary,” CNC, Feb. 24, 1879; Paul R. Begley, “Hugh Smith Thompson,” in The South Carolina Encyclopedia, ed. Walter Edgar (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 958.

26. “The Vesey Insurrection,” CNC, Dec. 13, 1885; Frank Dawson to his father, June 13, 1865, Box 6, FWDP; Clark, Francis Warrington Dawson, 182.

27. “A Century of Charleston,” CNC, Jan. 1, 1901; “The Good Old Days of Slavery,” CNC, Apr. 30, 1890.

28. “What the South Fought For and the Results of the War,” CEP, Apr. 28, 1905; Edward McCrady Jr., The History of South Carolina in the Revolution, 1775–1780 (New York: MacMillan Co., 1901), 296–97.

29. Holden, In the Great Maelstrom, 38, 48; Frederick A. Porcher, undated lecture, pp. 8–9, 11 Folder 2, Box 3, FAPP; Samuel Gaillard Stoney, ed., “The Memoirs of Frederick Adolphus Porcher,” SCHGM 46 (Oct. 1945): 200; Stephanie McCurry, Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 244–45.

30. Blight, Race and Reunion, 222–29, 284–91; Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998), 52–59; K. Stephen Prince, Stories of the South: Race and the Reconstruction of Southern Identity, 1865–1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 137–52; Micki McElya, Clinging to Mammy: The Faithful Slave in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 116–59; “Thousands Coming In,” CEP, May 10, 1899; “A Great Reunion,” BS, May 11, 1899; W.M. Grier, “A True and Faithful Slave,” CNC, May 5, 1899; Walter Duncan, “‘Uncle Jimmie,’ Faithful Friend: Devotion and Loyalty Recalled by Death of Aiken Negro,” CNC, Apr. 20, 1919.

31. [Alexander S. Salley], Secretary of the Historical Commission of South Carolina, to Louisa B. Poppenheim, Feb. 28, 1909, Box 2, PMBC; “Canonized Murder,” CNC, Oct. 28, 1900; “John Brown and Mrs Stowe,” CNC, Nov. 3, 1900.

32. “Harriet Beecher Stowe Again,” CC, Sept. 28, 1869; “New Books,” CNC, Sept. 27, 1885; Mary Esther Huger, “A Short, Simple Account of the Causes of the Civil War,” [1897–1898], p. 11, Folder 10, Box 1, HEP.

33. Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008), 21–43; “Slavery and Southern Hospitality,” CNC, Sept. 19, 1907.

34. “What the South Fought For”; “Senator Tillman’s Speech,” CNC, Mar. 5, 1903; Stephen Kantrowitz, Ben Tillman and the Reconstruction of White Supremacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 156–97, 280–81.

35. W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 82–84; “Provocation for Lynching,” CEP, Apr. 26, 1899.

36. “Distinguished Publicist Here,” CEP, Dec. 22, 1902; “An Honored Guest,” CNC, Dec. 24, 1902; Charles Francis Adams II, “The Ethics of Secession,” in his Studies Military and Diplomatic, 1775–1865 (New York: Macmillan Company, 1911), 203–31; Blight, Race and Reunion, 359–60.

37. “The Pious Fraud Theory,” CNC, Dec. 25, 1902; CEP, Dec. 27, 1902; “The Ethics of Secession,” Boston Herald, Dec. 27, 1902; CNC, Dec. 28, 1902; CEP, Dec. 30, 1902; Edward McCrady Jr. to Charles Francis Adams II, Sept. 10, 1902, Folder 15, Box 8, Reel 25, CFAP; Charles Francis Adams II to Edward McCrady Jr., Sept. 16, 1902, EMP.

38. Theodore Barker, “Address of Maj. Theo. G. Barker, delivered at a meeting of Camp Moultrie, Sons of Confederate Veterans, held on the evening of May 8th, 1895,” Folder 13, Box 291, TJFP.

39. James M. McPherson, “Long-Legged Yankee Lies: The Lost Cause Textbook Crusade,” in his This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 97; “The Old Soldiers Must Go,” CNC, Dec. 12, 1890.

40. Huger, “A Short, Simple Account,” 1; “Heroes of the South,” CNC, May 11, 1900.

41. Caroline E. Janney, Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 134, 183–85; Karen L. Cox, Dixie’s Daughters: The United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Preservation of Confederate Culture (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 2; Blight, Race and Reunion, 272–84; McPherson, “Long-Legged Yankee Lies,” 97–98; Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy, 116–19; Fred Arthur Bailey, “The Textbooks of the ‘Lost Cause’: Censorship and the Creation of Southern State Histories,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 75 (Fall 1991): 507–33; Herman Hattaway, “Clio’s Southern Soldiers: The United Confederate Veterans and History,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Society 12 (Summer 1971): 213–42; “In the Interest of History,” CNC, Jan. 4, 1903.

42. Hattaway, “Clio’s Southern Soldiers,” 218–19; Wilson, Baptized in Blood, 55–56; Dewitt Boyd Stone Jr., “Stephen Dill Lee,” in South Carolina Encyclopedia, 545; Joan Marie Johnson, Southern Ladies, New Women: Race, Region, and Clubwomen in South Carolina, 1890–1930 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 10–11, 24–59; Drago, Confederate Phoenix, 226–27; Joan Marie Johnson, ed., Southern Women at Vassar: The Poppenheim Family Letters, 1882–1916 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 1–4; Sidney R. Bland, “Promoting Tradition, Embracing Change: The Poppenheim Sisters of Charleston,” in Searching for a Place: Women in the South Across Four Centuries, ed. Thomas H. Appleton Jr. and Angela Boswell (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003), 182–89; “The W.L.I. Veterans,” CNC, Apr. 10, 1885; “A City in Mourning,” CNC, Dec. 12, 1889; Mary B. Poppenheim, Report of the Committee of Education: United Daughters of the Confederacy, Made at Savannah, Georgia, November 13, 1914 (Raleigh: Edwards & Broughton, 1914), 9; Minutes of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, Held in St. Louis, MO., October 4–8, 1904 (Nashville: Press of Foster & Webb, 1905), 197–99; “Editorial,” Keystone 11 (June 1900): 3.

43. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, Held in Baltimore, Maryland, November 10–12, 1897 (Nashville: Press of Foster & Webb, 1898), 37; Mary B. Poppenheim et al., The History of the United Daughters of the Confederacy (Richmond: Garrett and Massie, 1925), 135; Mary B. Poppenheim, “Daughters of the Confederacy,” Keystone 7 (Dec. 1899): 9.

44. “The Eighth Annual Convention of the South Carolina Division, U.D.C.,” Keystone 5 (Dec. 1903): 7; “An Account of the Ninth Annual Convention of the South Carolina Division, U.D.C., held November 29th to December 1st, 1904,” Keystone 6 (Jan. 1905): 11; Keystone 7 (Dec. 1905): 15; Keystone 6 (Mar. 1905): 10; “In the Interest of History”; “Historical Programs,” Keystone 11 (Nov. 1909): 9.

45. “United Daughters of the Confederacy, State Division of South Carolina,” Keystone 5 (May 1904): 6; “Extract from the Report of Miss Rebecca Alston to the Daughters of the Confederacy,” Keystone 1 (June 1899): 11–12; “The Daughters of the Confederacy,” Keystone 8 (Jan. 1900): 5; “Daughters of the Confederacy. Charleston Chapter,” Keystone 10 (Mar. 1900): 10.

46. Keystone 6 (Mar. 1905): 10; “List of Books which Are Commended for Southern Libraries,” Keystone 9 (Apr. 1908): 11–13.

47. “Notable Work of the Women,” CNC, Feb. 7, 1904; Wilson, Baptized in Blood, 126; “List of Books which Are Commended for Southern Libraries,” Keystone 9 (Apr. 1908): 11–13; Edward Eggleston, A History of the United States and Its People (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1888), 310.

48. Keystone 7 (Dec. 1905): 15; CEP, Feb. 22, 1905; “Change of School Books,” CEP, Sept. 25, 1907; Waddy Thompson, A History of the United States (Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., 1904), 341–43.

49. Cox, Dixie’s Daughters, 90; Poppenheim, Report on the Committee of Education, 10; Minutes of the Twenty-Third Annual Convention of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, held in Dallas, Texas, November 8 to 11, 1916 (Raleigh, NC: Edwards & Broughton, 1917), 69–70.

50. Bruce E. Baker, “Mary Chevillette Simms Oliphant,” in South Carolina Encyclopedia, 682; Baker, What Reconstruction Meant, 168; “School Books Are Adopted for State,” CNC, June 23, 1917; “Various Factors in Selection of Books,” CNC, June 24, 1917; William Gilmore Simms, The History of South Carolina, revised and updated by Mary C. Simms Oliphant (Columbia: State Company, Printers, 1917), 239, 255.

51. Amy L. Heyse, “Teachers of the Lost Cause: The United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Rhetoric of Their Catechisms” (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 2006), 33–37, 175–77, 261–63, 274–75, 296–97, 310–11.

52. Minutes, June 3, 1915, p. 208, and “Report of the President of the Ladies’ Memorial Association, Charleston, S.C, June 5, 1916” in Minutes, June 5, 1916, p.3 [after p. 223], both in LMAR; Blight, Race and Reunion, 70–71; “Mrs. Videau Marion Legare Beckwith,” in Lineage Book: National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution (Washington, DC: National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, 1915), 40: 279.

53. “Flower-Strewn Graves,” New York Evening Post, May 14, 1867; “A Yankee Custom Borrowed By Rebels,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, May 17, 1867; Janney, Remembering the Civil War, 98–99; “Honors to the Dead,” NYT, June 5, 1868; “Commemoration Day,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, May 31, 1869; “The Origins of Decoration Day,” Burlington Free Press, June 3, 1881; “The First Decoration Day,” Boston Herald, June 1, 1899; John Redpath, letter to the editor, NYT, May 27, 1916.

54. Charles J. Holden, “‘Is Our Love for Wade Hampton Foolishness?’ South Carolina and the Lost Cause,” in The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History, ed. Gary W. Gallagher and Alan T. Nolan (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2000), 60–61, 67–74; Clyde Breese, How Grand a Flame: A Chronicle of a Plantation Family, 1831–1947 (Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1992), 166; Rod Andrew Jr., Wade Hampton: Confederate Warrior to Southern Redeemer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 323–27.

55. “Memorial Exercises,” CNC, Apr. 11, 1902; “Charleston’s Tribute,” CNC, Apr. 13, 1902; “Many Eloquent Tributes,” CNC, Apr. 14, 1902; “Let Charleston Honor Hampton,” CNC, Apr. 13, 1902; “Monuments to Hampton,” CNC, Apr. 18, 1902; “Our Own Hampton Monument,” CNC, Apr. 18, 1902; “Erect It On Citadel Square,” CNC, Apr. 18, 1902; Baker, What Reconstruction Meant, 39–40.

56. Year Book, 1903, City of Charleston, So. Ca. (Charleston: Daggett Printing Co., 1904), 144; Kevin R. Eberle, A History of Charleston’s Hampton Park (Charleston: History Press, 2012), 75; John P. Radford, “Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-nineteenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 2 (Oct. 1976): 333–46; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 338; Mamie Garvin Fields with Karen Fields, Lemon Swamp and Other Places: A Carolina Memoir (New York: Free Press 1983), 57. An obelisk in honor of Wade Hampton was also installed in Marion Square in 1912. “Shaft of Granite in Hero’s Memory,” CEP, Mar. 29, 1912. The segregation of Hampton Park was by custom rather than law, despite early appeals to formally ban African Americans from the park. “Hampton Park for Whites,” CEP, Sept. 29, 1903; “The Negroes and the Parks,” CEP, Oct. 3, 1903; “Separate Park for the Negroes,” CEP, Oct. 7, 1903.

5. BLACK MEMORY IN THE IVORY CITY

1. T. Cuyler Smith, “The Charleston Exposition,” IND, Jan. 16, 1902.

2. “Things of Beauty,” The Exposition, Oct. 1901; “The West Indian Building,” CNC, Oct. 4, 1901.

3. W.D. Parsons, “Charleston and the Exposition with Impressions of the South,” Inter-State Journal: An Illustrated Monthly of the Connecticut Valley 4–5 (Mar.–Apr. 1902): n.p.; “Charleston and Her ‘West Indian Exposition,’” American Monthly Review of Reviews 25 (Jan. 1902): 60; “A Trip to Hampton Park,” CNC, Aug. 14, 1903; Moses P. Handy, ed., The Official Directory of the World’s Columbian Exposition, May 1st to October 30th, 1893: A Reference Book (Chicago: W.B. Conkey Co., 1893), 203–4; “Making an Exposition,” CNC, July 28, 1901; Bradford Lee Gilbert to Booker T. Washington, June 4, 1901, in the Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 6, 1901–1902, ed. Louis R. Harlan and Raymond Smock (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 145.

4. “The Negro Group Will Be Removed,” CEP, Nov. 8, 1901.

5. Thomas E. Miller to Booker T. Washington, Oct. 12, 1901, Container 187, Reel 187, BTWP; “A $1,000 Gift,” Cleveland Gazette, Feb. 8, 1902.

6. “Charleston and Its Exposition,” NYT, Dec. 1, 1901.

7. Miller to Washington, Oct. 12, 1901. Reports on Washington’s opinion about the controversy are conflicting. “Mr. Washington’s Lecture,” CNC, Sept. 13, 1901; “A Leader of His People,” CNC, Sept. 12, 1901; “Negro Group Will Be Removed”; “Offensive Statue Removed,” AC, Nov. 12, 1901; “Negroes Protest Against a Statue” AC, Nov. 2, 1901; “The Group of Negro Life in the South,” NYTR, Nov. 3, 1901.

8. “Rev. O.D. Robinson, D.D.,” in Horace Talbert, The Sons of Allen: Together with a Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, Ohio (Xenia, OH: Aldine Press, 1906), 176–77; Bernard E. Powers Jr., Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 206; “The West Indian Show,” Colored American 9 (June 29, 1901): 8; “Charleston Notes,” Savannah Tribune, Aug. 17, 1901; “Negroes Protest Against Statue”; J.C. Hemphill, “A Short History of the South Carolina Inter-state and West Indian Exposition,” in Year Book, 1902: City of Charleston, So. Ca. (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1903), 139.

9. CNC, Oct. 24, 1901; “A Veritable Work of Art,” CNC, Oct. 25, 1901; KC, Nov. 13, 1901; “The Negro Group,” CEP, Nov. 7, 1901 (Macon Telegraph quote).

10. “The Negro Group,” The Exposition, Nov. 1901.

11. Hemphill, “A Short History,” 107, 139; Nathan Cardon, “The South’s ‘New Negroes’ and African American Visions of Progress at the Atlanta and Nashville International Expositions, 1895–1897,” JSH 80 (May 2014): 318; Bruce G. Harvey, “‘Struggles and Triumphs’ Revisited: Charleston’s West Indian Exposition and the Development of Urban Progressivism,” PSCHA (1988): 91; “Condensed Statement of Debits and Credits,” June 11, 1902, Folder 1, Volume 1, SCIS; Bruce G. Harvey, World’s Fairs in a Southern Accent: Atlanta, Nashville, and Charleston, 1895–1902 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2014).

12. Year Book, 1903, City of Charleston, So. Ca. (Charleston: Daggett Printing Co., 1904), 146; Hemphill, “A Short History,” 171; “That Exposition Statuary, Again,” CNC, July 27, 1906; “Now for Hampton Park,” CNC, Sept. 10, 1903; “A Trip to Hampton Park,” CNC, Aug, 14, 1903; “With Paint and Shellac,” CNC, Nov. 2, 1904; “Out at Hampton Park,” CNC, Aug. 9, 1906; Year Book, 1904, City of Charleston, So. Ca. (Charleston: Lucas and Richardson Co., 1905), 207; Kevin R. Eberle, A History of Charleston’s Hampton Park (Charleston: History Press, 2012), 75; John P. Radford, “Race, Residence and Ideology: Charleston, South Carolina in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 2 (Oct. 1976): 333–46; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 338.

13. “The Negro’s Best Friends,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1901; William C. Hine, “Thomas E. Miller and the Early Years of South Carolina State University,” Carologue: Bulletin of the South Carolina Historical Society 12 (Winter 1992): 11–12; Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 81; George Tindall, South Carolina Negroes, 1877–1900 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1952), 81, 83–84.

14. “Live and Work for the Future,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1901; Henry H. Lesesne, “Martin Witherspoon Gary,” in The South Carolina Encyclopedia, ed. Walter Edgar (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 361.

15. “They Enjoyed It Immensely,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1902; “Negro Day at Exposition,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1902.

16. “Negro Day at Exposition.” On the changing nature of Emancipation Day celebrations, see Kathleen Ann Clark, Defining Moments: African American Commemoration and Political Culture in the South, 1863–1913 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 188–228; and Mitch Kachun, Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1808–1915 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), 177–82.

17. “Negro Day at Exposition.” Miller failed to acknowledge in his speech the memorial to Robert Gould Shaw and the Massachusetts 54th Regiment, erected in Boston Common in 1897, which did recognize black soldiers. Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves, 193–208.

18. “Negro Day at Exposition.” On the Fort Mill monument, see Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves, 155–61.

19. “Honor to Faithful Slaves,” AI, May 27, 1896; Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves, 160 (quote).

20. MSL, Aug. 7, 1895; “A Monument to the Southern Slave,” CNC, July 16, 1895. The Tribune’s remarks were reported in “Personal Mention,” MSL, July 28, 1895.

21. “Monument to Southern Slaves,” INF, Aug. 3, 1895.

22. “Negro Day at Exposition.”

23. “A Monument to the Southern Slave”; “A Confederate Monument to the Negro,” CNC, June 21, 1907; Micki McElya, Clinging to Mammy: The Faithful Slave in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 2007), 116–59.

24. “Negro Day at Exposition.”

25. Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves, 161; W. Fitzhugh Brundage, “Meta Warrick’s 1907 ‘Negro Tableaux’ and (Re)Presenting African American Historical Memory,” JAH 89 (Mar. 2003): 1388; Anne E. Marshall, “The 1906 Uncle Tom’s Cabin Law and the Politics of Race and Memory in Early-Twentieth-Century Kentucky,” JCWE 1 (Sept. 2011): 387; Angelina Ray Johnston and Robinson Wise, “Commemorating Faithful Slaves, Mammies, and Black Confederates,” Commemorative Landscapes of North Carolina, University of North Carolina Library, docsouth.unc.edu/commland/features/essays/ray_wise.

26. Miller to Washington, Oct. 12, 1901.

27. “The State’s Survey,” State, Jan. 4, 1901; Coleman L. Blease, quoted in Hine, “Thomas E. Miller and the Early Years,” 12; Ernest McPherson Lander Jr., A History of South Carolina, 1865–1960, 2nd ed. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1970), 154.

28. Thomas J. Jackson to J.H. Holloway, Sept. 23, 1901; G.S. Dickerman to J.H. Holloway, July 23, 1905; James E. Davis to J.H. Holloway, Mar. 25, 1907; Arthur L. Macbeth to J.H. Holloway, June 12, 1907; Thomas J. Colloway to J.H. Holloway, [ca. 1908]; and “Century Fellowship Society,” all in HFS; Harlan Greene and Jessica Lancia, “The Holloway Scrapbook: The Legacy of a Charleston Family,” SCHM 111 (Jan.–Apr. 2010): 5–33.

29. J.H. Holloway, letter to the editor, CNC, May 26, 1907; “Century Fellowship Society”; J.H. Holloway to Theodore Jervey, July 26, 1907, Folder 2, Box 481, TJFP.

30. Greene and Lancia, “Holloway Scrapbook,” 22–33; James H. Holloway to Theodore Jervey, n.d., in HFS; Charlene Gunnells, “Desecration Reparations: Graves Found at College Site to Be Honored,” CPC, Jan. 25, 2001; Charlene Gunnells, “College Construction Uncovers 4 Cemeteries: C of C Plans to Commemorate Burial Site,” CPC, Mar. 24, 2001.

31. Tindall, South Carolina Negroes, 286–88; W. Fitzhugh Brundage, The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 72–73; “The Glorious Fourth,” CEP, July 3, 1897; “Negro Day at Exposition”; “Birth of 1905 Is Quietly Kept,” CEP, Jan. 2, 1905; “Now for ‘Glorious Fourth,’” CNC, July 4, 1906; Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves, 180–208; Charles Johnson Jr., African American Soldiers in the National Guard: Recruitment and Deployment during Peacetime and War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992), 76–78; Roger D. Cunningham, “‘They Are as Proud of Their Uniform as Any Who Serve in Virginia’: African American Participation in the Virginia Volunteers, 1872–1899,” in Brothers to the Buffalo Soldiers: Perspectives on the African American Militia and Volunteers, 1865–1917, ed. Bruce A. Glasrud (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 63–64.

32. “A Hampton Fourth of July,” CNC, July 5, 1877; “Colored People and the Fourth,” CNC, July 3, 1878; Revised Ordinances of the City of Charleston, South Carolina (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1903), 309; Adam Rothman, “‘This Special Picnic’: The Fourth of July in Charleston, South Carolina, 1865–1900,” May 1995, unpublished paper in authors’ possession, 28–30.

33. “‘The Fourth’ Under a Cloud,” CNC, July 5, 1881; “The Colored People,” CNC, July 5, 1882; “The Colored Troops,” CNC, Jan. 3, 1882; “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1884; “A Happy New Year To All,” CNC, Jan. 1, 1887; “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1883; “The First Day of the New Year,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1886; “All Africa Was Here,” CNC, Jan. 3, 1892; “Celebrated in Divisions,” The Freeman, Jan. 19, 1895; “Celebrated Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1913; “Emancipation Day Observed By Negroes,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1919; “Charleston News Gleaned in a Day,” State, Jan. 2, 1920.

