NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1 See, for instance, Ariela J. Gross, “Litigating Whiteness: Trials of Racial Determination in the Nineteenth-Century South,” Yale Law Review 108, no. 1 (October 1998): 109–88, and Walter Johnson, “The Slave Trader, the White Slave, and the Politics of Racial Determination in the 1850s,” Journal of American History 87, no. 1 (June 2000): 13–38.

2 See Martin Bernal, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, vol. 2, The Fabrication of Ancient Greece, 1785–1985 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987), and “Race, Class, and Gender in the Formation of the Aryan Model of Greek Origins, South Atlantic Quarterly 94, no. 4 (Fall 1995): 786–1008, and Michele V. Ronnick, ed., The Autobiography of William Sanders Scarborough: An American Journey from Slavery to Scholarship (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2005), 175, 207, 243, 351.

CHAPTER 1: GREEKS AND SCYTHIANS

1 See Norman Davies, Europe: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 7.
     Nineteenth-century scholars sought an Aryan or Indo-European race of ancestors, even though cultural markers such as archaeological sites do not correlate reliably with languages or biological lineage. See Peter S. Wells, Beyond Celts, Germans and Scythians (London: Duckworth, 2001), Malcolm Chapman, The Celts: The Construction of a Myth (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), and J. P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth (London: Thames and Hudson, 1989).

2 In “Europa als Bewegung: Zur literarischen Konstruktion eines Faszinosum” (unpublished paper, 2001), Ottmar Ette discusses the nowhereness of the idea of Europe. Like the idea of the Caucasus, that of Europe grows out of a vague borderland. See esp. 5, 15–17.

3 See Robert Bedrosian, “Eastern Asia Minor and the Caucasus in Ancient Mythologies,” http://www.virtualscape.com/rbedrosian/mythint.htm.

4 Fritz F. Pleitgen, Durch den wilden Kaukasus (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2000), 22–24, 26.

5 This discussion leans heavily on Wells, Beyond Celts, esp. 74–77, 104.

6 Hippocrates, Airs, Waters, Places, part 23, in Hippocrates, with an English Translation by W. H. S. Jones, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1923), 24.

7 Tony Judt, “The Eastern Front, 2004,” New York Times, 5 Dec. 2004; Davies, Europe, 53. See also Bryan Sykes, The Seven Daughters of Eve (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001).

8 See http://www.martinmchale.com/clan/celt.html.

9 See http://www.livius.org/he-hg/hecataeus/hecataeus.htm.

10 Pergamon and Altes Museum, Berlin, in http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/herodotus03.html.

11 “Herodotus,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 21 May 2007, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9040200.

12 See O. Kimball Armayor, “Did Herodotus Ever Go to the Black Sea?” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 82 (1978): 57–62, Cheikh Anta Diop, The African Origin of Civilization, ed. and trans. Mercer Cook (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 1974), 1:115 (n. 3), and Frank Martin, “The Egyptian Ethnicity Controversy and the Sociology of Knowledge,” Journal of Black Studies 14, no. 3 (March 1984): 295–325. See also J. Harmatta, “Herodotus, Historian of the Cimmerians and the Scythians,” Giuseppe Nenci, “L’Occidente ‘barbarico,’” and discussion, in Hérodote et les peuples non grecs, ed. Olivier Reverdin and Bernard Grange, Entretiens sur l’antiquité classique, vol. 35 (Geneva: Vandœuvres, 1988), 115–30, 301–20. See also Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 96–97.

13 Herodotus, Histories, 4.75:239.

14 Francis R. B. Godolphin, “Herodotus; On the Scythians,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, n.s., 32, no. 5, From the Lands of the Scythians: Ancient Treasures from the Museums of the U.S.S.R., 3000 B.C.–100 B.C. (1973–74), 137. The quotes come from Herodotus, Histories, 4. 64 and 4.65.

15 Herodotus, Histories, 4.67:236; 4.110–16:249–51.

16 Hippocrates, Airs, Waters, Places, part 24:135, 137.

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid., part 20:125.

19 Ibid., part 18:117, 119.

20 Ibid., parts 21–22:125, 127, 129.

21 Ibid., part 16:115; part 23:131, 133.

22 Ibid., part 16:115; part 23:131, 133.

23 Ibid., part 23:133.

24 D. C. Braund and G. R. Tsetskhladze, “The Export of Slaves from Colchis,” Classical Quarterly, n.s., 39, no. 1 (1989): 114, 118–19; M. I. Finley, Economy and Society in Ancient Greece (New York: Viking Press, 1982), 169, 173; Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 149–50.

25 British Broadcasting Corporation, “Ancient Greek Slavery and Its Relationship to Democracy,” http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A471467; Finley, Economy and Society in Ancient Greece, 167–73, 175.

26 M. I. Finley, “Was Greek Civilization Based on Slave Labour?” in Slavery in Classical Antiquity: Views and Controversies (Cambridge: Heffer, 1968), 150–52.

27 Herodotus, Histories, 4.1–4:215–18.

28 Ibid., 3.97:193.

29 Finley, “Was Greek Civilization Based on Slave Labour?” 146.

CHAPTER 2: ROMANS, CELTS, GAULS, AND GERMANI

1 Tacitus, Germania, ed. and trans. J. B. Rives (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), 21.

2 The Geography of Strabo, Loeb Classical Library, 8 vols., Greek texts with facing English translation by H. L. Jones (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1917–32), book 4, chap. 4: 2, 238–39. Loeb edition on the web, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ Thayer/E/Roman/ Texts/Strabo/home.html.

3 The Geography of Strabo, book 7, chap. 1 (Loeb vol. 3, p. 151), http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/ Strabo/7A*.html.

4 For ancient Germans as noble savages, see Audrey Smedley, “Race,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 Sept. 2007, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-234682. See also Bruce Baum, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 37.

5 For a broader explanation of Caesar’s career and the place of the Gallic war within it, see Arnold Toynbee, “Caesar, Julius,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 9 Sept. 2007, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9737. On the sale of slaves and the role of Roman slave dealing, see Julius Caesar, Seven Commentaries on the Gallic War, ed. and trans. Carolyn Hammond (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 52, 62, 227.

6 Caesar, Gallic War, xxvii, 3. Caesar’s three-way division, nowadays familiar, was contested in its time.

7 Ibid., 181, 183, 193.

8 Ibid., 51, 57, 66, also 104, 116, 158, 186, 193, 236–37.

9 Ibid., 186.

10 Ibid., 29, 31. Of languages spoken in modern France, Breton (a Celtic language) seems more closely related to the Gallic language Caesar mentions than does French, a Latin language.

11 Ibid., 3, 131.

12 Ibid., 124, 129–31.

13 Ibid., 33.

14 Ibid., 95–96.

15 Pliny the Elder, Natural History: A Selection, trans. and ed. John F. Healy (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1991), 89.

16 Ibid., 42–43, 75, 376.

17 Ibid., 75–78, 105, 122.

18 Tacitus, Germania, 77–78.

19 Ibid., 83.

20 Ibid., 81–83, 86–87.

21 Ibid., 52–57, 62–63.

22 Ibid., 77.

23 Ibid., 85.

24 Ibid., 78.

25 Ibid., 77.

26 Caesar, Gallic War, 37, 95–96. See also Norman Davies, Europe: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 53, 84, 214–18.

27 Peter John Heather, “Germany,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-58082; Rives, in Tacitus, Germania, 64–71.

28 Oxford English Dictionary Online, http/dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50094001= 3fquery_type=3dword&queryword= 3dgerman&first= 3d1&max_to_show= 3d10&sort_type= 3dalpha&result_place =3d2&search_id= 3dBPKR-KKy4Nh-5252 &hilite=3d50094001.

29 Davies, Europe, 222.

30 See Robert J. C. Young, The Idea of English Ethnicity (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2008), 16–23, and Tom Shippey, “Tests of Temper,” TLS, 17 October 2008, p. 12.

31 Edward James, “Ancient History: Anglo-Saxons,” BBC.co.uk, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/ overview_anglo_saxons_01.shtml.

32 Tacitus, Germania, 214.

CHAPTER 3: WHITE SLAVERY

1 See Robert L. Paquette, “Enslavement, Methods of,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery, vol. 1, ed. Paul Finkelman and Joseph C. Miller (New York: Macmillan Reference, 1998), 306, Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, ed. Junius P. Rodriguez (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1997), 368–69, and Junius P. Rodridguez, Chronology of World Slavery (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1999), 51–53.

2 James McKillop, “Patrick, Saint,” in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (Oxford University Press, 1998), Oxford Reference Online, http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t70.e3369.

3 David Pelteret, “The Image of the Slave in Some Anglo-Saxon and Norse Sources,” Slavery and Abolition 23, no. 2 (Aug. 2002): 76, 81–83.

4 Jenny Bourne Wahl, “Economics of Slavery,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery, 1:271; Orlando Patterson, “Slavery,” Annual Review of Sociology 3 (1977): 420.

5 The figures come from the Domesday Book of 1086, the Norman census of newly conquered Britain. See Robin Blackburn, “The Old World Background to European Colonial Slavery,” in The Worlds of Unfree Labor, ed. Colin Palmer (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998), 90, originally published in William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., S4, no. 1 (1997).

6 See David Turley, Slavery (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000): 142–43.

7 Robert Brennan, “The Rises and Declines of Serfdom in Medieval and Early Modern Europe,” and Christopher Dyer, “Memories of Freedom: Attitudes towards Serfdom in England, 1200–1350,” in Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage, ed. M. L. Bush (London: Longman, 1996), 271, 277–79.

8 David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 54–55.

9 Alan Fisher, “Chattel Slavery in the Ottoman Empire,” Slavery and Abolition 1, no. 1 (May 1980): 34–36; Iris Origo, “The Domestic Enemy: The Eastern Slaves in Tuscany in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,” Speculum: A Journal of Mediaeval Studies 30, no. 3 (July 1955): 312–24, 326–27, 337, 354.

10 See Linda Colley, Captives (New York: Pantheon, 2002), 47–52, 58, and Robert Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 3–6.

11 “Chapter II-Slavery and Escape” and “Chapter III-Wrecked on a Desert Island,” The Project Gutenberg Etext of Robinson Crusoe, by Daniel Defoe, http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/rbcru10.txt.

12 The phrase “vulnerable aliens” comes from M. I. Finley, quoted in Blackburn, “Old World Background to European Colonial Slavery,” 111.

13 J. H. Galloway, The Sugar Cane Industry: An Historical Geography from Its Origins to 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 11, 22–23; J. H. Galloway, “The Mediterranean Sugar Industry,” Geographical Review 67, no. 2 (April 1977): 180–81, 189–90.

14 Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985), 23–24, 28.

15 Blackburn, “Old World Background to European Colonial Slavery,” 83–84, and Galloway, “Mediterranean Sugar Industry,” 180–90.

16 See Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, 56.

17 Galloway, Sugar Cane Industry, 27, 31, 32, 42. Historians disagree on the degree to which Mediterranean slavery and Latin American–Caribbean slavery resembled each other. While Blackburn stresses the differences between the two slaveries, in scale permitted by plantation agriculture and capitalist processing and distribution and in ideology, Galloway and Mintz emphasize the similarities.

18 See Don Jordan and Michael Walsh, White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain’s White Slaves in America (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 76–77.

19 Ibid., 84–85.

20 Ibid., 76, 171.

21 Ibid., 114–15.

22 Historical Encyclopedia of Slavery, 369.

23 See Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 236, A. Roger Ekirch, Bound for America: The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718–1775 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 125, and Grady McWhiney, Cracker Culture: Celtic Ways in the Old South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988), xiv.

24 Ekirch, Bound for America, 1, 26–27, 135, 139, 193; Gwenda Morgan and Peter Rushton, Eighteenth Century Criminal Transportation: The Formation of the Criminal Atlantic (Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave, 2004), 5, 7, 1; David W. Galenson, “Indentured Servitude,” in A Historical Guide to World Slavery, ed. Seymour Drescher and Stanley L. Engerman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 239.

25 See Michael A. Hoffman II, They Were White and They Were Slaves: The Untold History of the Enslavement of Whites in Early America, 4th ed. (Coeur d’Alene, Idaho: Independent History & Research Co., 1991), 6, 14, 39.

CHAPTER 4: WHITE SLAVERY AS BEAUTY IDEAL

1 François Bernier, “A New Division of the Earth,” originally published anonymously in Journal des Sçavans, 24 April 1684, trans. T. Bendyshe, in Memoirs Read before the Anthropological Society of London 1 (1863–64): 360–64, in The Idea of Race, ed. Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000), 2–4.

2 This information comes from an audio recording of Dirk van der Cruysse speaking at the University of Paris IV (Sorbonne) on 13 Feb. 1999, available through the website of the Centre de Recherche sur la Littérature des Voyages, at http://www.crlv.org/outils/encyclopedie/afficher.php?encyclopedie_id=13. See also van der Cruysse, Chardin le Persan (Paris: Editions Fayard, 1998). The discussion of improving Persians’ looks through intermarriage with Georgians and Circassians is at http://www.iranian.com/Travelers/ June97/Chardin/index.shtml. See also Georgette Legée, “Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840): La Naissance de l’anthropologie à l’epoque de la Révolution Française,” in Scientifiques et sociétés pendant la Révolution et l’Empire (Paris: Editions du CTHS, 1990), 403.

3 Journal du Voyage du Chevalier Chardin en Perse & aux Indes Orientales, par la Mer Noire & par la Colchide (The Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies, 1673–1677) (London: Moses Pitt, 1686), 78, 81–82. My translation.

4 Ibid., 70, 77, 80, 82.

5 Ibid., 105–6, 82–83.

6 Ibid., 105.

7 Ibid., 183, 204–5.

8 http://kaukasus.blogspot.com/ 2007/04/young- georgian-girl.htm and http://www.flickr.com/photos/ 24298774@N00/108738272, http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/Image:Ossetiangirl1883.jpg, Corliss Lamont, The Peoples of the Soviet Union (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1946), facing 79.

9 See Londa Schiebinger, Nature’s Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993), 129–39, and “The Anatomy of Difference: Race and Sex in Eighteenth-Century Science,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 23, no. 4 (Summer 1990): 401.

10 See Pierre H. Boulle, “François Bernier and the Origins of the Modern Concept of Race,” in The Color of Liberty: Histories of Race in France, ed. Sue Peabody and Tyler Edward Stovall (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 11.