34. “The Fourth of July,” CNC, July 5, 1883; Susan Millar Williams and Stephen G. Hoffius, Upheaval in Charleston: Earthquake and Murder on the Eve of Jim Crow (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 216; “The Day That Never Dies,” CNC, July 6, 1886; “Too-la-loo,” CNC, July 1, 1887; “The Fourth in the City,” CNC, July 5, 1887; “A Little Mixed on History,” CNC, July 5, 1887; “The Day We Celebrate,” CNC, July 4, 1888; “A Phenomenal Fourth,” CNC, July 5, 1888; “The Fourth at St. Andrew’s,” CNC, July 5, 1888; “The Day We Celebrate,” CNC, July 4, 1892; “The Nation’s Birthday,” CNC, July 5, 1892; “A Fin De Siecle Fourth,” CNC, July 5, 1895; “Independence Day in Charleston,” CEP, July 5, 1897; “The Birthday of Uncle Sam,” CEP, July 4, 1899; “Gave Up the Day to Celebration,” CEP, July 4, 1905; “Quiet Celebration of Fourth,” CNC, July 5, 1913.

35. “The Same Old Fourth,” CNC, July 5, 1890; “More or Less Glorious,” CNC, July 5, 1900; Mamie Garvin Fields with Karen Fields, Lemon Swamp and Other Places: A Carolina Memoir (New York: Free Press, 1983), 55–57.

36. “Emancipation Day,” CNC, Dec. 31, 1909; “Emancipation Day Observed By Negroes”; “Emancipation Day,” CEP, Jan. 1, 1920; “Charleston News Gleaned in a Day”; “Emancipation Day Is Observed Here,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1921; “Tempus Fugit in Charleston,” CEP, Jan. 1, 1942; “Parade to Mark Emancipation Day,” CNC, Jan. 1, 1958; Baker, What Reconstruction Meant, 84; Fields, Lemon Swamp, 227–29.

37. Dickson D. Bruce, Archibald Grimké: Portrait of a Black Independent (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 67–82, 88–90, 93–200; Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey, Revised and Updated Edition (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), 3–4n1, 240–41, 253–54; Archibald H. Grimké, Right on the Scaffold, or the Martyrs of 1822, American Negro Academy: Occasional Papers No 7 (Washington, DC: American Negro Academy, 1901), n.p., gutenberg.org/files/31290/31290-h/31290-h.htm. Grimké may also have heard details about the Vesey episode from his aunt Angelina, who was a teenager living in Charleston during the trial and execution.

38. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant, 70. Baker was writing here about the countermemory of Reconstruction, but his insight about how memory functioned in the Jim Crow South applies equally well to black memories of slavery.

39. “A Negro to His People,” CNC, Nov. 19, 1905; Club Minutes, 1924, Folder 3, Box 1; Club Minutes, 1931, 1932, Folder 4, Box 1, and Jenatte Keeble Cox, “A History—by Administrations—of the Phillis Wheatley Literary and Social Club,” Folder 3, Box 1, all in PWLSCP; Joan Marie Johnson, “‘Drill into us . . . the Rebel Tradition’: The Contest over Southern Identity in Black and White Women’s Clubs, 1898–1930,” JSH 66 (Aug. 2000): 548–52; Georgette Mayo, “Susan Dart Butler and Ethel Martin Bolden: South Carolina’s Pioneer African American Librarians,” in South Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times, ed. Marjorie Julian Spruill, Valinda W. Littlefield, and Joan Marie Johnson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 158–61.

40. Michael Fultz, “Charleston, 1919–1920: The Final Battle in the Emergence of the South’s Urban African American Teaching Corps,” Journal of Urban History 27 (July 2001): 636–49; Fields, Lemon Swamp, 44–45; Peter F. Lau, Democracy Rising: South Carolina and the Fight for Black Equality Since 1865 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2006), 33–48; R. Scott Baker, Paradoxes of Desegregation: African American Struggles for Educational Equity in Charleston, South Carolina, 1926–1972 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 105.

41. Fields, Lemon Swamp, 208; Mamie Garvin Fields, fifth grade history lesson plans, Folder 1, Box 2, MGFP; Harry F. Estill, The Beginner’s History of Our Country (Dallas: Southern Publishing Co., 1904); Report of the Historical Committee, Eleventh Annual Reunion Convention of the United Sons of Confederate Veterans, New Orleans, LA, April 25–27, 1906 (Nashville: Brandon Printing Co., 1907), 175, 214; Baker, Paradoxes of Desegregation, 1, 14–15.

42. Edmund L. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations: Charleston’s Avery Normal Institute (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 110, 126–27; Fields, Lemon Swamp, 40–45, 53–55; Katherine Mellen Charron, Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 42.

43. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 110–11; Johnson “‘Drill into Us . . . the Rebel Tradition,’” 557; Joseph Hoffman, interview by Edmund L. Drago and Eugene C. Hunt, Sept. 25, 1980, and Oct. 9, 1980, ANIOHP.

44. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 145–48, 169–70, 182, 229–30, 252; Edmund L. Drago, notes on an interview with Eugene C. Hunt, Dec. 4, 1985; Edmund L. Drago, notes on an interview with Dr. Leroy Anderson; and Sadie Green Oglesby, interview by Edmund L. Drago, Sept. 14, 1980, all in Folder 69, Box 3, ELDP; Michael Graves, interview by Edmund L. Drago, Mar. 7, 1985, ANIOHP; “Lincoln Legacy,” AT, Jan. 1948.

45. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 229, 252; C.W. Birnie, “Education of the Negro in Charleston, South Carolina, Prior to the Civil War,” JNH 12 (Jan. 1927): 13–21; Brundage, Southern Past, 155–77; “Negro History Week Observed at Avery,” AT, Feb. 1932; “Why We Celebrate Negro History Week,” AT, Feb. 1941; Louise Wright, “Avery Celebrates Negro History Week,” AT, Feb. 1947.

46. Cynthia McCottry-Smith, “Slavery Through Avery Eyes,” Avery Messenger 6 (Spring 2008): 10; Gwendolyn A. Simmons, quoted in “The Effects of Slavery,” Avery Messenger 6 (Spring 2008): 11.

47. “Library of Avery Normal Institute,” n.d., Folder 77, Box 4; Alphonso William Hoursey, “A Follow-up Survey of Graduates of Avery Institute, Charleston, South Carolina, For Years 1930–1940” (master’s thesis, University of Michigan, 1941), 17, Folder 7, Box 1; Mrs. Charlotte DeBerry Tracy, interview by Edmund L. Drago, Nov. 24, 1938, Folder 69, Box 3; and Julia Brogdon Purnell, interview by Edmund L. Drago, Nov. 13, 1987, Folder 70, Box 3, all in ELDP; Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 230–31.

48. Felder Hutchinson, quoted in “The Effects of Slavery,” 11; Simmons, quoted in “The Effects of Slavery,” 11.

49. Tracy, interview; Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 128–38; Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 43–44; Fields, Lemon Swamp, 227.

50. Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 70 (quote); Drago, notes on an interview with Dr. Leroy Anderson; Brundage, Southern Past, 140.

51. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 160; “Dr. John A. McFall,” CNC, July 24, 1954; Sonya Fordham, “A Conversation with Edward Ball,” in Edward Ball, Slaves in the Family (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2001), 513–14.

52. Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2013), 216; Drago, notes on an interview with Dr. Leroy Anderson; Drago, notes on an interview with Eugene C. Hunt.

53. Edwin A. Harleston to [Elise Forrest], [late 1919 or early 1920], Folder 6, Box 61, EAHP; Susan V. Donaldson, “Charleston’s Racial Politics of Historical Preservation: The Case of Edwin Harleston,” in Renaissance in Charleston: Art and Life in the Carolina Lowcountry, 1900–1940, ed. Harlan Greene and James M. Hutchisson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), 189; Program, Lincoln-Douglass Memorial Meeting of the Charleston Branch of the NAACP at Zion Presbyterian Church, Feb. 13, 1919, Folder 11, Box 62, EAPH.

54. Augustus Ladson, “Attempted Insurrection in 1822: Thirty-Five Hung on Oak Tree in Ashley Avenue,” 2, FWPSCL; W.E.B. Du Bois, “The Perfect Vacation,” The Crisis 40 (Aug. 1931): 279; “Ashley Avenue Oak Is Part of Charleston’s History,” CNC, Dec. 28, 1964; “Study Leader Says S.C. Steeped in Black History,” CNC, July 19, 1969; John A. Alston, “Oak Giveaway Is Popular,” CNC, Aug. 23, 1973; David Robertson, Denmark Vesey: The Buried Story of America’s Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It (Knopf: New York, 1999), 129–30.

55. Henry Brown, in ASCA, 2(1): 123; Susan Hamilton, in ASCA, 2(2): 234; Grace and Knickerbacker Davis, “‘Thenceforward, and Forever Free,’” Forward, magazine clipping, [1941 or 1942], 12, OSMMP; Frederic Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South (1931; repr., Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), 171n11; Frederic Bancroft to Sidney S. Riggs, June 19, 1922, and Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, June 28, 1922, both in Box 89, FBP; Robert P. Stockton, letter to the editor, CPC, Apr. 9, 1988; Trip DuBard, “Slave Museum’s Fate Remains Up in the Air,” Marietta Daily Journal, Apr. 9, 1987.

56. “An Old-Time Negro Slave-Holder,” CNC, May 21, 1907; “Negro Slaveholders in Charleston,” CNC, May 18, 1907; “As to Negro Slaveholders,” CNC, May 29, 1907; “Negroes Owned Slaves,” NYT, May 23, 1907; “Colored Slave Owners,” NYT, May 26, 1907; Stratton Lawrence, “‘Terrorist’ or ‘Freedom Fighter’? Efforts to Honor Denmark Vesey Running into Financial, Historical Obstacles,” CCP, Apr. 26, 2006.

57. “The Negro as a Slaveholder,” CNC, May 26, 1907; Greene and Lancia, “Holloway Scrapbook,” 11.

58. “‘Negro Slaveholders,’” CNC, May 25, 1907; Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations, 56. Although the News and Courier identified the correspondent as L.L. Dart, the biographical details referred to in the letter suggest strongly that it was written by John L. Dart.

59. Marcellus Forrest, interview by Edmund L. Drago, Eugene C. Hunt, and Margaretta P. Childs, Feb. 12, 1981, ANIOHP.

60. Septima Poinsette Clark, Echo in My Soul (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1962), 41; Septima Poinsette Clark, interview by Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, transcript, July 25, 1976, SOHP; Peter Poinsette, interview by Edmund L. Drago and Eugene C. Hunt, Mar. 31, 1981, ANIOHP; Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 19–24.

61. “The ‘Fourth of July’ in Charleston 50 Years Ago,” CNC, July 4, 1926; “Concert by Plantation Melody Singers,” CEP, Feb. 26, 1927. For more on the Plantation Melody Singers, see chapter 7.

62. Brundage, Southern Past, 221.

6. AMERICA’S MOST HISTORIC CITY

1. George F. Durgin, “Visions and Impressions of the Southland,” Zion’s Herald, Mar. 21, 1906; “In Memoriam,” Bostonia 8 (July 1907): 25; CNC, Feb. 17, 1906.

2. Durgin, “Visions and Impressions of the Southland.” Like so many tourists then and today, Durgin appears to have mistaken the City Market for Charleston’s slave-trading district.

3. Henry James, The American Scene: Together with Three Essays from ‘Portraits of Places’ (1907; reprint, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1946), 418.

4. James, American Scene, 418; Thomas J. Brown, Civil War Canon: Sites of Confederate Memory in South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 168–70; Reiko Hillyer, Designing Dixie: Tourism, Memory, and Urban Space in the New South (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2015), 5.

5. Nina Silber, The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 66–92; Rebecca Cawood McIntyre, Souvenirs of the Old South: Northern Tourism and Southern Mythology (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011); W. Fitzhugh Brundage, The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 183–90; Hillyer, Designing Dixie, 27–32.

6. McIntyre, Souvenirs of the Old South, 39; Michael Grunwald, The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 103–4; Hillyer, Designing Dixie, 80–87; Constance Woolson, “Up the Ashley and Cooper,” Harper’s Monthly 52 (Dec. 1875): 2; Silber, Romance of Reunion, 72–73.

7. Edward King, The Great South: A Record of Journeys (Hartford, CT: American Publishing Co., 1875), 441; Oliver Bell Bunce, “Charleston and Its Suburbs,” in Picturesque America, ed. William Cullen Bryant (New York: Appleton, 1872), 1: 199.

8. Woolson, “Up the Ashley and Cooper,” 22–23; King, The Great South, 451; Bunce, “Charleston and Its Suburbs,” 208; McIntyre, Souvenirs of the Old South, 89–92; Silber, Romance of Reunion, 76–78.

9. Dona Brown, Inventing New England: Regional Tourism in the Nineteenth Century (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995), 8–9; Woolson, “Up the Ashley and Cooper,” 7; Bunce, “Charleston and Its Suburbs,” 208.

10. Bunce, “Charleston and Its Suburbs,” 203, 208; Mary Pinckney Battle, “Confronting Slavery in Historic Charleston: Changing Tourism Narratives in the Twenty-First Century” (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 2013), 77; King, The Great South, 430, 435, 443; McIntyre, Souvenirs of the Old South, 104.

11. McIntyre, Souvenirs of the Old South, 103; Silber, Romance of Reunion, 77; Bunce, “Charleston and Its Suburbs,” 205.

12. James Clayton Prentiss, The Charleston City Guide (Charleston: J.W. Delano, 1872), n.p., 11, 57; Arthur Mazyck, Guide to Charleston (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1875); Guide to Charleston (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1884). Prentiss himself appears not to have been a local, but the guide’s prefatory material indicates that he wrote the book at the behest of Charlestonians and also consulted local authorities and libraries for information.

13. Susan Millar Williams and Stephen G. Hoffius, Upheaval in Charleston: Earthquake and Murder on the Eve of Jim Crow (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 143–44, 184–90; “The Proposed Fall Festival and Excursion,” CNC, July 29, 1887; “‘Expecting Company,’” CNC, Sept. 23, 1887; Don H. Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 171.

14. “The Young Men’s Meeting,” CNC, June 3, 1888; “‘Enlisted for the War,’” CNC, Aug. 7, 1888; Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 170–71, 175; “A Good Town for Hotels,” CNC, Jan. 2, 1901; Stephen Kantrowitz, Ben Tillman and the Reconstruction of White Supremacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 181–97.

15. “Reunion Work Started,” CNC, Aug. 9, 1898; Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South, 178–79; J.C. Hemphill, “A Short History of the South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition,” in City of Charleston Yearbook—1902 (Charleston: Daggett Printing Co., 1903), 139, 149.

16. James, American Scene, 405, 416, 420.

17. Harlan Greene, Harry S. Hutchins Jr., and Brian E. Hutchins, Slave Badges and the Slave-Hire System in Charleston, South Carolina, 1783–1865 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., 2004); Harlan Greene and Harry S. Hutchins Jr., “Slave Hire Badges—The 2014 Update,” North South Trader’s Civil War 38 (2014): 64–71.

18. “All Around Town,” CNC, Sept. 10, 1889; “Souvenirs of Slavery,” CNC, Sept. 11, 1889; CEP, Nov. 21, 1895.

19. D.E. Huger Smith, A Charlestonian’s Recollections, 1846–1913 (Charleston: Carolina Art Association, 1950), 64; Alice R. Huger Smith, “Daniel Elliott Huger Smith,” South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 33 (Oct. 1932): 316–18.

20. Harlan Greene, Mr. Skylark: John Bennett and the Charleston Renaissance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001); John Bennett, “‘Slave Tags’ for Tourists,” CNC, May 3, 1903.

21. John Bennett, quoted in Greene, Mr. Skylark, 92; Bennett, “‘Slave Tags’ for Tourists.” According to Harlan Greene, Harry S. Hutchins Jr., and Brian E. Hutchins, who have written the only book-length study of Charleston’s slave-badge system, just one of the many badges described by Bennett was authentic. Greene, Hutchins Jr., and Hutchins, Slave Badges, 3.

22. Bennett, “‘Slave Tags’ for Tourists.”

23. Ibid.

24. “Central Market and the Buzzards, Charleston, S.C.,” postcard, n.d.; “Old Slave Market,” postcard, n.d.; and “The Old Market, Charleston, S.C.,” postcard, [sent in 1918], all in authors’ possession; Vachel Lindsay, quoted in Dennis Camp, “Uncle Boy: A Biography of Vachel Lindsay” (unpublished), ch. 17, p. 11, vachellindsay.org/UncleBoy/uncle_boy_17.pdf; David S. Shields, Southern Provisions: The Creation and Revival of a Cuisine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 167–68; “Old Slave Market, Charleston, S.C.,” postcard, [sent in 1921], and “Old Slave Market, Chalmers St., Charleston, S.C.,” postcard, both in authors’ possession; “Old Slave Market, Chalmers St., Charleston, S.C.,” [sent in 1929], Box 1, Folder 1, OSMMC. To avoid confusion, we refer to the Chalmers Street building as Ryan’s Mart or the Old Slave Mart, but not the Old Slave Market.

25. [C. Irvine Walker], Guide to Charleston, S.C. with Brief History of City (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1911), 48, SCR. Walker is identified as the author of a later edition of this guide. See C. Irvine Walker, Guide to Charleston, S.C., with Brief History of the City and Map Thereof (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1919). Edmund L. Drago and Ralph Melnick, “The Old Slave Mart Museum, Charleston, South Carolina: Rediscovering the Past,” CWH 27 (June 1981): 144–51; Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight: Centering the Domestic Slave Trade in American Public History,” JSH 79 (Aug. 2013): 598.

26. Benjamin G. Cloyd, Haunted by Atrocity: Civil War Prisons in American Memory (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010), 76–78 (quote 78).

27. “Race Gleanings,” INF, Aug. 27, 1890.

28. “An Historic Southern City,” Colored American 9 (Oct. 12, 1901): 4.

29. William D. Crum, “The Negro at the Charleston Exposition,” Voice of the Negro 1 (1904): 335; “The Negro at the Exposition,” CNC, Apr. 29, 1902 (New York Age quote).

30. Alphonso Brown, A Gullah Guide to Charleston: Walking Through Black History (Charleston: History Press, 2008), 19–20; Mamie Garvin Fields with Karen Fields, Lemon Swamp and Other Places: A Carolina Memoir (New York: Free Press, 1985), 31; “The Cradle of Secession,” INF, Feb. 11, 1905.

31. “The Cradle of Secession.”

32. “The Grimkés in Charleston,” NYA, June 21, 1906; “Progress in Charleston, S.C.,” NYA, July 5, 1906; “Entertained their Guests,” CNC, June 22, 1906; “Entertained their Guests,” CNC, June 30, 1906, clipping, Folder 729, Box 36, AGP; Fields, Lemon Swamp, 31; Katherine Mellen Charron, Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 85–86; Peter F. Lau, Democracy Rising: South Carolina and the Fight for Black Equality Since 1865 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2006), 33–35.

33. W.E.B. Du Bois, “Editorial,” The Crisis (Apr. 1917): 269–70.

34. “Tourist Season Sure to Be Heavy,” CNC, Dec. 15, 1919; Stephanie E. Yuhl, A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 161, 165; Tammy Ingram, Dixie Highway: Road Building and the Making of the Modern South, 1900–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014); Brundage, Southern Past, 193; “An Achievement and an Augury,” CNC, Aug. 8, 1929; Robert Lee Frank, “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1970” (master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, 1964), 36.

35. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 162 (Stoney quote), 164; “Francis Marion Hotel to Open Today,” CNC, Feb. 7, 1924; Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, July 24, 1924, Box 89, FBP.

36. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 24, 28.

37. Ibid., 27, 30–32; Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Rich and Tender Remembering,” in Where These Memories Grow: History, Memory, and Southern Identity, ed. W. Fitzhugh Brundage (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 234.

38. George A. Devlin, South Carolina and Black Migration, 1865–1904: In Search of the Promised Land (New York: Garland, 1989), 224–87; Louise Anderson Allen, A Bluestocking in Charleston: The Life and Career of Laura Bragg (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 80; unnamed source, quoted in Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 373; Alston Deas, “Ancient Beauty of Once Neglected Buildings in Lower City Regained,” CNC, Dec. 17, 1928; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 31, 45–50.

39. “As to Landmarks,” CNC, May 13, 1928; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 43, 166.

40. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 374; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 165; “City Challenged on Its History,” CNC, Mar. 1, 1927; “Sends Reply to Fredericksburg,” CNC, Mar. 3, 1927; “Williamsburg Cites Its History,” CNC, Apr. 7, 1927.

41. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 28 (Frost quote), 43.

42. Yuhl, “Rich and Tender Remembering,” 230; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 45; Brundage, Southern Past, 201–3; Josephine Rhett Bacot, “Notable Old Homes in Charleston,” CNC, Mar. 19, 1905.

43. “Sumter Semi-Centennial To-Day,” CNC, Apr. 12, 1911; Brown, Civil War Canon, 171–73; William Oliver Stevens, Charleston: Historic City of Gardens (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1939), 284–89.

44. Minutes, Mar. 2, 1937, RSPMC; Brown, Civil War Canon, 166–67; “Star’s Dress to Be Shown,” CEP, Jan. 29, 1940; “Small Girls in Scarlett’s Day,” CEP, Feb. 1, 1940; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 173.

45. Yuhl, “Rich and Tender Remembering,” 230, 234; Radio Play Scripts, 1935, Box 1, and Nov. 21, 1935 Minutes, Box 2, both in RHCC.

46. “Tour of Historic Charleston,” 1940, and “A Tour of Old Charleston,” Nov. 8, 1940, both in Annual Reports, 1936–1956, Box 1, RHCC.

47. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 45; Picturesque Charleston (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1930), 3, COC.

48. Samuel Gaillard Stoney, Charleston: Azaleas and Bricks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1939), 9.

49. Thomas Petigru Lesesne, Landmarks of Charleston, Including an Incomparable Stroll (1932; reprint, Richmond: Garrett & Massie, 1939), 63–64; Frank B. Gilbreth, “Thomas Petigru Lesene,” in Outspoken: 150 Years of the News and Courier, by Herbert Ravenel Sass (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1953), 102–6.

50. South Carolina: The WPA Guide to the Palmetto State (1941; reprint, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), v–xi, 37, 487–88; Jerrold Hirsch, Portrait of America: A Cultural History of the Federal Writers’ Project (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 41–102, 107–39; Alice Ravenel Huger Smith, narrative by Herbert Ravenel Sass, A Carolina Rice Plantation of the Fifties (New York: William Morrow, 1936); Augustine T. Smythe, Herbert Ravenel Sass, Alfred Huger et al., eds., The Carolina Low-Country (New York: Macmillan, 1931); Lauren Rebecca Sklaroff, Black Culture and the New Deal: The Quest for Civil Rights in the Roosevelt Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 89–106; Sharon Ann Musher, Democratic Art: The New Deal’s Influence on American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 122–26.

51. Jody H. Graichen, “Reinterpreting South Carolina History: The South Carolina Negro Writers’ Project, 1936–1937” (master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, 2005), 1–19. The draft essays are in FWPSCL.

52. Augustus Ladson, “Attempted Insurrection in 1822: Thirty-Five Hung on Oak Tree in Ashley Avenue,” 2; “Slavery of the Negro in South Carolina,” 5; and Robert L. Nelson, “Early Negro Life in South Carolina Low-Country,” 6, all in FWPSCL.

53. “Negro Contributions to South Carolina,” 2; “Slavery of the Negro in South Carolina,” 4; and “The Negro’s Adjustment to Slavery and His Development Under Slavery Regime,” 1, all in FWPSCL.

54. “The Stono Insurrection, 1739, Charles Town, South Carolina,” 1–3; Hattie Mobley, “Denmark Vesey”; and Ladson, “Attempted Insurrection in 1822,” all in FWPSCL; Graichen, “Reinterpreting South Carolina History,” 18–19.

55. Miriam B. Wilson, Street Strolls Around Charleston: Giving the History, Legends, Traditions (n.p., 1930), 42, Box 3, CGTC; Miriam B. Wilson, Street Strolls around Charleston, South Carolina, 3rd ed. (Charleston: Miriam Bellangee Wilson, 1942), 29, COC; “Charleston Welcomes You” (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1938), Box 2, CGTC.

56. Stoney, Charleston: Azaleas and Bricks, 9; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 75–83; Elizabeth O’Neill Verner, “Spiritual of the Low Country,” CNC, Jan. 11, 1925.

57. Harlan Greene and James M. Hutchisson, “The Charleston Renaissance Considered,” introduction to their Renaissance in Charleston: Art and Life in the Carolina Lowcountry, 1900–1940 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), 1–18; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 14–15, 90–91; Melissa L. Cooper, Making Gullah: A History of Sapelo Islanders, Race, and the American Imagination (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 19–29. Although the term “Charleston Renaissance” did not come into regular use until relatively recently, it was occasionally used in the 1920s. See “Literature—and Less,” NOTP, Sept. 28, 1924.

58. Langston Hughes, quoted in Nathan Miller, New World Coming: The 1920s and the Making of Modern America (Boston: Da Capo Press, 2004), 221; Arnold Shaw, The Jazz Age: Popular Music in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 92; Todd Decker, Show Boat: Performing Race in an American Musical (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 19–20; Jill Watts, Mae West: An Icon in Black and White (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 68; Sieglinde Lemke, Primitivist Modernism: Black Culture and the Origins of Transatlantic Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 66–70, 136; Brown, Civil War Canon, 177, 183; Robert L. Dorman, Revolt of the Provinces: The Regionalist Movement in America, 1920–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), xi–xii.

59. Alice Ravenel Huger Smith, “Reminiscences,” in Alice Ravenel Huger Smith: An Artist, a Place, and a Time, by Martha R. Severens (Charleston: Carolina Art Association, 1993), 67–69, 80–83, 94–95, 97; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 60–70; Smith, A Carolina Rice Plantation of the Fifties.

60. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 65–66, 70–73 (quote 73); Smith, A Carolina Rice Plantation of the Fifties; “Atlantic St. Art Studios,” CEP, Apr. 21, 1928.

61. DuBose Heyward, Porgy (New York: George H. Doran, 1925), 11–12; James M. Hutchisson, DuBose Heyward: A Charleston Gentleman and the World of Porgy and Bess (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000), 6–10.

62. Heyward, Porgy, 11–12, 115; Hutchisson, DuBose Heyward, 60–65; Ellen Noonan, The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess: Race, Culture, and America’s Most Famous Opera (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 18–25; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 114–25.

63. DuBose Heyward, “The Negro in the Low-Country,” in The Carolina Low-Country, 181; Dorothy Heyward, “Denmark Vesey—Whose Life Was a ‘True Thriller,’” New York Star, Oct. 31, 1948; Brooks Atkinson, “‘Set My People Free,’” NYT, Nov. 14, 1948.

64. David Robertson, Denmark Vesey: The Buried Story of America’s Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It (New York: Knopf, 1999), 127; Brundage, Southern Past, 220; Miriam B. Wilson, Street Strolls around Charleston, South Carolina, 2nd ed. (Charleston: Miriam Bellangee Wilson, 1937), 15; Stoney, Charleston: Azaleas and Bricks, 9; “Charleston Expects Book Possibilities Via Gersh win’s ‘Porgy,’” Variety, Aug. 7, 1935, pp. 1, 60.

65. Peter A. Coclanis, The Shadow of a Dream: Economic Life and Death in the South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 15; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 177; “Romantic Charleston,” Elliman, Huyler, and Mullally, Inc. brochure, n.d., CGTC.

66. Albert Simons to J.H. Dingle, city engineer, May 6, 1933, ASP; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 43–45, 256n146.

67. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 184; “Negroes to Husk Rice at Museum,” CNC, Mar. 15, 1937; “Rice Show Draws Many to Museum,” CNC, Mar. 21, 1937.

68. Catherine Cocks, Doing the Town: The Rise of Urban Tourism in the United States, 1850–1915 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 175, 176, 189; Anthony J. Stanonis, Creating the Big Easy: New Orleans and the Emergence of Modern Tourism, 1918–1945 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 224–25, 228, 230.

69. “Rice Huskers Recall Congo to Woman Explorer of Wilds,” CNC, Mar. 26, 1937.

7. THE SOUNDS OF SLAVERY

1. Philip Hewitt-Myring to [Charles H. Drayton], n.d., Minute Book 1929, SPSP.

2. Philip Hewitt-Myring, “A Bachelor Editor and a Borrowed Boy See the Circus,” Pittsburgh Press, May 6, 1928; Philip Hewitt-Myring, “Charleston’s Urbanity, Its Harmony, Dignity, Charm Win Englishman’s Affection,” CNC, Apr. 8, 1928; Philip Hewitt-Myring, “Whole World of Art Richer by Spirituals’ Preservation,” CNC, Apr. 6, 1928, May Martin Scrapbook I, 1924–1929 (May), SPSP.

3. Society for the Preservation of Spirituals (SPS) Program for Thursday Evening Club, in New York City, Jan. 9, 1930, and Alfred Huger to Dr. Cornelia Brant, Aug. 22, 1931, both in SPSP; Stephanie E. Yuhl, A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 133–35; Edward Ball, Slaves in the Family (New York: Ballantine Books, 1998), 389; M.A. De Wolfe Howe, “The Song of Charleston,” AM 46 (July 1930): 109.

4. CPC, Sept. 19, 2003; Herbert Ravenel Sass, Outspoken: 150 Years of the News and Courier (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1953), 58, 62; Charles J. Holden, In the Great Maelstrom: Conservatives in Post–Civil War South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 87–110.

5. Howe, “Song of Charleston,” 108–9, 111.

6. Harlan Greene, Mr. Skylark: John Bennett and the Charleston Renaissance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001), 102–3; John Bennett to his family, Oct. 17, 1937, Folder 14, Box 142, JBP.

7. John Bennett, quoted in Greene, Mr. Skylark, 70.

8. Greene, Mr. Skylark, 94–95, 104–5, 132, 238.

9. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community, 25th Anniversary Edition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), esp. 196–224; Greene, Mr. Skylark, 104, 118; Shane White and Graham White, The Sounds of Slavery: Discovering African American History through Songs, Sermons, and Speech (Boston: Beacon, 2005), 85–88; Edward King, The Great South: A Record of Journeys (Hartford, CT: American Publishing Co., 1875), 429; John Bennett, “Gullah: A Negro Patois,” South Atlantic Quarterly 8 (Jan. 1909): 39–52. This was the second half of a two-part article, which may have been the first scholarly analysis of the Gullah language. See also John Bennett, “Gullah: A Negro Patois,” South Atlantic Quarterly 8 (Oct. 1908): 332–47.

10. “Old Negro Songs,” CEP, Feb. 10, 1903; “Our Plantations Songs,” CEP, Feb. 11, 1903; “Women’s Clubs Meet,” CNC, Feb. 10, 1903; Greene, Mr. Skylark, 49–64, 101–4, 106–16.

11. “Women’s Clubs Met,” CNC, Feb. 20, 1908; “Brilliant Meeting of the Club Women,” CEP, Feb. 20, 1908; “A Lady Protests,” CEP, Feb. 20, 1908; “Another Protest,” CEP, Feb. 21, 1908; “Mr. Bennett’s Lecture,” CEP, Feb. 21, 1908; Kitty Ravenel, “John Bennett’s Legends Caused Uproar in 1908,” CNC, Feb. 10, 1946; Greene, Mr. Skylark, 104, 122–26, 238–39; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 125; “To Broadcast from WJZ,” CEP, Apr. 3, 1930; “Lectures on Gullah Stories,” CEP, July 25, 1933; “S.G. Will Speak in Savannah,” CEP, Apr. 4, 1935; “Stoney Is Speaker in Lecture Series,” CEP, Apr. 30, 1943; “Stoney Is Speaker,” CEP, Jan. 28, 1944; William S. Pollitzer to Samuel G. Stoney, Apr. 11, 1952, and Samuel G. Stoney Jr. to William S. Pollitzer, Apr. 23, 1952, both in SGSP.

12. James M. Hutchisson, DuBose Heyward: A Charleston Gentleman and the World of Porgy and Bess (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000), 22; Dorothy Heyward, quoted in Ellen Noonan, The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess: Race, Culture, and America’s Most Famous Opera (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 26; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 124–25; “Spirituals Not Printed,” CEP, Apr. 14, 1928.

13. “Society Notice,” CEP, Oct. 29, 1912; “King’s Daughters to Conduct Charming Tea Room,” CNC, Nov. 14, 1912; Hutchisson, DuBose Heyward, 1, 4–8, 18, 19; Harlan Greene, “Charleston Childhood: The First Years of DuBose Heyward,” SCHM 83 (Apr. 1982): 154–67.

14. David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001), 221–31; Micki McElya, Clinging to Mammy: The Faithful Slave in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 38–73; Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Vintage, 1998), 88, 98.

15. “Recital at Georgetown,” CEP, Apr. 6, 1923; Program Introduction, n.d., Gullah Notebook #2; “The First Trolley Car,” n.d., Gullah Notebook #1; and “What Mauma Thinks of Freedom,” n.d., Gullah Notebook #2, all in Box 37, JSHP.

16. Program Introduction, n.d., Gullah Notebook #2, Box 37, and “Foreword,” n.d., Gullah Notebook #6, both in JSHP.

17. “Mrs. Heyward’s Reading,” CEP, Jan. 13, 1922; “Gullah Dialect Recital Planned,” CNC, Nov. 25, 1922.

18. “Reading by Mrs. Heyward,” CEP, Dec. 29, 1924; clipping, CNC, Mar. 26, 1925, and unidentified newspaper clipping, n.d., both in Box 38, JSHP; McElya, Clinging to Mammy, 66–73.

19. Clippings file, Box 38, JSHP; “Dialect Reading,” CEP, Apr. 12, 1922; “Gullah Dialect Recital Planned,” CNC, Nov. 25, 1922; “Mrs. Heyward’s Dialect Reading,” CEP, Dec. 4, 1922; “‘Gullah’ Stories Please Auditors,” State, May 17, 1922; “Mrs. Heyward’s Dialect Reading,” CEP, Dec. 4, 1922; “Mrs. Heyward’s Book,” CEP, Oct. 18, 1905.

20. “Reading by Mrs. Heyward,” CEP, Mar. 27, 1926; Greene, Mr. Skylark, 299n39; Scrapbook, Box 38, JSHP.

21. Clipping, CNC, Mar. 26, 1925, Box 38, JSHP; E.T.H. Shaffer, “The Work of Mrs. Janie Screven Heyward,” State, Dec. 10, 1922.

22. Executive Secretary to Mrs. Edwina Kellenberger, July 30, 1930, [John A. Siegling] to Myra Wofford Elmers, Aug. 8, 1960, both in SPSP; SPS Program for Thursday Evening Club; “Preservation Society Tour,” CEP, Apr. 4, 1941; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 133–35; Ball, Slaves in the Family, 389. The group was occasionally called the Society for the Preservation of Negro Spirituals.

23. Alfred Huger to Mrs. Humbert Barton Powell, Oct. 10, 1929; Alfred Huger to Dr. Cornelia Brant, Aug. 22, 1931; and Constitution [ca. 1924], all in SPSP; Executive Secretary to Mrs. Edwina Kellenberger; “The Song of Charleston,” AM 46 (July 1930): 109; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 133–35; “Spirituals Win Savannah,” CEP, Feb. 15, 1926 (Savannah Press quote).

24. Eric Lott, Love & Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 6; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 130–31.

25. Minutes, May 14, 1923, Minute Book 1923, SPSP; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 144; “Fine Rendering of Spirituals,” CNC, Apr. 1, 1924, May Martin Scrapbook I, 1924–1929 (May), SPSP.

26. Christian McWhirter, Battle Hymns: The Power and Popularity of Music during the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 177–82 (Lippincott’s quote 177); William Francis Allen, Charles Pickard Ware, and Lucy McKim Garrison, eds., Slave Songs of the United States (1867, repr., Toronto: Dover Publications, 1995); Thomas Wentworth Higginson, “Negro Spirituals,” AM 10 (June 1867): 685–94; Andrew Ward, Dark Midnight When I Rise: The Story of the Jubilee Singers Who Introduced the World to the Music of Black America (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000); Toni P. Anderson, “Tell Them We Are Singing for Jesus”: The Original Fisk Jubilee Singers and Christian Reconstruction, 1871–1878 (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2010); Eric Bernard Grant, “‘Message in the Music’: Spirituals and the Cultural Politics of Race and Nation, 1871 to 1945” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 2005), 4–49.

27. Eric Sean Crawford, “The Penn School’s Education Curriculum: Its Effects on the St. Helena Songs,” Journal of African American Studies 17 (2013): 348–69; Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right to the Tree of Life? The People of Johns Island, South Carolina—Their Faces, Their Words and Their Songs (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966), 9; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 134–35; Executive Secretary to Mrs. Edwina Kellenberger; “History of Negro Spirituals,” Nashua (NH) Telegraph, Nov. 14, 1929.

28. Edmund L. Drago, notes on an interview with Eugene C. Hunt, Dec. 4, 1985, ELDP; Edmund L. Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations: Charleston’s Avery Normal Institute (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 3–4, 111–12, 141, 145–47, 155–56, 164–66; Septima Clark, interview by Peter Wood, Feb. 3 and 4, 1981, Folder 11, Box 1, SPCP; Katherine Mellen Charron, Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 371n89; “Negro Spirituals at Avery,” CEP, Mar. 30, 1925; “Negro Spirituals at Hotel,” CEP, Feb. 23, 1926; “To Sing Spirituals,” CEP, Feb. 2, 1928; “Spirituals Concert,” CEP, Mar. 24, 1939.

29. DuBose Heyward, “The Negro in the Low-Country,” in The Carolina Low-Country, ed. Augustine T. Smythe, Herbert Ravenel Sass, Alfred Huger, et al. (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 185–86; “An Appreciation,” Augusta Chronicle, Mar. 3, 1930, May Martin Scrapbook, II 1930 (Feb.–Mar.), SPSP; John Arthur Siegling Jr., preface, Gullah Lyrics to Carolina Low Country Spirituals (Charleston: Society for the Preservation of Spirituals, 2007), n.p.; Crawford, “The Negro Spiritual of Saint Helena Island,” 41; Minutes, Feb. 21, 1924, Minute Book 1924–1925, SPSP; Barbara L. Bellows, A Talent for Living: Josephine Pinckney and the Charleston Literary Tradition (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 70–71; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 136–37; Minutes, Feb. 1, 1924, Minute Book 1924–1925, and song information cards, undated, Programs, 1930–1935, both in SPSP.

30. Katherine C. Hutson, “Slave Spirituals in Native Form,” CNC, Feb. 15, 1929, Alice Burkette Scrapbook IV, 1923–1961, and Minutes, Feb. 21, 1924, Minute Book 1924–1925, both in SPSP.

31. Executive Secretary to Mrs. Edwina Kellenberger; Harold Stone “Dick” Reeves, interview by Joan Ball, Mar. 24, 1971, SCOHC; “Many Features for Festival,” CNC, May 2, 1923; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 132, 142; “Fine Rendering of Spirituals”; [Katherine Hutson] to Mr. Graham [Winthrop College, Rock Hill, SC], Jan. 21, 1937; R.L.C., “Spirituals Singing by Society of Charleston Is Highly Complimented,” Augusta Chronicle, Mar. 3, 1930, May Martin Scrapbook II 1930 (Feb.–March); and “Southern Voices Sing Spirituals,” Boston Post, June 16, 1929, May Martin Scrapbook I, 1924–1929 (June), all in SPSP; SMN, Feb. 17, 1924, quoted in Grant, “‘Message in the Music,’” 135.

32. “Fine Rendering of Spirituals”; Executive Secretary to Miss Florence Gerald, July 26, 1930, SPSP; “Give Concert of Spirituals,” Boston Herald, June 17, 1929, May Martin Scrapbook I 1929 (June); SMN, quoted in Grant, “‘Message in the Music,’” 135.

33. Nathan B. Barnwell to Alfred Huger, Feb. 21, 1931, SPSP; Hewitt-Myring, “Whole World of Art Richer by Spirituals’ Preservation”; “A High Quality of Publicity,” CNC, Jan. 13, 1930; “Greenville Man Impressed,” newspaper clipping, [1928], Alice Burkette Scrapbook IV, 1923–1961.

34. “Singing Spirituals,” CNC, n.d., May Martin Scrapbook I, 1924–1929 (May); Hewitt-Myring, “Whole World of Art Richer by Spirituals’ Preservation”; “Historian Lauds Spirituals Here,” CNC, Nov. 26, 1927.

35. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 140–42, 242n79; Minutes, May 4, 1927, Minute Book 1926–1927, SPSP.

36. Minutes, Jan. 14, Oct. 2, Oct. 16, and Dec. 8, 1929, Minute Book 1929, SPSP; “Spirituals Not Printed,” CEP, Apr. 14, 1928, May Martin Scrapbook I, 1924–1929 (May); Minutes, Jan. 6, 1926, Minute Book 1926–1927.

37. Mrs. Winifred T. Hunt to the SPS, Feb. 9, 1931; Mrs. Lucile Francis to the SPS, Feb. 24, 1931; Mary W. Cahn to Mr. Alfred Huger, Oct. 3, 1929, Minute Book 1929; Minutes, Jan. 14, 1936, Minute Book 1936; Minutes, June 25, 1937, Minute Book 1937; and Minutes, Mar. 4, 1940, Minute Book 1940, all in SPSP; “Spirituals Not Printed”; Noonan, Strange Career, 73–80.

38. Alfred Huger to T.E. Oertel, Mar. 7, 1930, Minute Book 1930, SPSP; Josephine Wright, “Songs of Remembrance,” JAAH 9 (Fall 2006): 413–24; Howard Thurman, Deep River and the Negro Spiritual Speaks of Life and Death (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1975), 3; Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 51; Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 163–69; W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint, New York: Bantam Books, 1989), 182; P. Sterling Stuckey, “Afterword: Frederick Douglass and W.E.B. Du Bois on the Consciousness of the Enslaved,” JAAH 91 (Fall 2006): 451–58; McWhirter, Battle Hymns, 149–52; Robert L. Nelson, “Research on the Negro Spirituals,” FWPSCL (Affie Singleton and ex-bondperson quotes); Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (New York: Miller, Orton, and Mulligan, 1855), 278; Smythe et al., eds., Carolina Low-Country, 229–327.

39. Iain Anderson, “Reworking Images of a Southern Past: The Commemoration of Slave Music after the Civil War,” Studies in Popular Culture 19 (Oct. 1996): 176–77 (quote 176); “Evening of Pure Delight,” CEP, Feb. 21, 1927.

40. Robert W. Gordon, “The Negro Spiritual,” in Carolina Low-Country, 216–17; Herbert Ravenel Sass, “The Low-Country,” in Carolina Low-Country, 5; Heyward, “The Negro in the Low-Country,” 171, 182.

41. Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 143, 147; “Walter Damrosch Thrilled By Concert of Spirituals,” CNC, Apr. 22, 1935; “Evening of Pure Delight”; [Katherine Hutson], performance notes on 11 Gibes Street stationery, n.d., SPSP. For the titles, lyrics, and music of the spirituals collected and performed by the SPS, see Carolina Low-Country, 223–327; and Gullah Lyrics to the Carolina Low Country Spirituals.

42. Alfred Huger to Louis T. Parker, Apr. 15, 1936, SPSP; “Death Claims Alfred Huger,” CEP, May 18, 1938; Bellows, Talent for Living, 72–73.

43. “Bad Public Relations,” CNC, Apr. 1, 1947.

44. Minutes, Dec. 8, 1931, Minute Book 1931, SPSP; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 151.

45. “Southern Voices Sing Spirituals”; “The Negroes Appreciate the Spirituals,” Spartanburg Herald, [Apr. 1928], Alice Burkette Scrapbook IV, 1923–1961.

46. “Another Concert Asked For,” CNC, Apr. 1, 1929.

47. Unsigned letter to A. Jermain Slocum, Nov. 7, 1929, Minute Book 1929, SPSP; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 145.

48. “Our Spirituals in Boston,” CNC, Mar. 18, 1929, May Martin Scrapbook I, 1924–1929 (May); Minutes, Oct. 2, 1929, Minute Book 1929; Minutes, May 12, 1936, Minute Book 1936; and “Program Tonight Dedicates WCSC,” CNC, May 8, 1939, May Martin Scrapbook II 1930 (Apr.–Dec.), all in SPSP.