11 See Amjad Jaimoukha, The Circassians: A Handbook (Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2001), 16, 168–69.

12 Oxford English Dictionary Online, http/dictionary.oed.com/cgi/ entry/00330118= 3fsingle=3d1&query _type=3dword&queryword =3dodalisque&first =3d1&max_to_show=3d10.

13 Immanuel Kant, Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime (1763), trans. John T. Goldthwait (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 89.

14 Johann Gottfried von Herder, Ideas for the Philosophy of History of Humanity (1:256), quoted in Cedric Dover, “The Racial Philosophy of Johann Herder,” British Journal of Sociology 3, no. 2 (June 1952): 127 (emphasis in original).

15 Edward Daniel Clarke, Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1810–23), 1:35–36.

16 Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 55–56, 120, 193, 162, 202, 536–39, 605.

17 See “Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey,” New York Daily Times, 6 Aug. 1856, http://chnm.gmu.edu/lostmuseum/lm/311/. See “Letter from P. T. Barnum to John Greenwood, 1864,” http://chnm.gmu.edu/lostmuseum/lm/312. Barnum exhibited a woman purported to be a Circassian beauty and example of racial purity in 1865. This information comes from “The Lost Museum” website of American Social History Productions, Inc., George Mason University and the City University of New York. See also Sarah Lewis, “Effecting Incredulity: Comic Retraction as Racial Critique in the Circassian Beauty Spectacle,” paper given at the 20th James A. Porter Colloquium on African American Art, Howard University, 18 April 2009.

18 Classic Encyclopedia Online, http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Circassia.

19 See Joan DelPlato, Multiple Wives, Multiple Pleasures: Representing the Harem, 1800–1875 (Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2002), 22–25, 230–39, and Linda Nochlin, “The Imaginary Orient,” in The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), 33–59.

20 Stephen Railton and the University of Virginia, Uncle Tom’s Cabin and American Culture, http://www.iath.virginia.edu/utc/sentimnt/grslvhp.html.

21 See Linda Nochlin, “The Imaginary Orient,” Art in America 71, no. 5 (May 1983): 126.

22 See Reina Lewis, “‘Oriental’ Femininity as Cultural Commodity: Authorship, Authority, and Authenticity,” in Edges of Empire: Orientalism and Visual Culture, ed. Mary Roberts and Jocelyn Hackforth-Jones (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2005), 95–120.

23 Orientalist scholarship has continued to explore the European gaze in art and literature and the ways its subjects have looked back. See, e.g., Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (London: Routledge, 1996), Rethinking Orientalism: Women, Travel and the Ottoman Harem (London: Tauris, 2004), and Orientalism’s Interlocutors: Painting, Architecture, Photography, ed. J. Beaulieu and Mary Roberts (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002).

24 See Lewis “‘Oriental’ Femininity,” 100.

25 According to the website, it is dedicated to “the memories of the Circassian Genocide victims exiled from their land by Russian Empire.” See http://www.circassianworld.com/About_Site.html.

CHAPTER 5: THE WHITE BEAUTY IDEAL AS SCIENCE

1 This discussion draws heavily on Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994). Also useful were Walter Pater, “Winckelmann,” in The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry (1873) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973), E. M. Butler, The Tyranny of Greece over Germany: A Study of the Influence Exercised by Greek Art and Poetry over the Great German Writers of the Eighteenth, Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries (New York: Macmillan, 1935), and Edouard Pommier, Winckelmann, inventeur de l’histoire de l’art (Paris: Gallimard, 2003). For a modern consideration of the hard, cold ideal body, see Leslie Heywood, Dedication to Hunger: The Anorexic Aesthetic in Modern Culture (Berkeley: University of California, 1996).

2 See Sander Gilman, On Blackness without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982), 26, Potts, Flesh and the Ideal, 160–61, and Steven Daniel deCaroli, “Go Hither and Look: Aesthetics, History and the Exemplary in Late Eighteenth-Century Philosophy” (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 2001), 248–316.

3 David Bindman, Ape to Apollo: Aesthetics and the Idea of Race in the 18th Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 89–90.

4 See Pater, “Winckelmann,” in The Renaissance, 191–92. See also Michael Bronski, “The Male Body in the Western Mind,” Harvard Gay & Lesbian Review 5, no. 4: 28–30, and “Greek Revival: The Implications of Polychromy” and Thomas Noble Howe, “Greece, Ancient: Architectural Decoration, Colour,” both Grove Art Online, http://www.groveart.com/shared/views/article.Html?section=art.034254.2.2.3.3. See also Miles Unger, “That Classic White Sculpture Once Had a Paint Job,” New York Times, 14 Oct. 2007, Art 35, and Penelope Dimitriou, “The Polychromy of Greek Sculpture: To the Beginning of the Hellenistic Period,” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1951), 1–15.

5 A. D. Potts, “Greek Sculpture and Roman Copies: Anton Raphael Mengs and the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 43 (1980): 150–51, Mark Stevens and Annalyn Swan, de Kooning: An American Master (New York: Knopf, 2004), 67, 102.

6 A history of the various controversial cleanings of the Parthenon sculptures appears in two versions by Ian Jenkins, The 1930s Cleaning of the Parthenon Sculptures in the British Museum, http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/ parthenon/indes.html, and Cleaning and Controversy: The Parthenon Sculptures 1811–1939, British Museum Occasional Paper no. 146 (2001).

7 Potts, Flesh and the Ideal, 17; Pater, “Winckelmann,” 185, 192; Butler, Tyranny of Greece over Germany, 28–34, 42–43.

8 E. M. Butler concluded that “the Germans have imitated the Greeks more slavishly; they have been obsessed by them more utterly, and they have assimilated them less than any other race. The extent of the Greek influence is incalculable throughout Europe; its intensity is at its highest in Germany.” Tyranny of Greece over Germany, 6.

9 Johann Kaspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy, vol. 2, part 2, 362, 369.

10 Bindman, Ape to Apollo, 95, 118, 123.

11 Miriam Claude Meijer, Race and Aesthetics in the Anthropology of Petrus Camper (1722–1789) (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999), 97–115, Stephen Jay Gould, “Petrus Camper’s Angle,” Natural History, July 1987, pp. 12–18.

12 Charles White, An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables; and from the Former to the Latter (London, 1799), 134–35. See also Angela Rosenthal, “Visceral Culture: Blushing and the Legibility of Whiteness in Eighteenth-Century British Portraiture,” Art History 27, no. 4 (Sept. 2004): 567–68, 572–74, 578.

CHAPTER 6: JOHANN FRIEDRICH BLUMENBACH NAMES WHITE PEOPLE “CAUCASIAN”

1 K. F. H. Marx, “Zum Andenken an Johann Friedrich Blumenbach,” in The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach…With Memoirs of Him by Marx and Flourens and an Account of His Anthropological Museum by Professor R. Wagner, and the Inaugural Dissertation of John Hunter, M.D., on the Varieties of Man, trans. Thomas Bendyshe (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1865), 26–27. See Lisbet Koerner, Linnaeus: Nature and Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 56; Tore Frängsmyr, “Introduction,” in Linnaeus: The Man and His Work, ed. Tore Frängsmyr, rev. ed. (Canton: Mass.: Science History Publications, 1994 [originally published 1983]), ix; and Luigi Marino, Praeceptores Germaniae: Göttingen 1770–1820 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 48–52, 74.

2 See Patricia Fara, Sex, Botany and Empire: The Story of Carl Linnaeus and Joseph Banks (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2003).

3 David M. Knight, Science in the Romantic Era (Aldershhot, UK: Ashgate Variorum, 1998), x; F. W. P. Dougherty, ed., Commercivm Epistolicvm J. F. Blvmenbachii: Aus einem Briefwechsel des Klassischen Zeitalters der Naturgeschichte: Katalog zur Ausstellung im Foyer der Niedersächsischen Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen 1. Juni–21. Juni 1984 (Göttingen: Göttingen University, 1984), 116.

4 Rudolph Wagner, “On the Anthropological Collection of the Physiological Institute of Göttingen” (Göttingen, 1856), in Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, 384.

5 Stefano Fabbri Bertoletti, “The Anthropological Theory of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach,” in Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790–1840, ed. Stefano Poggi and Maurizio Bossi (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1994), 111–13.

6 On the Natural Variety of Mankind, 3rd ed. (1795), in Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, 227, 214.

7 On the Natural Variety of Mankind, 1st ed. (1775), in Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, 116–17.

8 See Comte de Buffon, Histoire naturelle, généralle et particulière, avec la description du Cabinet du Roy, vol. 3, “Variétés dans l’Espèce Humaine,” 373, 380, 384, http://www.buffon.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_book_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&bdd=buffon&table =buffon_hn&bookId=3&typeofbookId=1&num=0.

9 On the Natural Variety of Mankind, 1st ed. (1775), 122.

10 Ibid,. 99–100. See also Michael Charles Carhart, “The Writing of Cultural History in Eighteenth-Century Germany” (Ph.D. Diss., Rutgers University, 1999), 38–39.

11 On the Natural Variety of Mankind, 3rd ed. (1795), 226–27.

12 Blumenbach also added the name “Mongolian” in the third edition. See Michael Keevak, How East Asians Became Yellow (Princeton: Princeton University Press, forthcoming).

13 On the Natural Variety of Mankind, 3rd ed. (1795), 209.

14 Ibid., 229, 264–65.

15 This is the language Johann Friedrich Blumenbach quotes in a footnote in the third edition (1795) of On the Natural Variety of Mankind. Chardin, vol. 1, p. 171, in Thomas Bendyshe, trans. and ed., The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (London: Anthropological Society, 1865), 269.

16 Marx, “Zum Andenken an Johann Friedrich Blumenbach,” 30 n. 1.

17 Dougherty, ed., Commercivm Epistolicvm J. F. Blvmenbachii, 76, 114–16, 148, 150, 171, and Helmut Rohlfing, ed., “Ganz Vorzügliche und Unvergeßliche Verdienste”—Georg Thomas von Asch als Förderer der Universität Göttingen (Niedersächsiche Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek: Göttingen, 1998), 2–3; and Rolf Siemon, “Soemmerring, Forster und Goethe: ‘Naturkundliche Begegnungen’ in Göttingen und Kassel”, http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/archiv/ausstell/1999/soemmerring.pdf.

18 For a thoughtful discussion of the position of the people of the Caucasus in the Russian context, see Bruce Baum, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2006), chap. 7: “‘Where Caucasian Means Black’: ‘Race,’ Nation, and the Chechen Wars,” 192–233. Baum’s book traces the history of the term “Caucasian” in racial, political, and geographic ideology.

19 F. W. P. Dougherty, the Canadian-born editor of Blumenbach’s correspondence and papers in Göttingen, died in the mid-1990s, leaving the project incomplete and Blumenbach’s personal life inaccessible.

20 The quoted phrase comes from Suzanne L. Marchand, Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 193.

21 See Suzanne Zantop, Colonial Fantasies: Conquest, Family, and Nation in Precolonial Germany, 1770–1870 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 67–68.

22 See Luigi Marino, Praeceptores Germaniae: Göttingen 1770–1820 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 112–16.

23 See Britta Rupp-Eisenreich, “Des choses occultes en histoire des sciences humaines: Le Destin de la ‘Science Nouvelle’ de Christoph Meiners,” L’Ethnographie 2 (1983): 151. See also Frank W. P. Dougherty, “Christoph Meiners und Johann Friedrich Blumenbach im Streit um den Begriff der Menschenrasse,” in Die Natur des Menschen: Probleme der physischen Anthropologie und Rassenkunde (1750–1850), ed. Gunther Mann and Franz Dumont (Stuttgart: Fischer, 1990), 103–4, Marino, Praeceptores Germaniae, 111–14, and Suzanne Zantop, “The Beautiful, the Ugly, and the German: Race, Gender and Nationality in Eighteenth-Century Anthropological Discourse,” in Gender and Germanness: Cultural Productions of Nation, ed. Patricia Herminghouse and Magda Mueller (Providence, R.I.: Berghahn Books, 1997), 23–26.

24 See Zantop, “The Beautiful, the Ugly, and the German,” 28–29, and Colonial Fantasies, 87–90.

25 David Bindman, Ape to Apollo: Aesthetics and the Idea of Race in the 18th Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 219–20.

26 Quotes in Zantop, “The Beautiful, the Ugly, and the German,” 28–29. See also Rupp-Eisenreich, “Des choses occultes en histoire des sciences humaines,” 151, and Dougherty, “Christoph Meiners und Johann Friedrich Blumenbach,” 103–4, Marino, Praeceptores Germaniae, 111–14.

27 Léon Poliakov, The History of Anti-Semitism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 136; Baum, Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race, 98.

CHAPTER 7: GERMAINE DE STAËL’S GERMAN LESSONS

1 J. Christopher Herold, one of her best-known biographers, entitled his book Mistress to an Age. See Mistress to an Age: A Life of Madame de Staël (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958). Other useful de Staël biographies include Ghislain de Diesbach, Madame de Staël (Paris: Perrin, 1983), Maria Fairweather, Madame de Staël (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2005), and Francine du Plessix Gray, Madame de Staël: The First Modern Woman (New York: Atlas, 2008). De Staël’s portraitist, the rococo artist Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Lebrun (1755–1842), one of the foremost figure painters of her time, was known for her portraits of European aristocrats. One of two women admitted into the Académie Royale de Painture et de Sculpture in 1783, she had to leave France during the revolution but returned during the reign of the first Emperor Napoleon.

2 Tess Lewis, “Madame de Staël: The Inveterate Idealist,” Hudson Review 54, no. 3 (2001): 416–26.

3 The quote is from Emile Faguet in Jean de Pange, M^me de Staël et la découverte de l’Allemagne (Paris: Société Française d’Editions Littéraires et Techniques, 1929), 9.

4 Lydia Maria Child, The Biographies of Madame de Staël and Madame Roland (Boston: Carter and Hendee, 1832), 24.

5 In Helen B. Posgate, Madame de Staël (New York: Twayne, 1968), 19.

6 Child, Biographies, 90, 92.

7 Ibid., 1, 16.

8 Bonnie G. Smith, “History and Genius: The Narcotic, Erotic, and Baroque Life of Germaine de Staël,” French Historical Studies 19, no. 4 (Fall 1996): 1061.