49. “Spirituals Applause Is Led by Damrosch in New York,” CNC, Jan. 30, 1930, May Martin Scrapbook II 1930 (Jan.), SPSP; “Give Concert of Spirituals”; “Spirituals Are Hailed,” CEP, June 17, 1929, May Martin Scrapbook I 1929 (June), A.H.M., “Spirituals with a Different Flavor,” Boston Transcript, June 18, 1929, May Martin Scrapbook I, 1929 (June), both in SPSP.

50. “A High Quality of Publicity”; “Spiritual Group to Leave Today,” CNC, Jan. 8, 1930; “To Give Concert in New York City,” CNC, Nov. 8, 1929; “Announce Tree Property Deals,” CNC, Apr. 5, 1930; “Walter Damrosch Thrilled By Concert of Spirituals”; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 146, 149–50.

51. “To Sing Tonight,” CEP, Feb. 14, 1925; “Melody Singers Praised,” CEP, May 15, 1926; “Melody Singers at High School,” CNC, Nov. 30, 1926; “Splendid Concert by Plantation Singers,” CEP, Feb. 19, 1927; Original PMS, North Charleston Boy Scouts Benefit Concert Program, June 19, 1928, in “PMS, Lydia C. Ball,” Bound Volume, Volume 25, BGFP; “To Sing Tonight,” CEP, Feb. 14, 1925; Lydia C. Ball, to [PMS], [ca. Apr. 1933], in “PMS, Lydia C. Ball”; Edward Ball, Descendants of Elias Ball I of South Carolina, in his Slaves in the Family; Society for the Preservation of Spirituals Active Members Season 1929–1930, Membership Information, SPSP; “Southern Home Spirituals on December 10,” CEP, Nov. 27, 1926; “Spirituals Most Entertaining,” CEP, Dec. 11, 1926.

52. “Southern Voices Sing Spirituals”; “Melody Singers to Appear in Concert,” CEP, Feb. 18, 1926; “Delightful Evening of Negro Spirituals,” State, May 24, 1928; “PMS Delight Kingstree Folk,” CEP, May 5, 1927; “Melody Singers to Give Concert,” CNC, Feb. 20, 1927; “Recital Here Tuesday,” CNC, Feb. 25, 1927; Michael Rogin, Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), 30; “Southern Home Spirituals Enjoyed,” CEP, Feb. 18, 1927.

53. “Southern Home Spirituals to Sing,” CEP, Nov. 22, 1926; “Spirituals Most Entertaining”; “Southern Home Spirituals Enjoyed”; “Enjoyable Concert by Home Spirituals,” CEP, Mar. 25, 1927; “Concert to Be Given Saturday Evening,” CEP, Apr. 14, 1928; “Delightful Evening of Negro Spirituals”; “PMS Delight Kingstree Folk”; “Fine Concert by Melody Singers,” CEP, Dec. 4, 1926; “Concert at Winthrop by Melody Singers,” CEP, Feb. 16, 1926.

54. “Southern Voices Sing Spirituals”; “Singing of Spirituals Enjoyed at Ft. Moultrie,” CEP, Jan. 27, 1927; Alfred Huger to Louis T. Parker, Apr. 15, 1936, SPSP.

55. “PMS Concert,” CEP, Nov. 27, 1926; “Home Spirituals Concert Enjoyed,” CEP, Nov. 19, 1927; “Discussions of Business,” CEP, June 6, 1928; “200 Travelers to Meet Here,” CEP, May 9, 1929; “Music Board Opens Session,” CEP, Apr. 7, 1930; “Bandmasters’ Bill Endorsed,” CEP, Apr. 9, 1930; “Concert by Melody Singers,” CEP, Feb. 9, 1927; “To Sing Tonight,” CEP, Feb. 14, 1925; Lydia C. Ball, to [PMS], [ca. Apr. 1933]; Katherine Hutson to H.M Pace, Jan. 15, 1936, SPSP.

56. “Negro Programs Will Be Offered,” CNC, Mar. 5, 1934; “Azalea Festival Programs,” CNC, Mar. 11, 1934; Program, Second Annual Azalea Festival, Mar. 20–29, 1935, RAFC; “Field Hands Put on Show,” CEP, Mar. 24, 1934; “‘Plantation Echoes,’” CEP, Mar. 26, 1935; Rosa Warren Wilson, Hibernian Hall, Charleston, SC, July 13, 1937, John A. Lomax Southern States Collection, 1937, AFC.

57. Virginia E. Tupper, “Plantation Echoes,” Etude (Mar. 1937): 153–54, 204; Rosa Warren Wilson, My Privilege: A Romance of America’s Most Historic City, Charleston, South Carolina (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1934), 35; “Hard Times Bring Music Discovery,” CNC, Mar. 3, 1937; “‘Plantation Echoes’ Is Presented Again,” CNC, Apr. 7, 1940; “‘Plantation Echoes,’ with Gullah Natives at Academy Next Friday,” CEP, Apr. 1, 1933; “Capacity House Enjoys ‘Echoes,’” CEP, Apr. 8, 1933; “‘Plantation Echoes’ at Academy Friday,” CEP, Jan. 13, 1934; “‘Plantation Echoes’ Show,” CEP, Mar. 21, 1934; “‘Plantation Echoes,’” CEP, Apr. 17, 1934; “Plantation Echoes Concert Will Be Given at John’s Island, Feb. 1,” CEP, Jan. 29, 1935; “Wadmalaw Island Negroes to Present Program at Hibernian Hall,” CNC, Mar. 3, 1939; “‘Plantation Echoes,’ Is Presented Again,” CNC, Apr. 7, 1940.

58. “Plantation Songs Billed on Friday,” CNC, Apr. 2, 1933; “Plantation Songs May Be in Film,” CNC, May 14, 1933; Tupper, “Plantation Echoes,” 153; “‘Plantation Echoes,’ Is Presented Again”; “‘Plantation Echoes’ to Be Given Twice,” CNC, Mar. 27, 1938; DuBose Heyward, “Porgy and Bess Return on Wings of Song,” Stage 13 (Oct. 1935): 25–28; “George Gershwin Concludes Visit,” CEP, Dec. 6, 1933; Noonan, Strange Career, 176–78. The SPS eventually claimed that it backed out of the festival, which was postponed to April owing to a meningitis scare, because it was “too late for our best interest” to reschedule its concert. The SPS did, however, give a concert—which was broadcast nationally by the NBC radio network—the night before the rescheduled Azalea Festival began. H.M. Pace to W. Elliott Hutson, Mar. 5, 1936, SPSP; Minutes, Mar. 4 and 5, 1936, Steering Committee of the Azalea Festival, RACF; “Azalea Festival Postponed; Date Now Set for April 15,” CNC, Mar. 6, 1936; Minutes, Mar. 10, 1936, Minute Book 1936, SPSP; John B. Rogers to Major Henry Church, Mar. 9, 1936, and John B. Rogers to Mr. H.J. O’Neill, Mar. 17, 1936, Azalea Festival Correspondence, RAFC; Mrs. Eding Whaley [Rosa] Wilson to My Dear Sir, Mar. 9, 1936, Correspondence, General, RAFC; Third Annual Azalea Festival Schedule, Apr. 15–21, 1936, RAFC.

59. William Oliver Stevens, Charleston: Historic City of Gardens (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1939), 317; “Emmanuel A.M.E. Church,” CEP, Apr. 1, 1933; “‘Heaven Bound,’” CEP, May 9, 1933; “‘Heaven Bound,’” CEP, Mar. 23, 1935; “To Render ‘Heaven Bound,’” CEP, Apr. 29, 1935; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 377–78, 380 (Burnet Rhett Maybank quote); “Azalea Festival Programs,” CNC, Mar. 11, 1934; Tupper, “Plantation Echoes,” 153.

60. Mrs. Eding Whaley [Rosa] Wilson to My Dear Sir, Mar. 9, 1936; “‘Plantation Echoes,’” CEP, Apr. 17, 1934; Stevens, Charleston: Historic City of Gardens, 319; E.E.G. Younge to Henry J. O’Neill, Mar. 26, 1936, Correspondence, General, RAFC; “‘Plantation Echoes’ to Be Given Twice.”

61. Mrs. Eding Whaley [Rosa] Wilson to My Dear Sir, Mar. 9, 1936; “‘Plantation Echoes’ Heard by 300 Here,” CNC, Apr. 1, 1938; Thurman, Deep River, 4.

62. “A Plea for Charleston,” CNC, Apr. 4, 1934.

63. Robert Lee Frank, “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1970” (master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, 1972), 35.

64. Lydia C. Ball, to [PMS], [ca. Apr. 1933]; “Summerville Benefit Scheduled Today,” CNC, Apr. 7, 1934; “Mrs. Maria R. Galliard and the Southern Home Spirituals Present ‘The Trouble I’ve Seen,’” CEP, Oct. 14, 1939; “Sojourners Begin Convention Today,” CNC, May 22, 1941.

65. Minutes, Jan. 17, 1938, Sept. 28, 1939, and Mar. 4, 1940, Minute Book 1938–1940; and Minutes, Jan. 16 and Nov. 24, 1941, Minute Book 1941, all in SPSP.

66. “Stoney Is Speaker in Lecture Series,” CEP, Apr. 30, 1943; “Slavery, Secession, Figure in Addresses Given Here,” CEP, Nov. 9, 1940; “Gives Program of Spirituals,” State, Feb. 9, 1927; “Dick Reeves Among Singers Expected with Spirituals Group Next Saturday,” State, Feb. 27, 1932; “Program for Convention,” CEP, Apr. 26, 1941; “Mrs. Maria Gaillard to Perform in Gullah,” CEP, Mar. 29, 1938; “Gullah Readings by Mrs. Gaillard,” CEP, Apr. 16, 1940.

67. “Charleston, South Carolina,” n.d.; “Charleston, South Carolina, America’s Most Historic City,” n.d.; and Anthony Harrigan, “Charleston: The Place and the People,” n.d., all in Box 5, CGTC; “Charleston . . . City of Charm,” n.d., Box 1, CGTC; Herbert Ravenel Sass, quoted in W. Fitzhugh Brundage, The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 183.

8. WE DON’T GO IN FOR SLAVE HORRORS

1. Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, July 24, 1924, Box 89, FBP.

2. Jacob E. Cooke, Frederic Bancroft: Historian (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957), 36–37, 69–75; Frederic Bancroft, Diaries of Southern Trips, Box 92, FBP; Frederic Bancroft to the Jailor, Magazine Street, Apr. 27, 1922, Box 89, FBP.

3. CC, Dec. 27, 1862; Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, May 31, 1922, and Frederic Bancroft to Sidney S. Riggs, Aug. 28, 1924, both in Box 89, FBP; Frederic Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South (1931; repr., Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996).

4. “New Books,” CNC, Sept. 27, 1885; Alfred Huger, “The Story of the Low-Country,” in Augustine T. Smythe, Herbert Ravenel Sass, Alfred Huger et al., eds., The Carolina Low-Country (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 114.

5. “Notes and Queries,” CNC, Apr. 20, 1890; “Sumner at the Auction Block,” CNC, Apr. 30, 1890; “The Good Old Days of Slavery,” CNC, Apr. 30, 1890; “Sumner at the Auction Block,” CNC, Sept. 5, 1890; Frederic Bancroft, notes on interview with Mr. Ball, Southern Trip Notes, Vol. 8, 1907, Southern Trip, Charleston, Mar. 1907, n.p., Box 92; Frederic Bancroft to Anna [Anne] S. Deas, Apr. 17, 1911, Box 17; and Anne S. Deas to Frederic Bancroft, Apr. 19, 1911, Box 38, all in FBP; Cooke, Frederic Bancroft, 4, 7–9.

6. Michael Tadman, “The Reputation of the Slave Trader in Southern History and the Social Memory of the South,” American Nineteenth Century History 8 (Sept. 2007): 247–71; Michael Tadman, “The Hidden History of Slave Trading in Antebellum South Carolina: John Springs III and Other ‘Gentlemen Dealing in Slaves,’” SCHM 97 (Jan. 1996): 6–29; Michael Tadman, “The Interregional Slave Trade in History and Myth-Making of the U.S. South,” in The Chattel Principle: Internal Slave Trades in the Americas, ed. Walter Johnson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 138–39; “Death of Z.B. Oakes,” CC, May 27, 1871; “Mr. John S. Riggs,” CNC, Feb. 4, 1899; “John S. Riggs,” CEP, Feb. 4, 1899; Edmund L. Drago, ed., Broke by War: Letters of a Slave Trader (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 6, 11; Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 279–80; Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), 55, 192–93; Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, 190–91; “Mr. Alonzo J. White,” CNC, July 2, 1885; “Death of Capt. John E. Bowers,” CNC, Sept. 18, 1888; “Mr. T. Savage Heyward,” CEP, July 11, 1901; “Louis D. DeSaussure,” CNC, June 21, 1888; CM, July 10, 1863; CM, May 20, 1863; Edward McCrady et al., eds., Cyclopedia of Eminent and Representative Men of the Carolinas of the Nineteenth Century (Madison: Brant and Fuller, 1892), 2: 480–82.

7. “Do You Know Your Charleston?” CNC, Dec. 30, 1930; [C. Irvine Walker], Guide to Charleston, S.C. with Brief History of the City and Map Thereof (Charleston: Walker, Evans, and Cogswell, 1911), 48, SCR; Thomas Petigru Lesesne, Landmarks of Charleston, Including an Incomparable Stroll (1932; repr., Richmond: Garrett & Massie, 1939), 64; Minutes, Jan. 25, 1940, Rough Minutes/Agendas 1940 Folder, Box 2, RHCC.

8. Mary A. Sparkman, Guidebook Notes to Historic Charleston, 1936, CLS; Robert Behre, “Early Notes Paved Way for Charleston Guides,” CPC, Dec. 26, 2011; [Mary A. Sparkman], Tour Guide Class Material, 1952, Guidebooks, Tourism Box 1, SCC; Mary A. Sparkman, “Lectures for Guides of Historic Charleston,” 1964, n.p., HICTG; “Information for Guides of Historic Charleston” (Charleston, 1975), 113–14, HICTG; Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight: Centering the Domestic Slave Trade in American Public History,” JSH 79 (Aug. 2013): 606–7. Helen Gardner McCormack used the same explanation in her Charleston tours. Helen Gardner McCormack, “Tour of Historic Charleston,” n.d., HGMP. Despite Sparkman’s arguments to the contrary, New Orleans’s slave trade closely resembled Charleston’s. Both cities had slave-trading districts (New Orleans, in fact, had two), and much of the trade in those districts was conducted in large, public (though not municipally operated) auction spaces. Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, 312, 319–20, 333–34; Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 2–3.

9. Cooke, Frederic Bancroft, 3–8, 19–26, 33–56, 69.

10. Frederic Bancroft to the Jailor, Magazine Street; Frederic Bancroft, Second Trip Diary, 1887, Diaries of Southern Trips, Box 92; and Frederic Bancroft to André Beydon, July 10, 1909, Box 13, all in FBP; Cooke, Frederic Bancroft, 70–73, 104–5.

11. Cooke, Frederic Bancroft, 72–73; Frederic Bancroft, notes on interview with Floride Cunningham, Southern Trip, 1902, Vol. II, p. 114, and Frederic Bancroft, notes on interview with Langdon Cheves, Southern Trip, 1907, Vol. VIII, p. 771, both in Box 92, FBP.

12. Frederic Bancroft, notes on interview with Edward McCrady, Southern Trip, 1902, Vol. I, pp. 54–55, Box 92, FBP; CC, Nov. 22, 1853; “Dissolution of Co-Partnership,” CC, Nov. 15, 1861; Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, 170, 190–91, 377–78.

13. Frederic Bancroft, notes on slave dealers and respectability, Southern Trip, 1902, Vol. II, n.p., p. 118, and Frederic Bancroft, notes on interview with T.W. Bacot, Southern Trip, 1907, Vol. VIII, n.p., both in Box 92, FBP.

14. Frederic Bancroft to Theodore D. Jervey, Jan. 19, 1922, Box 140, FBP; John David Smith, Slavery, Race, and American History: Historical Conflict, Trends, and Method, 1866–1953 (New York: Routledge, 1999), 172n17; Frederic Bancroft, interview with “Uncle” William Washington and his wife, Apr. 13, 1902, Southern Trip, 1902, Vol. II, n.p., pp. 104–6, Box 92, FBP.

15. Frederic Bancroft to Carl Schurz, May 14, 1902, Box 26, FBP; Michael Tadman, introduction to Bancroft, Slave Trading, xv, xxii–xxv, xxix–xxxii; Cooke, Frederic Bancroft, 9–10, 119–21; Smith, Race, Slavery, and American History, 33–43; Ulrich B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Regime (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1918), 200; W.E.B. Du Bois, review of American Negro Slavery, by Ulrich B. Phillips, American Political Science Review 12 (Nov. 1918): 722–26; Frederic Bancroft to W.E.B. Du Bois, Dec. 11, 1918, Box 140, and Frederic Bancroft to James Ford Rhodes, Dec. 14, 1918, Box 143, both in FPB.

16. Frederic Bancroft to Proprietor of the Garage in the “Old Slave Mart,” Apr. 29, 1922, and Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, May 31, 1922, both in Box 89, FBP.

17. Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, June 28, 1922; Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, July 31, 1922; Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, Aug. 12, 1922; Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, Aug. 15, 1922; Sidney S. Riggs to Frederic Bancroft, May 31, 1922; and M.F. Kennedy to Frederick Bancroft, Aug. 12, 1922, all in Box 89, FBP.

18. Charles J. Holden, In the Great Maelstrom: Conservatives in Post–Civil War South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 67–86; Theodore Jervey, “The Readjustment of the Negroes to the Social System of the Sixties: From the Standpoint of the Negroes,” 5, Folder 2, Box 261, TJFP; Theodore Jervey, The Slave Trade: Slavery and Color (1925; repr., New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 4, 54, 49–50.

19. Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, Mar. 31, 1923, Folder 12; Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, Apr. 24, 1923, Folder 12; Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, July 26, 1920, Folder 1; and Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, Aug. 2, 1920, Folder 10, all in Box 248, TJFP.

20. Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, xxii–xxxviii, 168.

21. Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, Jan. 8, [1931], and Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, Oct. 10, 1931, both in Folder 20, Box 248, TJFP; Theodore Jervey to Frederic Bancroft, Sept. 26, 1931, Box 49, FBP; Accession Records, 1907–1934, Sept. 8, 1931, CLSR; Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, insert between pp. 168 and 169.

22. William Watts Ball, “Bancroft Writes of Slave Trading in the Old South,” CNC, Mar. 15, 1931; Holden, In the Great Maelstrom, 87–101.

23. Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, July 21, 1931, and Frederic Bancroft to Theodore Jervey, Oct. 10, 1931, both in Folder 20, Box 248, TJFP.

24. Leonarda J. Aimar, “Stories Collected from Slaves,” and William Pinckney, interview, Oct. 16, 1917, both in Folder 12, Box 603, AASP.

25. Martin Jackson, in ASCA, 4(2): 189; John Blassingame, introduction to his Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), xlv; Henry Bennett to Mrs. Warton, Feb. 21, 1941, Folder, “Ex-Slave Correspondence,” Box 1, Entry 21, RG69.

26. Blassingame, introduction, xlii–lvi; Norman R. Yetman, “Ex-Slave Interviews and the Historiography of Slavery,” AQ 36 (Summer 1984): 186–89; Marie Jenkins Schwartz, “The WPA Narratives as Historical Sources,” in The Oxford Handbook of the African American Slave Narrative, ed. John Ernest (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 89–92; Sharon Ann Musher, “The Other Slave Narratives: The Works Progress Administration Interviews,” in the Oxford Handbook, 106–14; Jerrold Hirsh, Portrait of America: A Cultural History of the Federal Writers’ Project (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 152–53; Stephanie J. Shaw, “Using the WPA Ex-Slave Narratives to Study the Impact of the Great Depression,” JSH 69 (Aug. 2003): 623–58; Catherine A. Stewart, Long Past Slavery: Representing Race in the Federal Writers’ Project (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016).

27. Norman R. Yetman, “The Background of the Slave Narrative Collection,” AQ 19 (Autumn 1967): 534–53; Sharon Ann Musher, Democratic Art: The New Deal’s Influence on American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 122–24; Paul Gardullo, “‘No Deed But Memory’: Slavery in the American Cultural Imagination, 1909–1939” (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, 2006), 88–113.

28. George Cronyn to Mabel Montgomery, Apr. 2, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina, July 1937–Feb. 1938,” Box 47, Entry 13, RG69; “Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States From Interviews with Former Slaves” (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1941), ix–xxii (quote xx); Extracts from State Correspondence of George Cronyn, Apr. 14, 1937, Folder, “Ex-Slaves,” Box 1, Entry 21, RG69; Gardullo, “‘No Deed But Memory,’” 114–15; Yetman, “Background of the Slave Narrative Collection,” 550.

29. Abbey Mishow, in ASCA, 3(3): 198–99; Amos Gadsden, in ASCA, 2(2): 91–92.

30. John Hamilton, in ASCA, 2(2): 221–22.

31. Dave White, in ASCA, 3(4): 194–95; Laura L. Middleton and Augustus Ladson to [Franklin Delano Roosevelt], July 8, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina Employment,” Box 42, Entry 1, RG69; Prince Smith, in ASCA, 3(4): 117–18; Elijah Green, in ASCA, 2(2): 196–97; “Dug Grave for Calhoun,” CNC, Jan. 5, 1940; Elizabeth O’Neill Verner, Mellowed by Time: A Charleston Notebook, 3rd ed. (Columbia: Bostick and Thornley, 1953), 56.

32. “Supplementary Instructions #9-E to American Guide Manual, Folklore: Stories from Ex-Slaves, Apr. 22, 1937,” in “Slave Narratives,” xx; Sharon Ann Musher, “Contesting ‘The Way the Almighty Wants It’: Crafting Memories of Ex-Slaves in the Slave Narrative Collection,” AQ 53 (Mar. 2001): 1–2; Blassingame, introduction, xlix–l; Gardullo, “‘No Deed But Memory,’” 122–23.

33. Chalmers Murray to Mabel Montgomery, May 19, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina Folklore,” Box 2, Entry 22, and Mabel Montgomery to Henry G. Alsberg, Jan. 30, 1936, Folder, “South Carolina ‘M’–‘N’,” Box 43, Entry 1, both in RG69; Charles Spencer, Edisto Island, 1861–2006: Ruin, Recovery and Rebirth (Charleston: History Press, 2008), 165–66.