9 In Richmond Laurin Hawkins, Madame de Staël and the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1930), 33–34, 72, 75.

10 Ibid., 9–11, 14, 27–28, 65.

11 Quoted ibid., 64.

12 Quoted ibid., 4.

13 De Staël, De l’Allemagne (Paris: Didot Frères, 1857), 9–10.

14 Ian Allan Henning maintains that “it is not possible to speak of Madame de Staël as a mediator between France and Germany without talking about Charles de Villers.” Kurt Kloocke, editor of the letters between Villers and de Staël, finds Villers’s influence obvious, extending, perhaps, even to a measure of the inspiration of De l’Allemagne. See Henning, L’Allemagne de M^me de Staël et la polémique romantique: Première fortune de l’ouvrage en France et en Allemagne (1814–1830) (Paris: Ancienne Honoré Champion, 1929), 207, and Kloocke, ed., Correspondance: Madame de Staël, Charles de Villers, Benjamin Constant (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1993), 3.

15 Ruth Ann Crowley, Charles de Villers, Mediator and Comparatist (Bern: Peter Lang, 1978), 17–19.

16 De Staël, De l’Allemagne, 85.

17 Emma Gertrude Jaeck, Madame de Staël and the Spread of German Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1915), 7.

18 Henning, L’Allemagne de M^me de Staël, 210.

19 Ibid., 211.

20 De Staël, De l’Allemagne, 128, 130.

21 Vivian Folkenflik, Major Writings of Germaine de Staël (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 183.

22 Henning, L’Allemagne de M^me de Staël, 240–43, 252–53.

23 Child, Biographies, 82.

24 Pange, M^me de Staël, 140–41.

CHAPTER 8: EARLY AMERICAN WHITE PEOPLE OBSERVED

1 Margo J. Anderson, The American Census: A Social History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 9, 12–14; Frederick G. Bohme, 200 Years of U.S. Census Taking: Population and Housing Questions, 1790–1990 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1989), 1.

2 Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000), xxii–xxiii, 20–34, 52–76, 102, and Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 27–28, 82–83, 17, 485. Keyssar and Wilentz both note historians’ long neglect of the basic history of the right to vote, especially with regard to class. See also Wilentz, “On Class and Politics and Jacksonian America,” Reviews in American History 10, no. 4 (Dec. 1982): 45–48, 59.

3 J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer and Sketches of Eighteenth-Century America (originally published 1782) AS@ UVA Hypertexts, Letter 3, 54, http://xroads.virginia.edu/ ~HYPER/CREV/letter03.html. Postindustrial St. Johnsbury now figures as Vermont’s capital of heroin addiction.

4 Ibid., 170. Letter 9, 223–25, 229, http://xroads.virginia.edu/ ~HYPER/CREV/letter09.html.

5 Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (originally published 1787), AS@UVA Hypertexts, Query 18, http://xroads.virginia.edu/ ~HYPER/JEFFERSON/ch18.html.

6 Stanley R. Hauer, “Thomas Jefferson and the Anglo-Saxon Language,” PMLA 98, no. 5 (Oct. 1983): 879, 881.

7 Thomas Jefferson, “A Summary View of the Rights of British America” (July 1774), in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd et al. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950–), 1:121–35, http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch14s10.html.

8 Dumas Malone, The Sage of Monticello: Jefferson and His Time, vol. 6 (Boston: Little, Brown: 1981), 202–3.

9 John Adams to Abigail Adams, Philadelphia 14 Aug. 1776, in Charles Francis Adams, Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife Abigail Adams, during the Revolution, with a Memoir of Mrs. Adams (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1875), 210–11. See also Malone, Sage of Monticello, 6:202. For the other side of the seal, Jefferson suggested the children of Israel in the wilderness.

10 Thomas Jefferson, Essay on the Anglo-Saxon Language, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Andrew A. Lipscomb, vol. 18 (Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, 1904), 365–66.

11 Hauer, “Thomas Jefferson and the Anglo-Saxon Language,” 883–86, 891.

12 Mark A. Noll, Princeton and the Republic, 1768–1822: The Search for a Christian Enlightenment in the Era of Samuel Stanhope Smith (Vancouver: Regent College, 2004), 68; Mark A. Noll, “The Irony of the Enlightenment for Presbyterians in the Early Republic,” Journal of the Early Republic 5, no. 2 (Summer 1985): 166.

13 W. Frank Craven, from Alexander Leitch, A Princeton Companion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), http:://www/hsc/edu/pres/presidents/samuel_smith.html, and Hampden-Sydney College website: www.hsc.edu/hschistory/images/smith.jpg.

14 Winthrop D. Jordan, “Introduction,” in Samuel Stanhope Smith, An Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species, ed. Winthrop D. Jordan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), xi–xxvi, William H. Hudnut III, “Samuel Stanhope Smith: Enlightened Conservative,” Journal of the History of Ideas 17, no. 4 (Oct. 1956): 541–43.

15 Smith, Essay on the Causes of the Variety, 29, 40.

16 Mary Wollstonecraft, Analytical Review, vol. 2 (Dec. 1788): 432–39, 457–58, in The Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, ed. Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler (London: Pickering, 1990), 50–55, and Ramsay Notes from New York Public Library, comp. Mary B. MacIntyre, New York, 1936 (New York Public Library APV/Ramsay: http://www.southern-style.com/ Ramsay%20Family%20Notes.htm).

17 See Hudnut, “Samuel Stanhope Smith,” 544–46.

18 Smith, Essay on the Causes of the Variety, 106, 157, 109.

19 Ibid., 47.

20 Ibid., 104.

21 Ibid., 43–44, 199; James Axtell, “The White Indians of Colonial America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 32, no. 1 (Jan. 1975): 57, 64.

22 Smith, Essay on the Causes of the Variety, 163.

23 For sustained analysis, see Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind: African-American Ideas about White People, 1830–1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).

24 David Walker’s Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, ed. Peter P. Hinks (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), xxxi–xxxii, 9–10, 19, 27, 58.

25 Bay, White Image in the Black Mind, 32–36.

26 David Walker’s Appeal, 9, 33, 65.

27 Ibid., 12, 14.

28 Ibid., xv–xl.

29 Ibid., xli–xlii.

30 See Bay, White Image in the Black Mind, 46–50, and George R. Price and James Brewer Stewart, “The Roberts Case, the Easton Family, and the Dynamics of the Abolitionist Movement in Massachusetts, 1776–1870,” Massachusetts Historical Review 4 (2002): The History Cooperative, 89–116.

31 George R. Price and James Brewer Stewart, eds., To Heal the Scourge of Prejudice: The Life and Writings of Hosea Easton (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 71, 74, 80–81.

32 Du système pénitentiaire aux Etats-Unis, et de son application en France; suivi d’un appendice sur les colonies pénales et de notes statistiques. Par MM. G. de Beaumont et A. de Tocqueville (Paris: H. Fournier jeune, 1833).

33 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America and Two Essays on America, trans. Gerald E. Bevan, ed. Isaac Kramnick (New York: Penguin Classic, 2003), 479, 4.

34 Ibid., 440–41.

35 Ibid., 408, 426.

36 Ibid., 420.

37 Ibid., 412, 720, 742.

38 Ibid., 406–8.

39 See Margaret Kohn, “The Other America: Tocqueville and Beaumont on Race and Slavery,” Polity 35, no. 1 (Fall 2002): 170, esp. note 3, and Thomas Bender, “Introduction,” Democracy in America (New York: Modern Library, 1981), xliii.

40 Gustave de Beaumont, Marie, or Slavery in the United States (1835), trans. Barbara Chapman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958), 5. See also Nell Irvin Painter, “Was Marie White?: The Trajectory of a Question in the United States,” Journal of Southern History 74, no. 1 (Feb. 2008): 3–30.

41 Beaumont, Marie, 13, 15.

CHAPTER 9: THE FIRST ALIEN WAVE

1 See Kerby A. Miller, “‘Scotch-Irish’ Myths and ‘Irish’ Identities in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century America,” in New Perspectives on the Irish Diaspora, ed. Charles Fanning (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000), 76–79, and Kerby A. Miller and Bruce D. Boling, “The New England and Federalist Origins of ‘Scotch-Irish’ Identity,” in Ulster and Scotland, 1600–2000: History, Language and Identity, ed. William Kelly and John R. Young (Dublin: Four Courts, 2004), 105, 114–18.

2 Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08677a.htm.

3 Alexis de Tocqueville’s Journey in Ireland: July–August, 1835, ed. and trans. Emmet Larkin (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1990), 2.

4 From Gustave de Beaumont, Ireland: Social, Political and Religious (1839), http://www.swan.ac.uk/history/teaching/teaching%20resources/An%20Gorta%20Mor/travellers/beaumont.htm.

5 See David Nally, “‘Eternity’s Commissioner’: Thomas Carlyle, the Great Irish Famine and the Geopolitics of Travel,” Journal of Historical Geography 32, no. 2 (April 2006): 313–35.

6 Thomas Carlyle, “The Present Time,” http://cepa.newschool.edu/ het/texts/carlyle/latter1.htm.

7 Thomas Carlyle, Occasional Discourse on the Nigger Question (1853), http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/ texts/carlyle/odnqbk.htm.

8 See Peter Gray, Victoria’s Irish: Irishness and Britishness, 1837–1901 (2004), and Robert Knox, The Races of Men: A Philosophical Enquiry into the Influence of Race over the Destinies of Nations (1862) [this is the 2nd edition of Races of Men: A Fragment, published in 1850], in Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760–1850, ed. Hannah Franziska Augstein (Bristol, UK: Thoemmes Press, 1996), 253.

9 Samuel F. B. Morse, Imminent Dangers to the Free Institutions of the United States (1835), http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/ archive/resources/documents/ ch12_04.htm.

10 Ray Allen Billington, The Protestant Crusade, 1800–1860: A Study of the Origins of American Nativism (originally published 1938) (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1964), 122–27; Bruce Levine, “Conservatism, Nativism, and Slavery: Thomas R. Whitney and the Origins of the Know-Nothing Party,” Journal of American History 88, no. 2 (Sept. 2001): 470.

11 St. Joseph Messenger Online: http://www.aquinas-multimedia.com/stjoseph/knownothings.html.

12 Marie Anne Pagliarini, “The Pure American Woman and the Wicked Catholic Priest: An Analysis of Anti-Catholic Literature in Antebellum America,” Religion and American Culture 9, no. 1 (Winter 1999): 99.

13 Billington, Protestant Crusade, 99–104, 107–8. Monk’s confession first appeared serially in New York City’s Protestant Vindicator in 1835. See Rebecca Sullivan, “A Wayward from the Wilderness: Maria Monk’s Awful Disclosures and the Feminization of Lower Canada in the Nineteenth Century,” Essays on Canadian Writing 62 (Fall 1997): 201–23.

14 See Susan M. Griffin, Anti-Catholicism and Nineteenth-Century Fiction (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

15 Michael D. Pierson, “‘All Southern Society Is Assailed by the Foulest Charges’: Charles Sumner’s ‘The Crime against Kansas’ and the Escalation of Republican Anti-Slavery Rhetoric,” New England Quarterly 68, no. 4 (Dec. 1995): 533, 537, 545.

16 Pagliarini, “The Pure American Woman,” 97.

17 Campbell J. Gibson and Emily Lennon, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850–1990,” U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1999, Population Division Working Paper no. 29, http://www.census.gov/ population/www/ documentation/twps0029/ twps0029.html. Included among the immigrants were 1,135 Asians, 3,679 Italians, 13,317 Mexicans, and 147,711 Canadians. In 1850 the foreign-born population represented 9.7 percent of the total population. See also Historical Statistics of the United States, part 1, 1975: 106–7.

18 Kathleen Neils Conzen, “Germans,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 406–12; Library of Congress, European Reading Room, “The Germans in America,” http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/imde/germchro.html. Rough estimates put German immigrants at one-third Catholic and the other two-thirds predominantly Lutheran and Reformed. Comparatively small in numbers were German Methodists, Baptists, Unitarians, Pietists, Jews, and Freethinkers. “The German Americans: An Ethnic Experience,” http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/kade/adams/chap6.html.

19 In Sir Richard Steele, Poetical Miscellanies, Consisting of Original Poems and Translations (London, 1714), 201; Oxford English Dictionary Online.

20 Journal F No. I (1829?), pp. 113–14, in The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, (hereafter JMNRWE) vol. 12, 1835–1862, ed. Linda Allardt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 152, and Journal GO (1952), p. 233, in JMNRWE, vol. 13, 1852–1855, ed. Ralph H. Orth and Alfred R. Ferguson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 112.

21 Journal TU (1849), p. 171, in JMNRWE, vol. 11, 1848–1851, ed. A. W. Plumstead, William H. Gilman, and Ruth H. Bennett (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 148.

22 Journal GO (1852), p. 105, in JMNRWE, vol. 13, 77.

23 In Frank Shuffelton, A Mixed Race: Ethnicity in Early America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 181.

24 Edward B. Rugemer, “The Southern Response to British Abolitionism: The Maturation of Proslavery Apologetics,” Journal of Southern History 70, no. 2 (May 2004): 221.

25 For the electronic edition of Cannibals All!, go to Documenting the American South, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, http://docsouth.unc.edu/fitzhughcan/fitzcan.html#fitzix.

26 Douglass quoted in Patricia Ferreira, “All but ‘A Black Skin and Wooly Hair’: Frederick Douglass’s Witness of the Irish Famine,” American Studies International 37, no. 2 (June 1999): 69–83.

27 O’Connell quoted in Gilbert Osofsky, “Abolitionists, Irish Immigrants, and the Dilemmas of Romantic Nationalism,” American Historical Review 80, no. 4 (Oct. 1975): 892.

28 Ernest Renan, Poetry of the Celtic Races, VI, in Literary and Philosophical Essays, the Harvard Classics, 1909–14, http://www.bartleby.com/32/307.html.

29 Matthew Arnold, On the Study of Celtic Literature. Complete Prose Works, vol. 3, ed. R. H. Super (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1960), 291–395.

30 Ray Allen Billington, “The Know-Nothing Uproar,” American Heritage 10, no. 2 (Feb. 1952): 61; Billington, Protestant Crusade, 220–31.

31 Tyler Anbinder, “Ulysses S. Grant, Nativist,” Civil War History: A Journal of the Middle Period 43, no. 2 (June 1997): 130.