34. Chalmers Murray to Chlotilde Martin, May 20, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina Folklore,” Box 2, Entry 22, RG69; “Chlotilde Martin, Former Reporter, Dies in Beaufort,” CEP, Nov. 19, 1991; John Lomax to Mabel Montgomery, May 26, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina Folklore,” Box 2, Entry 22, RG69.

35. Mabel Montgomery to Chalmers Murray, June 28, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina,” Box 1, Entry 21, and Mabel Montgomery to John Lomax, May 21, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina Folklore,” Box 2, Entry 22, both in RG69; Susan Hamilton, in ASCA, 2 (2): 236.

36. Chalmers Murray to Mabel Montgomery, July 1, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina,” Box 1, Entry 21, RG69.

37. Chalmers Murray to Mabel Montgomery, July 8, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina,” Box 1, Entry 21, RG69. Jessie A. Butler incorrectly identified Susan Hamilton as Susan Hamlin. Butler claimed that Ladson had mistakenly recorded Susan’s surname as Hamilton, but the ex-slave’s 1942 obituary reveals that Ladson, rather than Butler, had the correct surname. Jessie A. Butler, note appended to interview with Susan Hamlin [Hamilton], in ASCA, 2(2): 232; “Former Slave Passes Away,” CEP, Jan. 12, 1942; Susan Hamilton, in ASCA, 2(2): 233–36.

38. Susan Hamlin [Hamilton], in ASCA, 2(2): 226–32.

39. Susan Hamlin [Hamilton], in ASCA, 2(2): 228; Murray to Montgomery, July 8, 1937.

40. Susan Hamlin [Hamilton] in ASCA, 2(2): 226–27, 229, 231; James West Davidson and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection, 4th ed. (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000), 1: 163–69; Emily West, “Dolly, Lavinia, Maria, and Susan: Enslaved Women in Antebellum South Carolina,” in South Carolina Women: Their Lives and Times, ed. Marjorie Julian Spruill, Joan Marie Johnson, and Valinda W. Littlefield (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 1: 137–39.

41. Mabel Montgomery to Henry Alsberg, July 30, 1937, Folder, “South Carolina,” Box 1, Entry 21, RG69; Benjamin A. Botkin, introduction to “Slave Narratives,” vi–viii; Jerry Mangione, The Dream and the Deal: The Federal Writers’ Project, 1935–1943 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 263; Monty Noam Penkower, The Federal Writers’ Project: A Study in Government Patronage of the Arts (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 232; Ira Berlin, Marc Favreau, and Steven F. Miller, eds., Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom (New York: New Press, 1998), xv–xvi.

42. Botkin, introduction, ix.

43. CEP, May 6, 1924; “Old Slave Market, Charleston, S.C.,” postcard, [sent in 1921], and “Old Slave Market, Chalmers St., Charleston, S.C.,” postcard, n.d., both in authors’ personal collection.

44. Birth certificate, Miriam Anna Bellangee Wilson; Notarized document about parents, birth, name, and christening of Miriam B. Wilson, n.d.; Miriam B. Wilson to Ethelyn M. Parker, May 15, 1954; Miriam B. Wilson, resume, Oct. 6, 1936; and Miriam B. Wilson, “Personal History,” May 10, 1957; all in OSMMP; Judith Wragg Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson—Founder Old Slave Mart Museum,” 1, in authors’ possession; “Miss Miriam B. Wilson, Founder of Museum, Dies,” CNC, July 8, 1959.

45. Thomas P. Stoney to Whom it May Concern, Jan. 25, 1925; Miriam B. Wilson, open letter for Tourist and Convention Bureau, Chamber of Commerce, Charleston, SC, n.d.; and Judith Chase Scrapbook, 7, 9, all in OSMMP; “Miss Miriam B. Wilson”; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 2; “News of Food: Old Slave Market in Charleston, S.C., Turned into Shop for Making Delicacies,” NYT, Sept. 6, 1950; CEP, Jan. 4, 1927; Frank Campsall to Miriam B. Wilson, Apr. 9, 1930, OSMMP; Mary Read Lilly, “‘Yankee’ Woman Makes Success of Southern Sweets and History,” CEP, Jan. 28, 1949; CEP, Mar. 22, 1927; “Miss Wilson’s Colonial Belle Goodies,” CEP, Apr. 10, 1930.

46. Miriam B. Wilson, Street Strolls Around Charleston: Giving the History, Legends, Traditions (n.p., 1930), 42, CGTC; Chase Scrapbook, 5–7, 26; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 2, 4; “Three Pieces of Real Estate Sold,” CEP, Jan. 13, 1938; CEP, Mar. 16, 1938; “Old Slave Market Restored in 1937,” CEP, Dec. 2, 1941; Contract for sale of OSMM, July 26, 1937, OSMMP; Edmund L. Drago and Ralph Melnick, “The Old Slave Mart Museum, Charleston, South Carolina: Rediscovering the Past,” CWH 27 (June 1981): 153–54; Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight: Centering the Domestic Slave Trade in American Public History,” JSH 79 (Aug. 2013): 601–2. Wilson’s museum was initially called the Old Slave Market, but by 1941 she had changed the name to the Old Slave Mart Museum.

47. “Old Slave Market Restored”; promotional flyer, Chase Scrapbook, 2; Old Slave Mart Museum guide leaflet, n.d., CGTC; Theodore Carlisle Landsmark, “‘Haunting Echoes’: Histories and Exhibition Strategies for Collecting Nineteenth-Century African American Crafts” (Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1999), 201; Andrea Burns, From Storefront to Monument: Tracing the Public History of the Black Museum Movement (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013).

48. Mark Harris, “Best Buy in Charleston,” Negro Digest 8 (July 1950): 43; Alston Chase, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Nov. 11, 2015; “Old Slave Market Restored in 1937”; Miriam B. Wilson, proposal to Rosenwald Foundation to purchase Ryan’s Jail, [1941]; Miriam B. Wilson, “Project of Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” n.d; Miriam B. Wilson to editors, American Magazine, [after Feb. 1940]; Miriam B. Wilson to Carl Van Vechten, Sept. 10, 1951; and Miriam B. Wilson to W.M. Spells, [May 17, 1959], all in OSMMP; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 4; Lib Wiley, “Operator of Charleston’s Slave [Mart] Here Seeking Hand-Made Items,” newspaper clipping from Lynchburg, VA [1950s], and Martha Carson, “Through Dedicated Friendship: A Life’s Work Still Lives,” CEP, Mar. 1, 1963, both in Chase Scrapbook, 6, 26; CEP, Apr. 10, 1939; CEP, May 29, 1944.

49. Nell Denney, “Visitor Finds Slave-Made Articles for Museum,” newspaper clipping, n.d., Chase Scrapbook 6; “Museum Proprietor Completes Research in African Culture,” CEP, Nov. 27, 1952; Miriam B. Wilson, application for the Eugene F. Saxton Memorial Trust, 1956; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 1; Miriam B. Wilson to Ruth Reynolds, Mar. 26, 1956; Miriam B. Wilson to Hank Drane, Mar. 13, 1952; Miriam B. Wilson to Mrs. C.L. Amos, May 17, 1953, including handwritten note by Mrs. C.L. Amos; Mrs. Daniel Banks to Miriam B. Wilson, Aug. 26, 1956; Miriam B. Wilson to Eva W. Davis, Aug 25, 1954; Eva W. Davis to Miriam B. Wilson, Sept. 2, 1954; and “She Collects Crafts of the Slave Era,” [Louisville Courier Journal, Nov. 12, 1949], all in OSMMP; “Girl Scout Activities Reviewed,” CEP, Mar. 17, 1944; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 3–4; Harris, “Best Buy in Charleston,” 43.

50. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight,” 601–2, 605; Yuhl, Golden Haze of Memory, 28–38; “Old Slave Market Restored in 1937”; Wilson, proposal to Rosenwald Foundation; Miriam B. Wilson, “Project of Miriam Bellangee Wilson”; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 4; Carson, “Through Dedicated Friendship”; Drago and Melnick, “Old Slave Mart Museum,” 153–54; Wilson to Carl Van Vechten; Miriam B. Wilson to George McCue, Oct. 19, 1948, OSMMP; “Furtwangler Buys Old Slave Mart Gift Shop Here,” CEP, Jan. 27, 1949; Wilson, application for the Eugene F. Saxton Memorial Trust.

51. Wilson, proposal to Rosenwald Foundation; Wilson, application for the Eugene F. Saxton Memorial Trust; “Notification Concerning Fellowship Application,” Mar. 14, 1935; W.D. Watherford, president, Blue Ridge, Sept. 2, 1941; Norma S. Thompson, secretary, Rockefeller Foundation, to Miriam B. Wilson, Feb. 19, 1947; Bertha Wilcox Smith to Miriam B. Wilson, June 9, 1956, and Miriam B. Wilson, letter about medical difficulties on trip from St. Louis [after July 16, 1950], all in OSMMP; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 4; “Old Slave Mart Depicts Progress Made by Negroes”; Miriam B. Wilson, WCSC radio interview transcript, Oct. 11, 1939, OSMMP; CEP, Mar. 16, 1938; CEP, Mar. 20, 1940; “Mrs. Maria Gaillard to Perform in Gullah,” CEP, Mar. 29, 1938; CEP, Mar. 29, 1939; Elijah Green postcard, 1953, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Digital Collection, contentdm.ad.umbc.edu/cdm/ref/collection/rookscoll/id/67; “109-year-old Negro Dies at Home,” CEP, May 22, 1945.

52. Carson, “Through Dedicated Friendship”; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 3; Minutes, Jan. 25, 1940, RHCC; “Chalmers Street Market Was Used to Sell Slaves,” CNC, Sept. 19, 1948; Bartley I. Limehouse, “Charleston’s Old Slave Mart Bequeathed to Museum Here,” CNC, Aug. 5, 1959, in 6 Chalmers Street, Vertical File, SCHS.

53. OSMM brochure, n.d., in Chase Scrapbook, 11; Miriam B. Wilson, Slave Days: Condensed from Factual Information [also titled Condensed History of Slavery], 3rd ed. (Charleston: Old Slave Mart Museum, 1956), in authors’ possession; Wiley, “Operator of Charleston’s”; Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight,” 607; Theodore C. Landsmark, “Preserving African-American Culture in Spite of Itself,” Avery Review 1 (Spring 1998): 54–55.

54. Wiley, “Operator of Charleston’s”; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 1; Lilly, “‘Yankee’ Woman”; Miriam B. Wilson, untitled manuscript about Wilson and the Old Slave Mart Museum, n.d., and Miriam B. Wilson, “Childhood Remenicences [sic] of the South Sixty Years Ago,” [1940s], both in OSMMP; Wilson to Carl Van Vechten; Landsmark, “‘Haunting Echoes,’” 191; “South Carolina Museum Owner Is Visitor in City,” Vicksburg Post-Herald, Aug. 1, 1948, OSMMP.

55. Miriam B. Wilson to Anna Wilson, [ca. 1927]; Miriam B. Wilson, “They Know Us,” [1940s]; and “Novelist at Huckleberry for Research,” newspaper clipping, July 19, 1956, all in OSMMP.

56. Miriam B. Wilson, Slave Days (1956), 11, n.p.; Old Slave Mart Museum Guide Leaflet, [after 1959], p. 7, CGTC; Darlene O’Dell, Sites of Southern Memory: The Autobiographies of Katharine Du Pre Lumpkin, Lillian Smith, and Pauli Murray (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 63–64; Miriam B. Wilson to Ashley Halsey Jr., Sept. 6, 1950, OSMMP.

57. Miriam B. Wilson to Robert J. Kalthoff, [Feb.–Mar. 1953], OSMMP; Wilson, Slave Days (1956), 25; Wilson to Carl Van Vechten; “Woman Studying at Yale on Slavery Crafts,” New Haven Register, Aug. 21, 1961, Chase Scrapbook, 6.

58. Miriam B. Wilson, Slave Days: Condensed from Factual Information (Charleston: Old Slave Mart Museum, 1946), 9, Folder 2, Box 1, OSMMC; “Miss Miriam B. Wilson”; Denney, “Visitor Finds Slave-Made Articles”; Miriam B. Wilson, “Highlights of Slavery,” n.d., p. 15, OSMM.

59. Wilson, Slave Days (1956), n.p.; Grace and Knickerbacker Davis, “‘Thenceforward, and Forever Free,’” Forward, magazine clipping, [1941 or 1942], 13, and Miriam B. Wilson, notes on OSMM lecture, n.d., both in OSMMP.

60. Wilson, Slave Days (1946), 10; Wilson, notes on OSMM lecture; Davis and Davis, “‘Thenceforward, and Forever Free,’” 13; Knickerbacker Davis to Miriam B. Wilson, Mar. 16, 1942, OSMMP.

61. Miriam B. Wilson to Robert Taft, May 16, 1950, OSMMP; Wilson, “They Know Us”; Wilson, “Highlights of Slavery,” 16, 28–29, 32; Yuhl, “Hidden in Plan Sight,” 608; Wilson, Slave Days (1946); Wilson, untitled manuscript on the history of slavery, p. 15, OSMMP.

62. Miriam B. Wilson to Dr. Patterson, May 6, 1949, and Miriam B. Wilson, “Suggestions which may help the Negro Race,” n.d., both in OSMMP.

63. Wilson, Slave Days (1946), 13; Millicent Brown, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, July 8, 2015; Landsmark, “‘Haunting Echoes,’” 209–16.

64. Wilson, proposal to Rosenwald Foundation; C. Gordon Beacham to Miriam B. Wilson, Aug. 11, 1942; B. Claire Reenstjerna to Miriam B. Wilson, May 5, 1954; Louise Boatwright to Miriam B. Wilson, n.d.; and Doris Pollock to Miriam B. Wilson, Jan. 11, 1952, all in OSMMP.

65. Katharine Du Pre Lumpkin, The Making of a Southerner (1947; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981), 115; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “Open Secrets: Memory, Imagination, and the Refashioning of Southern Identity,” AQ 50 (1998): 109–24; O’Dell, Sites of Southern Memory, 63–64.

66. Harris, “Best Buy in Charleston,” 44.

67. Wilson, proposal to Rosenwald Foundation; Miriam B. Wilson to Maggie F. Jones, Jan. 28, 1957, OSMMP; Ethelyn M. Parker to Miriam B. Wilson, June 11, 1954, OSMMP; Biographical Note, “Inventory of the Ethelyn Murray Parker Papers, 1899–1922,” avery.cofc.edu/archives/Parker_Ethelyn.html.

68. “Negro Students Visit Display on Slave Art,” CNC, Apr. 18, 1956; “Old Slave Mart Art Exhibit Depicts Negro Handicrafts,” CNC, Apr. 10, 1956; Brown, phone interview.

69. Wilson, application for the Eugene F. Saxton Memorial Trust; Miriam B. Wilson, introduction to outline, n.d.; Miriam B. Wilson, “Plan for Work,” 1947; Miriam B. Wilson, unpublished letter to the editor of the NYT, Oct. 18, 1952; and Miriam B. Wilson to Marion A. Woodson, Apr. 16, 1957, all in OSMMP.

70. “Miss Wilson, Dies at Residence,” CEP, July 7, 1959; “Miss Miriam B. Wilson”; “‘Slave Mart’ Bequeathed to Museum,” CEP, Aug. 5, 1959; Limehouse, “Charleston’s Old Slave Mart Bequeathed”; Board of Trustees Minutes, Charleston Museum, Jan. 1960, CM; Chase, “Miriam Bellangee Wilson,” 4; Christine Randall, “Curator Catalogs Collection,” CNC, Nov. 1, 1978; Judith Wragg Chase to Bernard [Fielding], Mar. 27, 1973, Box 6, YWCAR; Greta Tilley, “Sisters Try to Save Museum,” GNR, May 18, 1986; Alston Chase, phone interview; “Old Slave Mart Reopening as a Museum Is Announced,” CNC, Nov. 26, 1960, 6 Chalmers St., Vertical File, CCPL; Louise A. Graves, application, Institute of Museum Services, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Mar. 8, 1979, and 6 Chalmers Street, deed of sale, June 12, 1964, both in OSMMPCC; “Old Slave Mart Museum Is Sold,” CEP, Mar. 31, 1965, Vertical File, CCPL.

71. Chase Scrapbook, 3, 14; “Searching Africa for Art,” CNC, Feb 24, 1967; Randall, “Curator Catalogs Collection”; Judith Wragg Chase to Fred J. Martschink, May 14, 1963, Old Slave Mart, General Files, CCR.

9. WE SHALL OVERCOME

1. Roy Wilkins, quoted in Stephen O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery: The Civil Rights Years in Charleston” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1994), 229. The description of the Charleston Movement that follows is from O’Neill, 223–26, and Millicent Ellison Brown, “Civil Rights Activism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1940–1970” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1997), 175–92.

2. Lindy Cooper, interview by Guy Carawan, Apr. 1983, Folder 79, GCCC.

3. Shana L. Redmond, Anthem: Social Movements and the Sound of Solidarity in the African Diaspora (New York: New York University Press, 2014), 152–69; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment and Other Writings (1870; reprint, New York: Penguin, 1997), 169; William Francis Allen, Charles Pickard Ware, Lucy McKim Garrison, eds., Slave Songs of the United States (1867; reprint, New York: Dover, 1995), xix, 64; Victor V. Bobetsky, “The Complex Ancestry of ‘We Shall Overcome,’” in We Shall Overcome: Essays on a Great American Song, ed. Victor Bobetsky (Lanham, MD: Rowan Littlefield, 2014), 4–6; Stephen A. Schneider, You Can’t Padlock an Idea: Rhetorical Education at the Highlander Folk School, 1932–1961 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2014), 157–59; Lillie May Marsh Doster, interview by Otha Jennifer Dixon, transcript, June 25, 2008, SOHP; Lillie May Marsh (Doster), quoted in Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement through Its Songs (Bethlehem, PA: Sing Out Corporation, 1992), 238; Stephen P. Graham, quoted in Bernice Johnson Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement, 1955–1965: A Study in Culture History” (Ph.D. diss., Howard University, 1975), 74.

4. See, for example, Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).

5. R. Scott Baker, Paradoxes of Desegregation: African American Struggles for Educational Equity in Charleston, South Carolina, 1926–1972 (Columbia: University of South Carolina), 127–38; Matthew D. Lassiter and Andrew B. Lewis, eds., The Moderates’ Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998).

6. Clay Risen, The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014); Gary May, Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 2013).

7. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 198–203, 217–21, 236–40; Brown, “Civil Rights Activism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1940–1970,” 88–90, 166–75, 209–212; Jon Hale, “‘The Fight Was Instilled in Us’: High School Activism and the Civil Rights Movement in Charleston,” SCHM 114 (Jan. 2013): 4–48; Baker, Paradoxes of Desegregation, 154–57.

8. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” esp. 6–143; Henry B. Smythe to Mrs. Joseph J. Waring, Mar. 31, 1958, and Minutes, Nov. 7, 1958, Minutes, Executive Committee, both in SPSP.

9. Henry B. Smythe to Dr. John Arthur Siegling, Apr. 23, 1958, SPSP; Minutes, Annual Meeting, 1968, and Minutes, Annual Meeting, Oct. 18, 1965, both in Minutes, Annual Meetings, SPSP.

10. Jennie R. Porcher to John Arthur [Siegling], Apr. 12, 1956, SPSP.

11. John M. Rivers to Mr. Paul Roberts, Sept. 4, 1956, SPSP.

12. “Other Men’s Opinions,” Florida Times Union, n.d., n.p., reprinted in CNC, Mar. 19, 1959, Clippings, 1950s–1960s, SPSP; Jenny Woodley, Art for Equality: The NAACP’s Cultural Campaign for Civil Rights (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2014), 127–89; Elizabeth O’Neill Verner, “Don’t Forget Spirituals,” CNC, Mar. 24, 1960, Clippings, 1950s–1960s, SPSP.

13. Mrs. Henry S. Walker to Mrs. John Siegling, Nov. 26, 1960, and Nov. 4, 1963, Minutes, Executive Committee, both in SPSP.

14. Minutes, Mar. 24, 1968, and Minutes Mar. 19, 1968, both in Minutes, Executive Committee, SPSP.

15. Jeffrey O.G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 111; Kristen Meyers Turner, “Guy and Candie Carawan: Mediating the Music of the Civil Rights Movement” (master’s thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2011), 9; Guy Carawan, quoted in Peter J. Ling, “Developing Freedom Songs: Guy Carawan and the African-American Traditions of the South,” History Workshop Journal (Autumn 1997): 208.

16. Much of the information that follows about Carawan and his family comes from Peter J. Ling, “Developing Freedom Songs,” 198–213; Peter J. Ling, “Spirituals, Freedom Songs, and Lieux de Memoire: African-American Music and the Routes of Memory,” Prospects 24 (October 1999): 213–30; Turner, “Guy and Candie Carawan”; Joe Street, The Culture War in the Civil Rights Movement (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007), 15–26; Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right to the Tree of Life? The People of Johns Island, South Carolina—Their Faces, Their Words and Their Songs (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966); Guy and Candie Carawan, interview by Katherine Mellen Charron, transcript, Nov. 12, 2001, in authors’ possession; Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 4; “Henrietta Aiken Kelly and the Post–Civil War Silk Industry,” PSCHA (May 2014): 13–24; Candie Carawan, emails to Blain Roberts, July 13 and 17, 2014; and Debra Bloom, email to Blain Roberts, July 20, 2014.

17. Pete Seeger, Where Have All the Flowers Gone? A Musical Autobiography (Bethlehem, PA: Sing Out, 1993), 32–35; John M. Glen, Highlander: No Ordinary School, 1932–1962 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 148; Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement, 1955–1965,” 76–82; Redmond, Anthem, 173–74; Horton, The Highlander Folk School, 148; David King Dunaway, How Can I Keep from Singing: Pete Seeger (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), 222; Pete Seeger and Bob Reiser, Everybody Says Freedom (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989), 8; Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 4, 238; Guy and Candie Carawan, eds., Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Songs of the Freedom Movement (New York: Oak Publications, 1968), 138–39; Josh Dunson, Freedom in the Air: Song Movements of the Sixties (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1965), 29–30; Robert Rogers Korstad, Civil Rights Unionism: Tobacco Workers and the Struggle for Democracy in the Mid-Twentieth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 239.

18. Guy Carawan to Pete [Seeger], Moe [Asch], and Irwin [Silber], Aug. 3, 1959, Folder 403, GCCC.

19. “‘We Shall Overcome’: Origin of Rights Song,” Washington Star, July 11, 1965; Katherine Mellen Charron, Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 269; Allen, Ware, Garrison, Slave Songs of the United States, iii, 23–24; Guy Carawan to Pete [Seeger], Moe [Asch], and Irwin [Silber].

20. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 176–77, 181–92; Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 216–63; Peter Ling, “Local Leadership in the Early Civil Rights Movement: The South Carolina Citizenship Education Program of the Highlander Folk School,” Journal of American Studies 29 (Dec. 1995): 399–422; Brown, “Civil Rights Activism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1940–1970,” 118–24; Guy Carawan, “The Living Folk Heritage of the Sea Islands,” Sing Out! (Apr.–May, 1964), 29; Guy and Candie Carawan, interview; Redmond, Anthem, 173.

21. Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right, 10; Art Rosenbaum, The African American Ring Shout Tradition in Coastal Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998), 1, 48–49; Song Lists, Folder 595, GCCC.

22. Ling, “Developing Freedom Songs,” 201; Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right, 9–10, 107 (Saunders quote); Josh Dunson, “Slave Songs at the ‘Sing for Freedom,’” typescript of Broadside article, May 30, 1964, in Sing for Freedom Festival and Workshop Report, 1964, Folder 158, GCCC; Steve Estes, Charleston in Black and White: Race and Power in the South after the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 28; Carawan, “The Living Folk Heritage of the Sea Islands,” 31.

23. Guy Carawan, undated report on Highlander work, Folder 18, Box 7, SPCP; Esau Jenkins, quoted in Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right, 85; Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 216–63; Ling, “Developing Freedom Songs,” 204; Guy and Candie Carawan, interview.

24. Ling, “Spirituals, Freedom Songs, and Lieux de Memoire,” 225; Ling, “Developing Freedom Songs,” 203, 206 (Carawan quote); John Michael Spencer, Protest and Praise: Sacred Music of Black Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990), 83, 85, 104; Turner, “Guy and Candie Carawan,” 71. On freedom songs, see Kerran L. Sanger, “When the Spirit Says Sing!”: The Role of Freedom Songs in the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Garland, 1995); Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing for Freedom; Dunson, Freedom in the Air; Seeger and Reiser, Everybody Says Freedom; T.V. Reed, The Art of Protest: Culture and Activism from the Civil Rights Movement to the Streets of Seattle (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 1–39; Street, The Culture War in the Civil Rights Movement, 15–39; and Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement, 1955–1965.”

25. Reverend C.T. Vivian, quoted in Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 4; Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 173–216, 294 (first Guy Carawan quote); Guy and Candie Carawan, interview; Turner, “Guy and Candie Carawan,” 23; Guy Carawan, quoted in Seeger and Reiser, Every body Says Freedom, 39.

26. Bernice Johnson Reagon and Reverend C.T. Vivian, quoted in Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 3, 4; Bernice Johnson Reagon, “Since I Laid My Burden Down,” in Hands on the Freedom Plow: Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC, ed. Faith D. Holsaert et al. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 149; Ward, Just My Soul Responding, 294.

27. Ain’t You Got a Right to the Tree of Life and Kristen Meyers Turner’s master’s thesis, “Guy and Candie Carawan: Mediating the Music of the Civil Rights Movement,” provide the best window into the important and often unrecognized role that Candie Carawan played in helping her husband promote and preserve the music of Johns Island. Dunson, Freedom in the Air, 103; Dunson, “Slave Songs at the ‘Sing for Freedom.’”

28. Dunson, “Slave Songs at the ‘Sing for Freedom’”; Bernice Johnson Reagon to Guy Carawan, Sept. 29, 1987, Folder 158, GCCC.

29. Guy and Candie Carawan, “Sea Islands,” Guy and Candie Carawan: A Personal Story Through Site and Sound Website, digitalstudio.ucr.edu/studio_projects/carawan/seaislands4.html; Ronald D. Cohen, A History of Folk Music Festivals in the U.S.: Feasts of Musical Celebration (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2008), 62, 70, 86; “John’s Island Group to Play in Washington,” CNC, June 29, 1969; “Folk Festival Launched at Capital Park,” Toledo Blade, July 27, 1972.

30. Carawan, “The Living Folk Heritage of the Sea Islands,” 31; Robert Shelton, “Beneath the Festival’s Razzle-Dazzle,” NYT, Aug. 1, 1965; Guy Carawan, Sing for Freedom Festival and Workshop Statement and Proposal, 1965, Folder 165, GCCC; Barbara J. Stambaugh, “Folk Festival to Mark End of Voter Workshop,” unidentified newspaper clipping, Folder 621, GCCC.

31. Cooper, interview; Guy Carawan, Sing for Freedom Festival and Workshop Statement and Proposal, 1965.

32. Alan Lomax, “Folk Singing Is Rediscovered on Island,” CNC, Jan. 19, 1964, Folder 621, GCCC; Guy and Candie Carawan, interview by John Sundale, “Society for the Preservation of Spirituals,” 1979, Digital Library of Appalachia, Warren Wilson College, dla.acaweb.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/Warren/id/2661/rec/8; Minutes, Annual Meeting, 1969, Minutes, Annual Meetings, SPSP.

33. Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right, 9, 85 (Esau Jenkins quote).

34. Ibid., 21–22.

35. Book review of Ain’t You Got a Right to the Tree of Life, by Guy and Candie Carawan, NYT, June 11, 1967; Jack Leland, “Errors of Fact Cloud Report on Negroes of John’s Island,” CEP, Mar. 26, 1967, and Owen Daugh [Jack Leland], “Unfortunate, Glaring Errors Mar Carawan Book on John’s Island,” CNC, Mar. 26, 1967, both in Folder 43, GCCC.

36. Julius Lester, review of Ain’t You Got a Right to the Tree of Life, by Guy and Candie Carawan, Sing Out! 17 (June/July 1967): 41.

37. Guy and Candie Carawan, Ain’t You Got a Right, 10; [William] Bill Saunders and Frankie [?] to Guy and Candie Carawan, June 15, 1967, Folder 43, GCCC.

38. Turner, “Guy and Candie Carawan,” 11 (Candie Carawan quote), 54–55.

39. Mary Ancrum, “Negro History Week Observed,” Parvenue, Mar. 29, 1951, ARC; Haut Gap High School, Johns Island, South Carolina, Negro History Week Program, n.d., Box 1, Folder 4, AJMP; “Negro History to Be Studied,” CEP, Jan. 11, 1958; “Classes to Be Held in Negro History,” CEP, Jan. 8, 1959; “Classes in History of Negro to Begin Tomorrow Morning,” CNC, Jan. 9, 1959, Folder 108, Box 5, ELDP; “83 Students Here Complete Course in Negro History,” CNC, Feb. 20, 1958.

40. “Negro History,” CNC, Jan. 16, 1958; John H. Wrighten to Superintendent [Thomas A. Carrere], Jan. 17, 1958, Negro History 1958 Folder, Box 863, CCSDA; Drago, Initiative, Paternalism, and Race Relations: Charleston’s Avery Normal Institute (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 231–34; Brown, “Civil Rights Activism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1940–1970,” 44–48.

41. [Thomas A. Carrere] to Mr. F.M. Kirk, Jan. 21, 1958; [Thomas A. Carrere] to John H. Wrighten, Feb. 17, 1958; Thomas A. Carrere to Mr. Wilmot J. Fraser, July 14, 1959; John H. Wrighten to Mr. Thomas A. Carrere, Jan. 26, 1962; and Thomas A. Carrere to Mr. John H. Wrighten, Jan. 30, 1962, all in Negro History 1958 Folder, Box 863, CCSDA; “Negro History,” CNC, July 11, 1959, Scrapbook, District 20, Feb. 1959–Apr. 1960, CCSDA.

42. Alston Chase, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Nov. 18, 2015; “Old Slave Mart Plans to Have Special Preview,” CEP, Nov. 25, 1960; Judith W. Chase, “Comprehensive Information Relating to the History, Purpose, and Operation of the Old Slave Mart Museum & Library, 1937 through 1985” and 6 Chalmers Street, deed of sale, June 12, 1964, both in OSMMPCC; Christine Randall, “Curator Catalogs Collection,” CNC, Nov. 1, 1978; Louise A. Graves, application, Institute of Museum Services, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Mar. 8, 1979, p.12, OSMMPCC.

43. Alston Chase, phone interview; Chase, “Comprehensive Information,” 37, 45; Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight: Centering the Domestic Slave Trade in American Public History,” JSH 79 (Aug. 2013): 610–11; OSMM flyer, 1970, in Judith Chase Scrapbook, 3, OSMMP.

44. Greta Tilley, “Sisters Try to Save Museum,” Greensboro News and Record, May 18, 1986; Alston Chase, phone interview; Chase, “Comprehensive Information,” 41; Miriam B. Wilson Foundation, Board of Trustees Meeting Minutes, Mar. 20, 1974, OSMMC; “YWCA Votes to Quit National Organization,” CNC, May 20, 1967; “New YWCA Organization Forms Here,” CNC, Mar. 11, 1969; First Board of Directors List, n.d., Administrative Papers, 1970s, Box 6, and Judith Chase to Bernard [Fielding], Mar. 27, 1973, Administrative Papers, 1972, Box 6, both in YWCAR; “King to Be Honored,” CEP, Jan. 8, 1972; “YWCA Explains National Affiliation,” CEP, Dec. 14, 1972; Cherisse Jones-Branch, Crossing the Line: Women’s Interracial Activism in South Carolina during and after World War II (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2014), 99–103.

45. Beta Kappa Lambda Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha, Citizenship Award Statement, Apr. 1, 1973, Administrative Papers, 1972, Box 6, YWCAR; Chase, “Comprehensive Information,” 41, 49–50; Graves, application, Institute of Museum Services, 14; Phillis Wheatley Activities Through the Years, Box 2, Programs Folder, PWLSCP; “Museum Curator to Speak at YWCA Meeting,” CEP; “Church Plans Festival of Arts,” CEP, Nov. 18, 1965; “March Classes Scheduled at Coming Street ‘Y’,” CEP, Feb. 25, 1965; Miriam B. Wilson, Board of Trustees Minutes, May 1, 1965, OSMMC; Tilley, “Sisters Try to Save Museum”; Press Release on Judith Wragg Chase, Nov. 1965, Administrative Papers, 1972, Box 6, YWCAR.

46. “Old Slave Mart Begins Art Competition Project,” CEP, June 6, 1963; Miriam B. Wilson Foundation, Board of Trustees Meeting Minutes, May 1, 1965, OSMMC; Judith Chase to Bernard [Fielding], Mar. 27, 1973; “Afro-American Art Offered at Carolina,” CEP, Jan. 14, 1972.

47. Sandra Burch, “Emphasis on Minorities,” CEP, Mar. 19, 1975; Sheryl Brunson, “New Course Emphasizes State’s Ethnic History,” CEP, May 1, 1978; Karen Amrhine, “Bicentennial Committee Seeks to Involve Blacks,” CNC, June 30, 1973; Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, “Title IX Ethnic Heritage Project Analysis: A Study of Title IX, ESEA, Ethnic Heritage Projects Funded by the U.S. Office of Education, Health, Education and Welfare, July 1, 1974, through June 30, 1975” (June 1975), 13, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61–62, files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED109006.pdf; John David Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 302; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), 616.

48. Baker, Paradoxes of Desegregation, 127–77 (quote 145); Doug Pardue, “A Walk that Changed History,” CPC, Sept. 1, 2013.

49. Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Baker, Paradoxes of Desegregation, 172–73; “Black Students ‘Outnumbered’ in Dispute at St. Andrews High,” CHR, Jan. 27/Feb. 2, 1972.

50. Jim French, “Schools: Soul of Charleston,” CHR, Feb. 17–23, 1972; “Parents, Civil Leaders Say James Island Showdown Planned by Whites,” CHR, Feb. 17–23, 1972; “Students, Cops and Fire Trucks Boxed Us in Says Blacks,” CHR, Feb. 17–23, 1972.

51. Alex Macaulay, Marching in Step: Masculinity, Citizenship, and The Citadel in Post–World War II America (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 61–86.

52. “Black Cadets Interview: Is The Citadel Biased?” Brigadier, Mar. 7, 1970, CAR; “Truth in History,” CNC, Apr. 7, 1969; “African History,” CNC, Sept. 22, 1968; “Black Studies . . . ,” Brigadier, May 1, 1970, CAR; Macaulay, Marching in Step, 78.

53. Christopher Lewis, quoted in John M. Coski, The Confederate Battle Flag: America’s Most Embattled Emblem (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 221.

54. “A Self Study, The Citadel,” 1972, chapter seven, 29–30, CAR.

55. Macaulay, Marching in Step, 81; Frank Ward, “Tradition or Prejudice?” Brigadier, Dec. 8, 1972; John Brasington, “The Flag,” Brigadier, Nov. 19, 1971; Ralph Towell, “State of the Corps,” Brigadier, Sept. 29, 1972; and James Gilpatrick, letter to the editor, Brigadier, Oct. 5, 1973, all in CAR.

56. Preston Mitchell, letter to the editor, Brigadier, Feb. 22, 1974, CAR; Coski, The Confederate Battle Flag, 221. The appropriateness of the Confederate battle flag and “Dixie” became an issue at the Citadel again in the late 1980s. K. Michael Prince, Rally ’Round the Flag, Boys! South Carolina and the Confederate Flag (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), 140; Macaulay, Marching in Step, 183–91.

57. O. Jennifer Dixon-McKnight, “‘We Shall Not Always Plant While Others Reap’: Black Female Hospital Workers and the Charleston Hospital Strike, 1943–1970” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2017); Jewell Charmaine Debnam, “Black Women and the Charleston Hospital Workers’ Strike of 1969” (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 2016); Leon Fink and Brian Greenberg, Upheaval in the Quiet Zone: A History of Hospital Workers’ Union, Local 1199 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 129–58; O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 252–70; “Arrests in Charleston,” NYT, Apr. 29, 1969; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 422.

58. Elaine S. Stanford, “Negotiators Meet in Hospital Strike,” CNC, March 23, 1969; O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 281; David Robertson, Denmark Vesey: The Buried Story of America’s Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It (New York: Knopf, 1999), 129, 117; W.K. Pillow Jr. and Stewart R. King, “Thousands March in Support of Strike,” CNC, May 12, 1969. On the myth of the hanging tree, see chapter 5. “Curfews Nothing New to City,” CNC, May 4, 1969; Alice Cabaness [sic], “Strike and Curfew,” New South 24 (Summer 1969): 44.

59. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 253–99; Debnam, “Black Women and the Charleston Hospital Workers’ Strike of 1969,” 2–26.

60. “Revolt Against Slavery,” CHR, Sept. 16, 1972; “Revolt Against Slavery,” [part 4], CHR, Oct. 14, 1972.

61. Bobby Isaac, “Plan to Capture City Failed,” CNC, May 18, 1975; Arthur C. McFarland, “We Refuse to Allow Denmark, Esau, Septima to Go Unrecognized,” CHR, Apr. 26, 1975; James L. Felder, Civil Rights in South Carolina: From Peaceful Protests to Groundbreaking Rulings (Charleston: History Press, 2012), 18; “McFarland Retires as Municipal Judge,” CPC, Dec. 23, 2009.

62. Kacy Sackett, “Council Votes to Sell City Airport Property,” CEP, Oct. 29, 1975; “Robert Ford Rejects Name for Auditorium,” CNC, Nov. 5, 1975; Robert R. Weyeneth, Historic Preservation for a Living City: Historic Charleston Foundation, 1947–1967 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000), 65.

63. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 228, 238; Clyde Johnson, “Charleston Is Requested to Honor King, Vesey,” CEP, Dec. 24, 1975; “Asks Renaming of King St.,” CHR, Dec. 20, 1975; Bobby Isaac, letter to the editor, CHR, Nov. 22, 1975.

64. Bobby Isaac, “Plan to Capture City Failed”; “Murderous Mankind,” CEP, Dec. 9, 1975; Carlton J. Poulnot Sr., letter to the editor, CNC, Jan. 14, 1976; Tom Hamrick, “Tom Hamrick Speaks Out,” CHR, Nov. 15, 1975.

65. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 288–314, esp. 296–99; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 408, 428–29; Estes, Charleston in Black and White, 44.

66. Barbara S. Williams, “Riley Wins Mayor’s Race,” CNC, Dec. 10, 1975. The previous city council had included thirteen whites and three blacks. O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 298, 299 (Ford quote); “Ford Accuses Ministers of Using the Church for Political Gain,” CHR, Dec. 13, 1975.

67. Brian Hicks, The Mayor: Joe Riley and the Rise of Charleston (Charleston: Evening Post Books, 2015), 42–68; Walter Edgar, South Carolina: A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), 545–47.

68. “Ford Accuses Ministers of Using the Church for Political Gain”; O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery,” 313; Williams, “Riley Wins Mayor’s Race”; Estes, Charleston in Black and White, 35–56; Hicks, The Mayor, 86–94.

69. Bobby Isaac, “King Portrait Support Growing,” CNC, May 11, 1976; Ashley Cooper, “Doing the Charleston,” CNC, May 13, 1976; Clyde Johnson, “Management Study Firm Is Hired by Charleston,” CEP, March 24, 1976; Karen Greene, “Teacher Communicates with Art,” CEP, Aug. 22, 1976; Robert Ford, “Says Daily Press Responsible for Theft of Vesey Painting,” CHR, Sept. 25, 1976.

70. “City Hall to Unveil Portrait of Rebel Slave Leader,” CNC, Aug. 3, 1976; Mary A. Glass, “Slave’s Picture Hung in Auditorium,” CNC, Aug. 10, 1976; “At Unveiling of Denmark Vesey,” CHR, Aug. 14, 1976; Greene, “Teacher Communicates with Art.”

71. Shirley J. Holcombe, letter to the editor, CNC, Aug. 9, 1976.

72. Ashley Cooper, “Doing the Charleston,” CNC, Aug. 13, 1976; “Black Judges,” CEP, Aug. 2, 1976.

73. Mr. and Mrs. W. Lester Webb, letter to the editor, CNC, Aug. 11, 1976; Eleanor R. Craighill, letter to the editor, CNC, Aug. 16, 1976.

74. “At Unveiling of Denmark Vesey”; “Finally—More Judges and Denmark Vesey!” CHR, Aug. 7, 1976.

75. “The Vesey Affair,” CHR, Aug. 21, 1976; William Saunders, letter to the editor, CEP, Aug. 21, 1976.

76. Bobby Isaac, “Vesey Painting Missing from Auditorium,” Sept. 19, 1976, CNC; Ford, “Says Daily Press Responsible for Theft of Vesey Painting”; “Vesey Painting Returned; Blame Laid to Anti-Vesey Editorials in White Press,” CHR, Sept. 25, 1976; Margaret Locklair, “Investigation Continuing in Painting Theft,” CEP, Sept. 20, 1976; Edward C. Fennell, “Reporter Finds Vesey Portrait,” CNC, Sept. 21, 1976; Edward C. Fennell, “Painting Back at Auditorium,” CNC, Sept. 22, 1976.

77. Sarah Katherine Dykens, “Commemoration and Controversy: The Memorialization of Denmark Vesey in Charleston, South Carolina” (master’s thesis, Clemson University, 2015), 68, 72–76 (quote 74); Dottie Ashley, “Dorothy Wright: Artist Honors the Champions of Civil Rights,” CPC, Sept. 27, 1997.

78. Estes, Charleston in Black and White, 56.

10. SEGREGATING THE PAST

1. Robert R. Weyeneth, Historic Preservation for a Living City: Historic Charleston Foundation, 1947–1997 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000), 23–31; Charles B. Hosmer Jr., Preservation Comes of Age: From Williamsburg to the National Trust, 1926–1949 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1981), 1: 254–73; Samuel Gaillard Stoney, This Is Charleston: An Architectural Survey of a Unique American City, 3rd ed. (Charleston: Carolina Art Association, 1964).

2. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., “Central Considerations,” May 1940, Folder 8, Civic Services Committee Papers, MCALDL.

3. Stephanie E. Yuhl, A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 50–52; Helen Gardner McCormack, quoted in Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, 1: 261; Alice Ravenel Huger Smith, “Reminiscences,” in Alice Ravenel Huger Smith: An Artist, a Place, and a Time, by Martha R. Severens (Charleston: Carolina Art Association, 1993), 67–69, 83, 94–95.

4. Stoney, This Is Charleston, 3rd ed., 22, 87.

5. Jonathan H. Poston, The Buildings of Charleston: A Guide to the City’s Architecture (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), 8; Weyeneth, Historic Preservation, 31–40; Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, 1: 269–73.

6. Thomas R. Waring, “Charleston Americana,” NYT, Mar. 6, 1949; Charleston’s Historic Houses, Brochures, 1949–1957, Historic Charleston Foundation’s Tours of Homes Collection, MCALDL.

7. Minutes, Nov. 29, 1951, and Minutes, Apr. 25, 1951, both in Rough Minutes/Agendas, 1951, Box 2, RHCC; Mary A. Sparkman, Guidebook Notes to Historic Charleston, 1936, CLS; Robert Behre, “Early Notes Paved Way for Charleston Guides,” CPC, Dec. 26, 2011.

8. Lectures for Guides Examination—1954, Tour Guide Exams, 1954–1956, Box 1, RHCC; Sparkman, “Lectures for Guides of Historic Charleston,” 1964, HICTG.

9. “Causes of War,” CPC, Jan. 8, 1994; Marguerite C. Steedman, letter to the editor, CEP, Apr. 21, 1979; [Marguerite C. Steedman], Lectures for Guides (1973), HICTG.

10. Elizabeth O’Neill Verner, Mellowed by Time: A Charleston Notebook, 3rd ed. (Columbia: Bostick and Thornley, 1953), 35.