32 Dale T. Knobel, “Beyond ‘America for Americans’: Inside the Movement Culture of Antebellum Nativism,” in Immigrant America: European Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Garland, 1994), 10; Michael F. Holt, “The Politics of Impatience: The Origins of Know Nothingism,” Journal of American History 60, no. 2 (Sept. 1973): 313.

33 Knobel, “Beyond ‘America for Americans,’” 11.

34 Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08677a.htm.

35 Stephen E. Maizlish, “The Meaning of Nativism and the Crisis of the Union: The Know-Nothing Movement in the Antebellum North,” in Essays on American Antebellum Politics, 1840–1860, ed. Stephen E. Maizlish and John J. Kushma (College Station: University of Texas at Arlington, [1982]), 166.

36 Maizlish, “Meaning of Nativism,” 187.

37 Gregg Cantrell, “Sam Houston and the Know-Nothings: A Reappraisal,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 96, no. 3 (Jan. 1993): 326–43; Anbinder, “Ulysses S. Grant, Nativist,” 119–41. Both Cantrell and Anbinder note that biographers of Houston and Grant mute or ignore their subjects’ nativist enthusiasms.

38 Cantrell, “Sam Houston,” 330; Anbinder, “Ulysses S. Grant, Nativist,” 123.

39 Congressman William Russell Smith, 15 Jan. 1855, in Jeff Frederick, “Unintended Consequences: The Rise and Fall of the Know-Nothing Party in Alabama,” Alabama Review, Jan. 2002, p. 3.

CHAPTER 10: THE EDUCATION OF RALPH WALDO EMERSON

1 Robert C. Gordon, Emerson and the Light of India: An Intellectual History (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2007), 21–23, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, Lectures and Biographical Sketches, 371–404, http://emersoncentral.com/mary_moody_emerson.htm.

2 Philip Nicoloff, “Historical Introduction,” in Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 5, English Traits (hereafter CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits) (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), xiv.

3 John Bernard Beer, “Coleridge, Samuel Taylor,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 24 Oct. 2005, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-1409.

4 See Phyllis Cole, Mary Moody Emerson and the Origins of Transcendentalism: A Family History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 5, 164, 170, 180, 242, 307.

5 Kenneth Marc Harris, Carlyle and Emerson: Their Long Debate (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 10, 11, 56.

6 Simon Heffer, Moral Desperado: A Life of Thomas Carlyle (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995), 48, 52, 66.

7 Ibid., 129.

8 The articles by Carlyle that Emerson admired were “Jean Paul Friedrich Richter,” Edinburgh Review, 1827; “State of German Literature,” ibid., 1828; “Goethe’s Helena,” Foreign Review, 1828; “Goethe,” ibid., 1828; “Life of Heyne,” ibid., 1828; “Novalis,” ibid., 1829; “Signs of the Times,” Edinburgh Review, 1829; “John Paul Friedrich Richter Again,” Foreign Review, 1830; “Schiller,” Fraser’s Magazine, 1831; “The Nibelungen Lied,” Westminster Review, 1831; “German Literature of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,” Foreign Quarterly Review, 1831; “Taylor’s Historic Survey of German Poetry,” Edinburgh Review, 1831; “Characteristics,” ibid., 1831. These essays and reviews directly preceded Carlyle’s writing Sartor Resartus and indicate his immersion in German literature. See Henry Larkin, Carlyle and the Open Secret of His Life (originally published 1886) (New York: Haskell House, 1970), 13. Larkin served as Carlyle’s research assistant and general factotum during the last ten years of Carlyle’s life.

9 Lawrence Buell, Emerson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 15.

10 See Frederick Wahr, Emerson and Goethe (Ann Arbor: George Wahr, 1915), 79.

11 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 9–12; Robert E. Burkholder, “Notes,” ibid., 356.

12 Larkin, Carlyle, 59.

13 Wahr, Emerson and Goethe, 22.

14 Fred Kaplan, Thomas Carlyle: A Biography (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 232–33, 369; Townsend Scudder, The Lonely Wayfaring Man: Emerson and Some Englishmen (London: Oxford University Press, 1936), 29, 34–37.

15 Quote from 1849 in Harris, Carlyle and Emerson, 27.

16 Scudder, Lonely Wayfaring Man, 139. Ruskin quoted in Buell, Emerson, 328.

17 Matthew Guinn, “Emerson’s Southern Critics, 1838–1862,” Resources for American Literary Study 25, no. 2 (1999): 174–91, 186.

18 Phyllis Cole, “Stanton, Fuller, and the Grammar of Romanticism,” New England Quarterly 73, no. 4 (Dec. 2000): 556.

19 Jefferson quoted in Buell, Emerson, 370.

20 Nicoloff, “Historical Introduction,” xxi; L. P. Curtin Jr., Anglo-Saxons and Celts: A Study of Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England (Bridgeport, Conn.: Conference on British Studies at the University of Bridgeport, 1968), 76.

21 Joan von Mehren, Minerva and the Muse: A Life of Margaret Fuller (Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 236.

22 Historians have taken note of the resemblances between Carlyle’s German nationalism and that of twentieth-century German National Socialists. See J. Salwyn Schapiro, “Thomas Carlyle, Prophet of Fascism,” Journal of Modern History 17, no. 2 (June 1945): 97–115.

23 Heffer, Moral Desperado, 52.

24 Quoted ibid., 165–67.

25 Quoted ibid., 197.

26 “Permanent Traits of the English National Genius,” in The Early Lectures of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Stephen E. Whicher and Robert E. Spiller, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 241.

27 Early Lectures of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 233, 234–35; CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 54.

28 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 71.

29 Carlyle to Emerson, London, 12 Aug., 1834, The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle and Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1834–1872, vol. 1, http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/5/8/13583/13583.txt; Harris, Carlyle and Emerson, 138.

30 Quoted in Kaplan, Thomas Carlyle, 249.

31 Carlyle to Emerson, Annan, Scotland, 18 Aug., 1841, http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/5/8/13583/13583.txt.

32 Quoted in Harris, Carlyle and Emerson, 147–48. See also Phyllis Cole, “Emerson, England, and Fate,” in Emerson—Prophecy, Metamorphosis, and Influence: Selected Papers from the English Institute, ed. David Levin (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), 83–105.

33 Carlyle to Emerson, London, 24 June 1833, http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/5/8/13583/13583.txt.

34 Quotes in Scudder, Lonely Wayfaring Man, 153, 169.

35 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 170.

CHAPTER 11: ENGLISH TRAITS

1 Philip Nicoloff, “Historical Introduction,” in The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 5, English Traits (hereafter CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits) (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), xiii–xiv, notes Emerson’s playfulness and wit that convey the author’s “thorough delight in his subject.” Wallace E. Williams calls English Traits Emerson’s “wittiest book” in “Historical Introduction,” CWRWE, vol. 4, Representative Men: Seven Lectures (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), xlix. See also Nell Irvin Painter, “Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Saxons,” Journal of American History 95, no. 4 (March 2009): 977–85.

2 The Early Lectures of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Stephen E. Whicher and Robert E. Spiller (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 234–41, 248.

3 Nicoloff, “Historical Introduction,” xlviii–xlix, liii. The Princeton University library holds five editions of English Traits, from 1856, 1857, 1869, 1916, and 1966, in addition to versions that are part of collected works.