11. Thomas J. Brown, Civil War Canon: Sites of Confederate Memory in South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 185–91; “Fort Sumter Visitor Rate Sets May Record,” CNC, June 1, 1960; Kevin Allen, “The Second Battle of Fort Sumter: The Debate over the Politics of Race and Memory at the Opening of America’s Civil War Centennial, 1961,” Public Historian 33 (May 2011): 100; “City Ready for Fort Sumter,” CNC, Apr. 9, 1961.

12. Everett J. Landers to Karl S. Betts, Feb. 4, 1961, Folder 15, Box 184, BIWP; Robert J. Cook, Troubled Commemoration: The American Civil War Centennial, 1961–1965 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2011), 15, 88–94; Mrs. J.G. Matty to J. Palmer Gaillard, Mar. 24, 1961; G.W. Goodman to J. Palmer Gaillard, Mar. 24, [1961]; and Mrs. Willard Steele to J. Palmer Gaillard, Mar. 24, 1961, all in Civil War Centennial Folder, CCR.

13. “Group to Shun Local Pageant,” CNC, Mar. 10, 1961; Cook, Troubled Commemoration, 93–98, 101–7; Jon Wiener, “Civil War, Cold War, Civil Rights: The Civil War Centennial in Context, 1960–1965,” in The Memory of the Civil War in American Culture, ed. Alice Fahs and Joan Waugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 238–41; John F. Kennedy to Ulysses S. Grant III, Mar. 14, 1961, and CWCC Executive Committee, minutes of meeting held Mar. 21, 1961, p. 4, both in Folder 7, Box 84, BIWP; “Centennial Hassel Gains Momentum,” CEP Mar. 24, 1961; Bell Wiley to Anne Freedgood, Mar. 29, 1961, Folder 2, Box 62, BIWP; Ulysses S. Grant III to J. Palmer Gaillard, Mar. 27, 1961, Civil War Centennial Folder, CCR.

14. “Hollings Says President Can’t Dictate to Hotels,” CEP, Mar. 24, 1961; “Only 50 Request Naval Housing,” CEP, Mar. 24, 1961; “Naval Base Says Housing to Be Austere,” CNC, Mar. 26, 1961; Jack Roach, “Long Distance Wires Hum with War Centennial Volleys,” CEP, Mar. 29, 1961; “Move May Cause Visitors to Miss Events,” CNC, Mar. 26, 1961.

15. Edmund G. Gass to Bell I. Wiley, Apr. 5, 1961, Folder 26, Box 184, BIWP; Neil Gilbride, “Is Nation Still a House Divided Against Itself? You’d Think So in Charleston,” Greensboro Record, Apr. 11, 1961; “2 N.J. Centennial Delegates Attend NAACP Meeting,” CNC, Apr. 12, 1961.

16. “Visitors, Delegates Pouring In,” CNC, Apr. 11, 1961; “Confederates Start Meeting Ball Rolling,” CEP, Apr. 11, 1961; “Vicious Tornado Hits James Island Homes,” CEP, Apr. 12, 1961; “Parade Gets Break as Sun Comes Out,” CNC, Apr. 13, 1961; Claire McPhail, “The Rocket’s Red Glare,” CNC, Apr. 14, 1961.

17. John B. Rogers Producing Company, “A Proposal for Charleston County and the City of Charleston, South Carolina to Conduct a War of the Confederacy Centennial Commission in 1961,” and Official Program, “The Charleston Centennial of the Confederacy Commemoration, 1861–1961,” both in CM; “Confederate War Group Wins Yanks with Kindness,” CNC, Apr. 11, 1961; “Confederates Start Meeting Ball Rolling”; Allen, “Second Battle of Fort Sumter,” 104–5.

18. “‘Reliving of War’ Feared by Byrnes,” NYT, Apr. 16, 1961; “A Word with Our Readers,” Holiday, July 1961, p. 25; Cook, Troubled Commemoration, 117–19.

19. “Centennial ‘Fitting,’ Says Mayor,” CNC, Apr. 14, 1961. The mayor’s comments also reflected a dustup between New Jersey delegates and one speaker, Ashley Halsey Jr., who made disparaging remarks about them. Cook, Troubled Commemoration, 115–18. “8,050 Visited Fort During May,” CEP, June 6, 1961; “1961 Visitors to Fort Sumter Already Top ’60,” CEP, Oct. 17, 1961.

20. Michael Ra-Shon Hall, “The Negro Traveller’s Guide to a Jim Crow South: Negotiating Racialized Landscapes During a Dark Period in United States Cultural History, 1936–1967,” Postcolonial Studies 17 (2014): 307–19; Gretchen Sorin, “‘Keep Going’: African Americans on the Road in the Era of Jim Crow” (Ph.D. diss., University at Albany, State University at New York, 2009), 168–209; 1938–1964 Green Books, TGB; Tammy S. Gordon, “‘Take Amtrak to Black History’: Marketing Heritage Tourism to African Americans in the 1970s,” Journal of Tourism History 7 (2015): 56.

21. “Tourism and Minorities” in Special Studies, vol. 5 of Destination USA: Report of the National Tourism Resources Review Commission (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 69–83; “The New Jet-Setters,” Time, June 19, 1972, 88; Gordon, “‘Take Amtrak to Black History,’” 55–57; W. Fitzhugh Brundage, The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 295–96; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), 642–44.

22. Brundage, Southern Past, 309–10; Domestic Tourism, vol. 2 of Destination USA: Report of the National Tourism Resources Review Commission (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 11; “S.C. Tourism Group Reveals New Promotion Plan,” State, Sept. 13, 1968; “Canada Is Major Target in S.C. Tourist Campaign,” CNC, Feb. 10, 1969; “‘Leisure Market’ Growing: Fraser,” CNC, Jan. 21, 1970; Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 412; U.S. Department of Transportation, “Economic Development History of Interstate 26 in South Carolina,” fhwa.dot.gov/planning/economic_development/studies/i26sc.cfm; Robert Lee Frank, “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1970” (master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, 1964), 106–9; Ben S. Palmer, “Tourism Booming in Charleston,” CNC, Apr. 19, 1969; W.K. Pillow Jr., “Recreation Officer Works to Make Program Familiar,” CNC, Feb. 24, 1969; Sharon A. Feaster, “Tourism Business Means $$,” CNC, Sept. 10, 1972; “Don’t Kill the Goose,” CNC, Nov. 14, 1977; Katharine Mary Sparks, “The Relationship Between Changes in Business Structure and Tourism Growth and Development in Charleston, South Carolina, 1899–1999” (Ph.D. diss., Clemson University, 2012), Appendixes IV and V, 346–48; “Mission Will Explore Tourism Market Potential,” CNC, Nov. 9, 1969.

23. Barnard Law Collier, “South Carolina: A Yankee View,” NYT, June 21, 1970.

24. Judith Chase Scrapbook, 3, 14, OSMMP; “Searching Africa for Art,” CNC, Feb 24, 1967; Judith W. Chase, “Comprehensive Information Relating to the History, Purpose, and Operation of the Old Slave Mart Museum & Library, 1937 through 1985,” OSMMP; Louise A. Graves, application, Institute of Museum Services, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Mar. 8, 1979, pp. 37, 39, 45, OSMMPCC; Christine Randall, “Curator Catalogs Collection,” CNC, Nov. 1, 1978; John Michael Vlatch, “Evaluation of the Old Slave Mart Museum, Charleston, South Carolina,” Apr. 9, 1979, 3–4, OSMMP; Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight: Centering the Domestic Slave Trade in American Public History,” JSH 79 (Aug. 2013): 613–14; Greta Tilley, “Sisters Try to Save Museum,” GNR, May 18, 1986.

25. Chase, “Comprehensive Information,” 37; Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Slight,” 610–11; OSMM flyer, 1970, in Judith Chase Scrapbook, 3.

26. “Grim Reminder of Slavery Preserved,” LAT, Mar. 23, 1975; Vlatch, “Evaluation of the Old Slave Mart Museum,” 10; John Vernelson and Laura Nelson, “Money, Time Force Slave Mart to Close,” CEP, Feb. 3, 1987; Tilley, “Sisters Try to Save Museum”; Chase, “Comprehensive Information,” 46; Graves, application, Institute of Museum Services, 13.

27. OSMM flyer, 6 Chalmers Street, Old Slave Mart Museum Vertical File, CCPL; OSMM sign, n.d., OSMMP; Randall, “Curator Catalogs Collection”; Alston Chase, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Nov. 18, 2015.

28. “Historic Half-Truths,” CNC, July 28, 1978; Franz E. Auerbach, No Single Loyalty: Many Strands One Design: A South African Teacher’s Life (New York: Waxman, 2002), 80; Tilley, “Sisters Try to Save Museum.”

29. Steve Estes, Charleston in Black and White: Race and Power in the South after the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 57–60; Weyeneth, Historic Preservation for a Living City, 92–105; Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 430–32, 434–37; Brian Hicks, The Mayor: Joe Riley and the Rise of Charleston (Charleston: Evening Post Books, 2015), 120–23, 126–28, 133–39, 144–46, 191–92; Sparks, “The Relationship Between Changes in Business Structure,” Appendixes IV, V, 347, 349; Roger R. Stough, introduction to “The Report of the Mayor of Charleston’s Tourism Management Committee: Recommendations,” Feb. 2, 1982, p. 1, Tourism Management Reports File, HCF.

30. Hicks, The Mayor, 142, 194–95; Sparks, “The Relationship Between Changes in Business Structure,” 272; Colleen K. Reilly, “Staging Charleston: The Spoleto Festival U.S.A.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2009), 50–51; Jim Parker, “Officials Have High Hopes for Black Festival,” CNC, Feb. 1, 1984; Shirley Greene, “Moja Arts Festival to Offer Charleston Look at Black Culture,” CNC/CEP, Sept. 15, 1984; Frank B. Jarrell, “February Declared Black Arts-History Month,” CNC, Feb. 2, 1983; Kerri Morgan, “Chas. to Buy Slave Museum for $200,000,” CNC, Jan. 29, 1988; Judith W. Chase to C.T. Wallace, Chairman, Members of Charleston County Council, Sept. 24, 1984; Sandra N. Fowler to Joseph P. Riley Jr., Aug. 8, 1985; and Judith W. Chase to Joseph P. Riley Jr., Jan. 2, 1986, all in SNFP; Verneslon and Nelson, “Money, Time Force Slave Mart to Close”; “Time’s Awasting,” CEP, Nov. 27, 1987; Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight,” 613–20. In 2000, the OSMM collection was purchased by Acacia Historical Arts International, Inc.

31. Marsha White, “Proposed Tours Would Emphasize Black History,” CNC, Mar. 1, 1983; Dorothy Givens, “Guides Offer Tour of City from a Black Perspective,” CPC, Nov. 21, 1991; Mary Pinckney Battle, “Confronting Slavery in Historic Charleston: Changing Tourism Narratives in the Twenty-First Century” (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 2013), 192.

32. Alphonso Brown, interview by Rachel Martin, transcript, June 17, 2008, pp. 7–8, SOHP; Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 186–87; Wevonneda Minis, “Getting the Whole Story,” CPC, Jan. 20, 1997.

33. Minis, “Getting the Whole Story”; Brown, interview, transcript, pp. 10–12; Adam Parker, “The Whole Story: Lowcountry Historic Sites, Tours Include More About African-American Experience,” CPC, Nov. 7, 2015; Chase, “Comprehensive Information,” 46.

34. Brown, interview, transcript, pp. 8–9, 18; Warren L. Wise, “Gullah Tours Operator Offers a Different Take on Charleston History,” CPC, July 8, 2013; Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 187–88.

35. Park Dougherty, phone interview by Blain Roberts and Ethan J. Kytle, Dec. 8, 2014; Robert Behre, “Spiritual Society Back in National Spotlight,” CPC, July 23, 2011; Eric Frazier, “Singers Reproduce Sights, Sounds, Rhythms of Tradition,” CPC, June 7, 1996.

36. Julia Coaxum, “3 Names to Update Tour Guide Manual,” CNC, Apr. 26, 1984; Michael Trouche, “City Tourism Group Holds First Meeting,” CNC, Sept. 21, 1983; Robert Stockton, ed., “Information for Guides of Historic Charleston” (Charleston: Charleston Tourism Commission, ca. 1985), HICTG; “Schools, Hospital to Focus on Black History,” CEP, Feb. 20, 1981; “Black History Program Planned Here Sunday,” CNC, Feb. 24, 1983.

37. Elizabeth H. Alston, “Black Charlestonians,” in “Information for Guides of Historic Charleston,” 481–82. On how grammatical choices can obscure the role of slaveholders in perpetuating slavery, see Ellen Bresler Rockmore, “How Texas Teaches History,” NYT, Oct. 21, 2015.

38. Minis, “Getting the Whole Story”; Givens, “Guides Offer Tour of City from a Black Perspective”; Al Miller, Sites and Insights Tour, Aug. 13, 2009.

39. Alphonso Brown, Gullah Tours Tour, Apr. 14, 2007.

40. Maurie D. McInnis, The Politics of Taste in Antebellum Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 180–81; Brown, Gullah Tours Tours, Apr. 14, 2007 and Apr. 13, 2009.

41. Miller, Sites and Insights Tour, Aug. 13, 2009; Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 47; Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 121–29; Gregory D. Smithers, Slave Breeding: Sex, Violence, and Memory in African American History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2012), 4–10.

42. Sandra Campbell, interview by Blain Roberts, Aug. 15, 2009, Charleston, SC. Vesey lived on Bull Street, between Pitt and Smith streets, though not in the current structure at 56 Bull Street, which research suggests was built between the 1830s and 1850s—after Denmark Vesey was executed. Vesey’s Bull Street home, moreover, was most likely located several houses away from the 56 Bull Street structure. Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey, Revised and Updated Edition (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 83n18; Sarah Katherine Dykens, “Commemoration and Controversy: The Memorialization of Denmark Vesey in Charleston, South Carolina” (master’s thesis, Clemson University, 2015), 35–57; Douglas R. Egerton, interview by Ethan J. Kytle, July 19, 2009, Springfield, IL.

43. Campbell, interview; Jonathan Sanchez, “Downtown Walking Tour Highlights Slave Contributions,” CPC, Aug. 28, 1997.

44. Carriage Tour, June 21, 2008; Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1974), 147; Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Low-country (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 95.

45. Carriage Tour, June 21, 2008.

46. Scott A. Michie, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Oct. 10, 2013; Kristan Poirot and Shevaun E. Watson, “Memories of Freedom and White Resilience: Place, Tourism, and Urban Slavery,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 45(2): 105–6; Carriage Tour, June 21, 2008; Carriage Tour, Aug. 13, 2009; Van Tour, Aug. 14, 2009.

47. Alphonso Brown, quoted in Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 191; Brown, interview, transcript, pp. 11, 13; Office of Tourism Analysis, College of Charleston, “Estimation of Tourism Economic Impacts in the Charleston Area 2008,” in authors’ possession.

48. Campbell, interview.

49. Wevonneda Minis, “History Through the Eyes Of . . . ,” CPC, Jan. 18, 2004; Dorothy Givens, “PBS ‘Civil War’ Series Attracts Tourists,” CPC, Oct. 25, 1990; Jack Thomson, Walking Tour, Aug. 15, 2009.

50. Campbell, interview. On African Americans’ reluctance to confront the enslaved past, see Jonathan Holloway, Jim Crow Wisdom: Memory and Identity in Black America since 1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 174–213; and the essays in James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton, eds., Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of American Memory (New York: The New Press, 2006), especially, John Michael Vlach, “The Last Taboo Subject: Exhibiting Slavery at the Library of Congress,” 57–73.

51. Edmund L. Drago, Charleston’s Avery Research Center: From Education and Civil Rights to Preserving the African American Experience (Charleston: History Press, 2006), 266–85; Stephanie Harvin, “High Style,” CPC, Sept. 19, 1988; College of Charleston Office of College Relations, “Avery Research Center to Sponsor ‘Juneteenth’ Celebration,” May 31, 1995, WMDP; Herb Frazier, “Children Map Black History,” CPC, Nov. 10, 1998; “Shout Tradition Lives in Exhibit at Avery Center,” CPC, May 18, 1995.

52. Michael Allen, interview by Ethan J. Kytle, June 16, 2011, Charleston, SC; Michael Allen, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Jan. 11, 2016; Michael Allen, interview by Rachel Martin, transcript, June 20, 2008, pp. 1–3, SOHP; Paul Bowers, “Michael Allen Brings Together NAACP, Sons of Confederate Veterans,” CCP, July 6, 2011; Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 204–7.

53. Allen, phone interview by Kytle; Allen, interview by Martin, transcript, pp. 4–7; Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 204–10; Brown, Civil War Canon, 198–99; Cathy N. Davidson to the Director of National Park Service, Sept. 26, 1994; Edwin C. Bearss to Cathy N. Davidson, Nov. 18, 1994; and W. Marvin Dulaney to John Tucker, Dec. 13, 1994, all in WMDP; Wood, Black Majority, xiv; William R. Ryan, The World of Thomas Jeremiah: Charles Town on the Eve of the American Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 111; Wevonneda Minis, “Site Honors Black and White Histories,” CPC, Feb. 7, 1999; Linda L. Meggett, “New Monument Honors Slaves,” CPC, July 3, 1999; Jessica Johnson, “Fort Moultrie Seeks Comments on Slave Exhibit,” CPC, Jan. 24, 2008; David Munday, “Betting on History,” CPC, Mar. 13, 2009; Toni Morrison, “A Bench by the Road: Beloved,” World: Journal of the Unitarian Universalist Association, 3 (Jan.–Feb. 1989), 3; Dottie Ashley, “‘Bench by the Road’ Tribute to Slaves,” CPC, July 28, 2008; Ryan Quinn, “Honoring Those Lost,” CPC, June 12, 2011.

54. Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 203–4, 208–9; Bowers, “Michael Allen Brings Together”; Marvin Dulaney, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Oct. 15, 2013; Weyeneth, Historic Preservation, 157–58; Kitty Robinson, interview by Blain Roberts, Aug. 13, 2009, Charleston, SC; “Sale of Historic House Goes On,” CPC, Dec. 12, 1995.

55. Weyeneth, Historic Preservation, 133; Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 17–18, 58, 84–97, 115–16; “Magnolia Plantation House,” Tour Guide Notes, n.d., n.p., and “The Magnolia Plantation,” n.d., n.p., both in Clippings Binder, MPA; R.J. Lamrose, “The Abusable Past,” Radical History Review, 57 (1993): 275–76 (“dream come true” quote 275); David K. Shipler, A Country of Strangers: Blacks and Whites in America (New York: Knopf, 1997), 165.

56. Deneshia Graham, “Tour Teaches History of Slavery,” CPC, Nov. 7, 2004; Kyle Stock, “Selling Slavery,” CPC, July 26, 2008; Bruce Allison, “Youthful Insight,” CPC, June 11, 2002; Jim Rutenberg, “Dueling Visions of the Old South,” NYT, Sept. 13, 2009; Drayton Hall Tours, Mar. 21, 2006, Mar. 22, 2006, Mar. 23, 2006, Aug. 16, 2009, and June 21, 2011; Thurston Hatcher, “Slave Cabins May Be Restored,” CPC, May 4, 1992; David Quick, “How Garden Will Grow at Boone Hall,” CPC, Apr. 2, 1998; Robert Behre, “A Restoration of History,” CPC, Mar. 7, 2006; Adam Parker, “Plantation Confronts its History,” CPC, Sept. 10, 2006; Allyson Bird, “Open to Interpretation,” CPC, Oct. 20, 2008; Jill L. Norman, “Middleton Place Widening Black Focus,” CNC, Jan. 25, 1990; Bo Petersen, “Middleton’s Slaves Named in New Exhibit,” CPC, Feb. 1, 2005.

57. Robert Behre, “Gullah Project Is Latest Way Area Presents Black History,” CPC, Nov. 20, 2006; Stock, “Selling Slavery”; Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 111–17.

58. Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 103, 113–58; From Slavery to Freedom Tours, Magnolia Plantation, Aug. 16, 2009 and June 21, 2011; Rutenberg, “Dueling Visions of the Old South.”

59. Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 103, 113–58; From Slavery to Freedom Tours, Aug. 16, 2009 and June 21, 2011; Rutenberg, “Dueling Visions of the Old South”; Holloway, Jim Crow Wisdom, 200.

60. Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 128–29 (Preston quote 128); Jennifer Haupt, interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Nov. 11, 2014, Charleston, SC; Caroline Howell, interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Nov. 11, 2014, Charleston, SC.

61. Battle, “Confronting Slavery,” 128–29 (Preston quote 128), 138, 138n157; Haupt, interview; Howell, interview; Sandra Jackson-Opoku, “Black Charleston: A Blend of History and Southern Charm,” Essence, May 1, 1985, 24; Norman, “Middleton Place Widening Black Focus”; Parker, “The Whole Story.”

62. Haupt, interview; Howell, interview.

63. Rutenberg, “Dueling Visions of the Old South”; House Tour, Boone Hall Plantation, Aug. 15, 2009; House Tour, Middleton Place Plantation, Aug. 16, 2009; House Tour, Magnolia Plantation, Aug. 16, 2009; Brundage, Southern Past, 327; Jennifer L. Eichstedt and Stephen Small, Representations of Slavery: Race and Ideology in Southern Plantation Museums (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2002), 170–202.

64. Aiken-Rhett House Tours, Oct. 19 and Oct. 20, 2005; Nathaniel Russell House Tour, Aug. 14, 2009.

65. Campbell, interview.

CONCLUSION: DENMARK VESEY’S GARDEN

1. Robert Behre, “NAACP to Protest Secession Event,” CPC, Dec. 3, 2010.

2. “The South’s Secession Commemoration,” The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Dec. 9, 2010; Carl Weinburg, “Nat Turner Rebellion Cotillion,” OAH Magazine of History 25 (Apr. 2011): 3; Gina Smith, “NAACP Plans Protests as South Celebrates Confederacy,” State, Dec. 12, 2010; Behre, “NAACP to Protest Secession Event.”

3. Dot Scott, interview by Blain Roberts and others, Dec. 20, 2010, Charleston, SC. Other quotes from and descriptions of the Secession Ball and protests are based on observations by Blain Roberts, who attended the events.

4. Manuel Roig-Franzia, “At Charleston’s Secession Ball, Divided Opinions on the Spirit of S.C.,” WP, Dec. 22, 2010; Michael Givens, interview by Blain Roberts, David Usborne, and Edward Pilkington, Dec. 20, 2010, Charleston, SC.

5. Nelson B. Rivers III, Secession Ball protest, Dec. 20, 2010.

6. Roig-Franzia, “At Charleston’s Secession Ball, Divided Opinions on the Spirit of S.C.”

7. “Ball Draws Celebrators, Protestors,” State, Dec. 21, 2010; “‘Secession Ball’ Marks Start of American Civil War with Champagne and Dancing,” Guardian, Dec. 21, 2010.

8. R.L. Schreadley, “Slavery Drove the South to Doorstep of Disunion,” CPC, Dec. 14, 2010; Robert Behre, “President Obama Asked by Mayor Riley to Participate in Area’s Observance of Start of Civil War,” CPC, Dec. 16, 2010; “Civil War Is Nothing to Celebrate,” State, Dec. 12, 2010; Warren Bolton, “What’s There to Celebrate,” State, Dec. 17, 2010; “South Carolina Secedes: A Four Act Re-Enactment of South Carolina’s Secession Convention,” program in authors’ possession.

9. Robert Behre, “Historical Secession Marker Unveiled, Protests Ongoing,” CPC, Dec. 20, 2010; Roig-Franzia, “At Charleston’s Secession Ball, Divided Opinions on the Spirit of S.C.”

10. Bo Moore, interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Apr. 14, 2011, Charleston, SC.

11. The description of the Fort Sumter sesquicentennial and responses to it are based on the observations of Ethan J. Kytle, who attended many of the events. See also “Observing the Sesquicentennial of the Civil War, Charleston, South Carolina, Schedule of Events—April 2011,” Program, in authors’ possession.

12. Brian Hicks, “Robert Smalls’ Legacy Will Be Remembered This Weekend,” CPC, May 8, 2012; Robert Behre, “Charleston Marking 150th Anniversary of the Civil War’s Biggest Local Battle,” CPC, July 7, 2013. The 54th Massachusetts marker was not completed and installed until late 2015. Robert Behre, “54th Massachusetts Marker Tells Another Side of Civil War Story,” CPC, Jan. 1, 2016. Our account of the Martyrs of the Race Course ceremony is based on our observations at the event and David W. Blight, “Clementa Pinckney, a Martyr of Reconciliation,” Atlantic, June 22, 2015.

13. Harris Jordan, “Charleston Mercury Past, Present and Future,” CM, 2012, charlestonmercury.com/index.php/en/news/211-charleston-mercury-past-present-and-future; Charles W. Waring III in CM Magazine: Sesquicentennial 2011, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 5; Herb Frazier, “Preparing for the Sesquicentennial: Slavery in Barbados,” CM, Dec. 14, 2010; Herb Frazier, “Preparing for the Sesquicentennial: Columbus and Slavery in the Caribbean,” CM, Nov. 30, 2010; Herb Frazier, “Preparing for the Sesquicentennial: Haiti and Slave Revolts,” CM, Dec. 14, 2010; “Slings and Arrows of the Sesquicentennial: Publisher Defends Newspaper from BBC Smear,” CM, Apr. 19, 2011; “Myths, History, and Mr. Lincoln’s War,” CM, Dec. 14, 2010; “Slavery, Our Name, and a Visit with the BBC,” CM, Apr. 7, 2011.

14. Brian Hicks, “Smalls Monument Falls a Month After Dedication,” CPC, June 22, 2012; Katherine Saunders Pemberton, phone interview by Blain Roberts and Ethan J. Kytle, Sept. 17, 2012; Brian Hicks, “Smalls Marker Back on the Battery,” CPC, July 19, 2012.

15. Stephanie E. Yuhl, “Hidden in Plain Sight: Centering the Domestic Slave Trade in American Public History,” JSH 79 (Aug. 2013): 619–21; Herb Frazier, “Hearing the Passions of History,” CM, June 14, 2011; Edward Rothstein, “Emancipating History,” NYT, Mar. 11, 2011.

16. Robert Behre, “McLeod Plantation—Opening This Week—Tackles Slavery, Freedom,” CPC, Apr. 20, 2015; David Slade, “$3.3 M for McLeod; Plantation Purchased the Latest in String of Deals for PRC,” CPC, Oct. 22, 2010; McLeod Plantation Tour, June 14, 2017.

17. Joseph McGill, interview by Blain Roberts, Sept. 13, 2013, Charleston, SC; The Slave Dwelling Project, slavedwellingproject.org/; Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (New York: Pantheon, 1998), 46–48; Jennifer Schuessler, “Confronting Slavery at Long Island’s Oldest Estates,” NYT, Aug. 12, 2015.

18. Wevonneda Minis, “Project Seeks to Save Slave Cabins,” CPC, May 8, 2010; McGill, interview; Robert Behre, “Report Assesses Conditions of Several S.C. Slave Dwellings,” CPC, Jan. 10, 2016; The Slave Dwelling Project, slavedwellingproject.org/.

19. McGill, interview; The Slave Dwelling Project, slavedwellingproject.org/; Bruce Smith, “Slave Dwelling Project Works Toward Preservation,” CPC, Aug. 26, 2013; Behre, “Report Assesses Conditions of Several S.C. Slave Dwellings.”

20. Minis, “Project Seeks to Save Slave Cabins”; McGill, interview.

21. Historic Charleston Foundation, ed., The City of Charleston Tour Guide Training Manual (Charleston: City of Charleston, 2011), in authors’ possession; Derek Legette, “Reclaiming History: Charleston Commemorates Site of First Memorial Day Celebration,” CPC, June 1, 2010; Ted Mellnik, “The Remarkable History of Charleston’s Racial Divide, as Told by the City’s Silent Statues,” WP, Wonkblog, June 24, 2015, washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/06/24/the-remarkable-history-of-charlestons-racial-divide-as-told-by-the-citys-silent-statues/.

22. Robert Behre, “Slave Auction Marker Dedicated Thursday Tells ‘A Bigger Story,’” CPC, Mar. 10, 2016; “Slave Auctions” Historical Marker Dedication Handout, Mar. 10, 2016, in authors’ possession; Robert Behre, “Painting of 1853 Charleston Slave Auction Basis of Old Exchange Building Exhibit,” CPC, Feb. 11, 2016; Edwin C. Breeden, phone interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Mar. 1, 2016; Edwin C. Breeden, email to Ethan J. Kytle, Mar. 2, 2016.

23. “Worthy Plan for Black History,” CPC, Jan. 12, 2000, Scattered Site African American Heritage Museum File, HCF; Diane Knich, “Charleston Mayor Joe Riley Expects to Raise $75 Million for the International African American Museum Before He Leaves Office,” CPC, July 12, 2015.

24. Henry Darby, phone interview by Blain Roberts and Ethan J. Kytle, Feb. 3, 2010; Susan Jacoby, “Weekend Getaways; Beyond Charm in Charleston,” NYT, May 2, 1999.

25. Darby, phone interview; John P. Thomas, The History of the South Carolina Military Academy (Charleston, 1893). The Sumter Guard had dropped the “s” from its name by this point.

26. Ron Menchaca, “Marion Square Redo Under Way,” CPC, Apr. 6, 2000; Elsa McDowell, “Monument’s Future Needs Consideration,” CPC, Jan. 23, 2001; Darby, phone interview; Curtis Franks, interview by Ethan J. Kytle, Aug. 14, 2009, Charleston, SC; Bernard E. Powers Jr., phone interview by Blain Roberts and Ethan J. Kytle, Feb. 12, 2010.

27. David Slade, “Groundbreaking for Vesey Monument,” CPC, Feb. 2, 2010; Curtis J. Franks, interview by Daron Lee Calhoun II and Deborah Wright, transcript, May 5, 2104, p. 14, ARC; Douglas R. Egerton and Robert L. Paquette, introduction to their The Denmark Vesey Affair: A Documentary History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2017), 5n1; Kevin R. Eberle, A History of Charleston’s Hampton Park (Charleston: History Press, 2012), 28–31.

28. Slade, “Groundbreaking for Vesey Monument”; Jason Hardin, “Historians to Debate Vesey Legacy, Planned Monument,” CPC, Mar. 22, 2001.

29. Marsha Guerard, “Memorial to Those Who Perished,” CPC, Dec. 14, 1995; Robert Behre, “Holocaust Memorial Plan Studied,” CPC, Mar. 28, 1996; Robert Behre, “Ground Broken at Site, Holocaust Memorial,” CPC, July 24, 1997; Robert Behre, “Holocaust Memorial Taking Shape,” CPC, Aug. 17, 1998; “David Popowski: The Holocaust Memorial on Marion Square Has Special Meaning . . . ,” CPC, May 15, 1999; Robert Behre, “Remembering Holocaust Memorial Dedication Set,” CPC, June 6, 1999; Plaque, Holocaust Memorial, Marion Square, Charleston, SC.

30. Powers, phone interview.

31. Behre, “Remembering Holocaust Memorial Dedication Set”; Darby, phone interview.

32. Jamaica Kincaid, “Sowers and Reapers: The Unquiet World of a Flower Bed,” New Yorker, Jan. 22, 2001, pp. 41–42.

33. Adam Parker, “Denmark Vesey Monument Unveiled in Hampton Park Before Hundreds,” CPC, Feb. 15, 2014; Deborah Wright and Daron Calhoun, “Remember Denmark Vesey of Charleston,” Avery Messenger (Summer 2014): 7; Barney Blakeney, “Vesey Monument Unveiled as First to Honor an African American in the Lowcountry,” CHR, Feb. 19, 2014; Franks, interview by Calhoun and Wright, p. 14; Inscription, Vesey Monument, Hampton Park, Charleston, SC.

34. Wright and Calhoun, “Remember Denmark Vesey of Charleston,” 8.

35. Joseph P. Riley Jr., interview by Blain Roberts and Ethan J. Kytle, June 17, 2015, Charleston, SC.

AFTERWORD: THE SAVING GRACE OF THE EMANUEL NINE?

1. Joseph P. Riley Jr., interview by Blain Roberts and Ethan J. Kytle, June 17, 2015, Charleston, SC.

2. Justin Miller, “Dylann Roof Visited Slave Plantations, Confederate Landmarks,” Daily Beast, June 20, 2015; Catherine Thompson, “An Annotated Guide to the Charleston Massacre Suspect’s Racist Photo Trove,” Talking Points Memo, June 23, 2015; Neeley Tucker and Peter Holley, “Dylan Roof’s Eerie Tour of American Slavery at Its Beginning, Middle, and End,” WP, July 1, 2015; Edward Ball, “United States v. Dylann Roof,” NYRB, Mar. 9, 2017, p. 6; Evaluation of Competency to Stand Trial, 18 U.S.C. 4247 (Section 4241), Defendant Dylann Roof, Examiner James C. Ballenger, M.D., Nov. 15, 2016, pp. 32–33, posted on post andcourier.com/church_shooting/newly-released-documents-say-dylann-roof-saw-his-reputation-not/article_c25f720a-35b1-11e7-99fb-fbc1a612bf73.html.

3. Ball, “United States v. Dylann Roof,” 6.

4. “As SC Honors Church Victims, Alabama Lowers Its Flags,” NYT, June 24, 2015; Frances Robles, Richard Fausset, and Michael Barbaro, “Nikki Haley, South Carolina Governor, Calls for Removal of Confederate Battle Flag,” NYT, June 23, 2015; Cynthia Roldan and Deanna Pan, “Glenn McConnell Backs Removal of Confederate Flag; Civil War Descendants Vow Fight,” CPC, June 25, 2015.

5. David W. Blight, “Clementa Pinckney, a Martyr of Reconciliation,” Atlantic, June 22, 2015.

6. Kevin Sack and Gardiner Harris, “President Obama Eulogizes Charleston Pastor as One Who Understood Grace,” NYT, June 26, 2015; Barack Obama, “Remarks by the President in Eulogy for the Honorable Reverend Clementa Pinckney,” June 26, 2015, obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/06/26/remarks-president-eulogy-honorable-reverend-clementa-pinckney; Michiko Kakutani, “Obama’s Eulogy, Which Found Its Place in History,” NYT, July 3, 2015.

7. Alan Blinder and Richard Fausett, “South Carolina House Votes to Remove Confederate Flag,” NYT, July 9, 2015; Stephanie McCrummen and Elahe Izadi, “Confederate Flag Comes Down on South Carolina’s Statehouse Grounds,” WP, July 10, 2015; Michael Prince, Rally ’Round the Flag, Boys! South Carolina and the Confederate Flag (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), 45–49.

8. Melissa Boughton, “Confederate Monument a Focus of Debate After Graffiti Appears,” CPC, June 21, 2015; Peter Holley, “‘Black Lives Matter’ Graffiti Appears on Confederate Memorials Across the U.S.,” WP, June 23, 2015; Dave Munday, “Vandal Quotes President Barack Obama with Spray Paint on Confederate Memorial Statue,” CPC, July 10, 2015; Kurt Luther, “Tracking Vandalism of Confederate Monuments,” Aug. 22, 2015, kurtluther.com/confederate/; Campbell Robertson, Monica Davey, and Julie Bosman, “Calls to Drop Confederate Emblems Spread Nationwide,” NYT, June 23, 2015; Richard Fausset and Alan Blinder, “South Carolina Settles Its Decades-Old Dispute Over a Confederate Flag,” NYT, July 9, 2015; Lauren McGaughy, “UT Removes Jefferson Davis Statue,” Houston Chronicle, Aug. 30, 2015.

9. Noah Remnick, “Yale Grapples with Ties to Slavery in Debate Over a College’s Name,” NYT, Sept. 11, 2015; Emma Peters, “Jefferson Davis Award Discontinued,” Bowdoin Orient, Oct. 21, 2015, bowdoinorient.com/article/10551; Andy Newman, “At Princeton, Woodrow Wilson, a Heralded Alum, Is Recast as an Intolerant One,” NYT, Nov. 22, 2015; Noah Remnick, “Yale Will Drop John Calhoun’s Name from Building,” NYT, Feb. 11, 2017.

10. Cleveland Tinker, “County Votes to Offer ‘Old Joe’ to United Daughters of the Confederacy,” Gainesville Sun, May 23, 2017; “A Protest in Virginia with Echoes of the Klan,” NYT, May 17, 2017; Daniel Victor, “New Orleans City Council Votes to Remove Confederate Monuments,” NYT, Dec. 17, 2015; Christopher Mele, “New Orleans Begins Removing Statues Commemorating the Confederacy,” NYT, Apr. 24, 2017; Avi Selk, “New Orleans Removes a Tribute to ‘the Lost Cause of the Confederacy’—with Snipers Standing By,” WP, Apr. 24, 2017; Richard Fausset, “Tempers Flare,” NYT, May 7, 2017; Brentin Mock, “How Robert E. Lee Got Knocked Off His Pedestal,” Atlantic, May 29, 2017; Campbell Robertson, “New Orleans Removes Beauregard Statue and Subdued Crowd Looks On,” NYT, May 17, 2017; Campbell Robertson, “From Lofty Perch, New Orleans Monument to Confederacy Comes Down,” NYT, May 19, 2017; Peter Applebome, “New Orleans Mayor’s Message on Race,” NYT, May 24, 2017.

11. Mitch Landrieu, “We Can’t Walk Away from This Truth,” Atlantic, May 23, 2017.

12. Laura Vozzella, “White Nationalist Richard Spencer Leads Torch-bearing Protesters Defending Lee Statue,” WP, May 14, 2017; Hawes Spencer and Matt Stevens, “23 Arrested and Tear Gas Deployed after a K.K.K. Rally in Virginia,” NYT, July 8, 2017; Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Brian M. Rosenthal, “Man Charged after White Nationalist Rally in Charlottesville Ends in Deadly Violence,” NYT, Aug. 12, 2017; Associated Press, “Confederate Monuments Removed or Vandalized Across the U.S.,” NYT, Aug. 18, 2017; “Confederate Monuments Are Coming Down Across the U.S. Here’s a List,” NYT, Aug. 22, 2017.

13. Southern Poverty Law Center, “Weekend Read: The State of the Confederacy in 2017,” Apr. 28, 2017, splcenter.org/news/2017/04/28/weekend-read-state-confederacy-2017; Southern Poverty Law Center, “Whose Heritage? Public Symbols of the Confederacy,” Apr. 21, 2016, splcenter.org/20160421/whose-heritage-public-symbols-confederacy; “Confederate Monuments Are Coming Down”; Jonah Engel Bromwich, “Confederate Monument, Shunned by One Kentucky City, Is Welcomed in Another,” NYT, May 30, 2017.

14. Robert Behre, “Heritage Act Isn’t Likely to Go the Way of the Confederate Flag,” CPC, July 19, 2015; Jeff Hartsell, “Many Citadel Alumni Urge Flag’s Removal,” CPC, Nov. 14, 2015; Paul Bowers, “Citadel Alumni Renew Pressure to Remove Confederate Flag from Chapel,” CPC, Sept. 1, 2017.

15. James W. Loewen, “Why Should Charleston Keep Honoring John C. Calhoun?” CPC, July 13, 2015; Tom Grubisich and Elizabeth Bowers, “How Charleston’s Next Mayor Can Help the City Erase Its Stubborn Color Line,” CCP, Oct. 22, 2015; “Rename Calhoun Street,” CPC, July 6, 2015; Diane Knich, “Portion of Calhoun Designated as Mother Emanuel Way Memorial Dist.,” CPC, Sept. 9, 2015; Robert Behre, “Charleston Looks at Amending—Not Removing—Its Confederate-Era Monuments,” CPC, Aug. 17, 2017; Abigail Darlington, “Was the Denmark Vesey Monument in Charleston’s Hampton Park Vandalized?” CPC, May 8, 2017.

16. Applebome, “New Orleans Mayor’s”; David A. Graham, “Local Officials Want to Remove Confederate Monuments—But States Won’t Let Them,” Atlantic, Aug. 25, 2017; Antonio Olivo, “After Charlottesville, Va., Democrats See Opening to Change 114-Year-Old Monuments Law,” WP, Aug. 25, 2017; Morgan Wagner, “Standing Mississippi Law Protects Historical Monuments,” WTOK ABC News, May 25, 2017, wtok.com/content/news/Standing-Mississippi-law-protects-historical-monuments-424437524.html; Lynn Bonner, “What’s the Future for NC’s Confederate Statues?” Raleigh News and Observer, Aug. 14, 2017; Andrew Blake, “Alabama Governor Signs Law Protecting Confederate Monuments from Removal,” Washington Times, May 27, 2017; Arielle Dreher and Donna Ladd, “State Rep. Karl Oliver Calls for Lynching, Later Apologizes,” Jackson Free Press, May. 21, 2017; Sarah McCammon, “Feeling Kinship with the South, Northerners Let Their Confederate Flags Fly,” National Public Radio, May 4, 2017; Chris Kenning, “Confederate Battle Flag Sales Boom after Charlottesville Clash,” Aug. 29, 2017, Reuters.

17. Nick Corasaniti, “At a Donald Trump Rally, a Confederate Flag Goes Up, and Quickly Comes Down,” NYT, Aug. 11, 2016; Richard Fausset, “As Trump Rises, So Do Some Hands Waving Confederate Battle Flags,” NYT, Nov. 18, 2016.

18. Vozzella, “White Nationalist Richard Spencer Leads Torch-bearing Protesters Defending Lee Statue”; Stolberg and Rosenthal, “Man Charged after White Nationalist Rally in Charlottesville Ends in Deadly Violence”; Summer Concepcion, “David Duke: Charlottesville Rally ‘Fulfills the Promises of Donald Trump,’” Talking Points Memo, Aug. 12, 2017; John Wagner, Jenna Johnson, Robert Costa, and Sari Horwitz, “White House Confronts Backlash Over Trump’s Remarks on Charlottesville,” WP, Aug. 13, 2017.

19. Amy B. Wang, “One Group Loved Trump’s Remarks about Charlottesville: White Supremacists,” WP, Aug. 13, 2017; “Transcript and Video: President Trump Speaks about Charlottesville,” NYT, Aug. 14, 2017; Michael D. Shear and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Defends Initial Remarks on Charlottesville; Again Blames ‘Both Sides,’” NYT, Aug. 15, 2017; “Full Text: Trump’s Comments on White Supremacists, ‘Alt-Left’ in Charlottesville,” Politico, Aug. 15, 2017; Michael D. Shear and Maggie Haberman, “Defiant, Trump Laments Assault on Culture and Revives a Bogus Pershing Story,” NYT, Aug. 17, 2017; Mark Landler and Maggie Haberman, “At Rally, Trump Blames Media for Country’s Deepening Divisions,” NYT, Aug. 22, 2017; “President Trump Ranted for 77 Minutes in Phoenix. Here’s What He Said,” Time, Aug. 23, 2017.

20. Shailagh Murray, “A Family Tree Rooted in American Soil,” WP, Oct. 2, 2008; “Transcript: Read Michelle Obama’s Full Speech from the 2016 DNC,” WP, July 26, 2016; Daniel Victor, “Bill O’Reilly Defends Comments about ‘Well Fed’ Slaves,” NYT, July 27, 2016.

21. Marist College Institute for Public Opinion, “A Nation Still Divided: The Confederate Flag,” McClatchy-Marist Poll, Aug. 6, 2015, maristpoll.marist.edu/wp-content/misc/usapolls/us150722/CivilWar/McClatchy-Marist%20Poll_National%20Release%20and%20Tables_The%20Confederate%20Flag_August%202015.pdf; Marist College Institute for Public Opinion, untitled poll, Aug. 2017, maristpoll.marist.edu/wp-content/misc/usapolls/us170814_PBS/NPR_PBS%20NewsHour_Marist%20Poll_National%20Nature%20of%20the%20Sample%20and%20Tables_August%2017,%202017.pdf#page=3; Pew Research Center, “On Views of Race and Inequality, Blacks and Whites Are Worlds Apart,” June 27, 2016, pewsocialtrends.org/2016/06/27/on-views-of-race-and-inequality-blacks-and-whites-are-worlds-apart/; PRRI/Brooking Survey, “How Immigration and Concerns about Cultural Change Are Shaping the 2016 Election,” June 23, 2016, prri.org/research/prri-brookings-poll-immigration-economy-trade-terrorism-presidential-race/.