4 Journal entry for 30 Sept. 1856, in The Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimké, ed. Brenda Stevenson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 164, 191–92.

5 See Elisa Tamarkin, “Black Anglophilia: or, The Sociability of Antislavery,” American Literary History 14, no. 3 (Fall 2002): 447, 452, 455.

6 Several historians have thoughtfully analyzed the race-gender anxieties of white American men. The classic work is Richard Slotkin’s Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973). C. Anthony Rotundo terms the idealization of primal virility the “masculine primitive” and notes a sense of the “perils of civilization.” Often these historians concentrate on crises at the turn of the twentieth century; however, Emerson, the great voice of American thought, expressed such notions in the antebellum era in phrases that carried over into the lexicon of late nineteenth-century Americans. For Emerson, the prime race in question was “Saxon,” as opposed to Celtic. By the mid-twentieth century, historians took to replacing “Saxon” or “Anglo-Saxon” with “white,” to sharpen the opposition to nonwhite and as though all three designations meant the same thing. But the black/white opposition suiting later generations of historians did not always conform to the meaning of those writing earlier. See E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York: Basic Books, 1993), Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York: Free Press, 1996), and John Pettegrew, Brutes in Suits: Male Sensibility in America, 1890–1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).

7 “Permanent Traits of the English National Genius,” in Early Lectures of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 241. Michael S. Kimmel quotes a late nineteenth-century American calling for “a saving touch of old fashioned barbarism.” See “Consuming Manhood: The Feminization of American Culture and the Recreation of the Male Body, 1832–1920,” Michigan Quarterly Review 3, no. 1 (Winter 1994): 7–10, 13–16, 29.

8 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 23, 155.

9 Gildas, The Ruin of Britain (ca. 540), quoted in Bryan Sykes, Saxons, Vikings, and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 256–57.

10 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 23.

11 Emerson, “Permanent Traits of the English National Genius,” 242.

12 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 33. For the comparison of people to fruit trees, see CWRWE, vol. 4, Representative Men (1987), 56; Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson (hereafter Journals), vol. 11, 1848–1851, ed. A. W. Plumstead, William H. Gilman, and Ruth H. Bennett (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 8, 42, 131, 142, 152, 283, 357; Journals, vol. 10, 1847–1848, ed. Merton M. Sealts Jr. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), 5, 91, 99–100. See also Horace S. Kallen, Culture and Democracy in the United States: Studies in the Group Psychology of the American Peoples (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924), 329.

13 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 32, 154.

14 Ibid., 36.

15 Ibid., 2.

16 In Journals, vol. 10, 221. On Greenough see F. O. Matthiessen, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman (1941, 1968), 140, 148, quoted in Robert D. Richardson Jr., Emerson: The Mind on Fire: A Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 539. See also “Horatio Greenough,” Smithsonian American Art Museum online, http://americanart.si.edu/search/artist_bio.cfm?ID=1935.

17 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 34.

18 Ibid., 18.

19 Ibid., 35.

20 Ibid., 169.

21 Robert Knox, The Races of Men: A Philosophical Enquiry into the Influence of Race over the Destinies of Nations (1862) [this is the 2nd edition of Races of Men: A Fragment, published in 1850.] See also Hannah Franziska Augstein, ed., Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760–1850 (Bristol, UK: Thoemmes Press, 1996), 246.

22 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 118–19.

23 In Journals, vol. 13, 1852–1855, ed. Ralph H. Orth and Alfred R. Ferguson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 83, 128–29.

24 Ibid., 39.

25 Ibid., 398.

26 CWRWE, vol. 2, Essays: First Series (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 33, 43. Journal AZ (1849), p. 20, in Journals, vol. 11, 192.

27 Journals, vol. 13, 1852–1855, 115–16, 248.

28 CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 171.

29 See http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html and “Magna Carta,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9050003.

30 See Hugh A. MacDougall, Racial Myth in English History: Trojans, Teutons, and Anglo-Saxons (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1982), 26–37, 56–62, 81–86, 91–92.

31 James A. Secord, “Behind the Veil: Robert Chambers and Vestiges,” in History, Humanity and Evolution, ed. James Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 178, 182, 185–86. See also James A. Secord, Victorian Sensation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

32 Editor’s note, “Robert Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (New York, 1845), in Emerson’s library,” in Journals, vol. 9, 1843–1847, ed. Ralph H. Orth and Alfred R. Ferguson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 64, 211.

33 Robert Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1st ed., 1844), ed. James Secord (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 306, from the Unofficial Stephen Jay Gould Archive online, http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ library/vestiges/ chapter16.html.

34 Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, chap. 16; Milton Millhauser, Just before Darwin: Robert Chambers and Vestiges (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1959), 33, 118, 128, 147.

35 Millhauser, Just before Darwin, 5, 8–9, 22–28, 31–34.

36 Nicoloff, “Historical Introduction,” xxii, xxvi.

37 Millhauser, Just before Darwin, 32.

38 See Richardson, Emerson, 518. Also xxii–xxvi in CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, and Journal CO (1851), p. 81: “And Knox’s law of races, that nature loves not hybrids, & extinguishes them. That the race colony detached from the race deteriorates to the crab.” Note, “See Robert Knox, M.D., The Races of Men: A Fragment (Philadelphia, 1850), pp. 52, 86, 107, 317,” in Journals, vol. 11, 1848–1851, 392.

39 Knox, Races of Men (1850), 6.

40 Knox, Races of Men (1862), in Augstein, ed., Race, 248. For the controversy over Knox’s actual scientific influence, see Peter Mandler, “The Problem with Cultural History,” Cultural and Social History (2005): 101–2.

41 See Athena S. Leoussi, “Pheidias and ‘L’Esprit Moderne’: The Study of Human Anatomy in Nineteenth-Century English and French Art Education,” European Review of History 7, no. 2 (Autumn 2000): 16–188.

42 Knox, Races of Men (1850), 7, quoted in Cora Kaplan, “White, Black and Green: Racialising Irishness in Victorian England,” in Peter Gray, ed., Victoria’s Ireland?: Irishness and Britishness, 1837–1901 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), 51. Knox, a southern Scot like Carlyle, also wrote in terms of “we Saxons.”

43 Emerson, CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits, 28.

44 Ibid., 29.

45 Ibid., 32, 86, 91. With a somewhat different meaning from my own, Cornel West cites Emerson’s “double consciousness.” West notes that, for Emerson, historical circumstances cannot be understood apart from race. See West, The American Evasion of Philosophy: A Genealogy of Pragmatism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 34, 39.

CHAPTER 12: EMERSON IN THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN WHITE PEOPLE

1 Sophia Peabody (later the wife of Nathaniel Hawthorne) wrote her intellectual sister about Emerson in 1838, before he had gained his greatest prominence. Quote from Robert D. Richardson Jr., Emerson: The Mind on Fire: A Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 524; see also 522–23.

2 Theodore Parker quoted in 1850 in Neil Baldwin, The American Revelation: Ten Ideals That Shaped Our Country from the Puritans to the Cold War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005), 61.

3 See, e.g., Joel Porte, Representative Man: Ralph Waldo Emerson in His Time (originally published 1979) (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 1, 8, 19.

4 The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 5, English Traits (hereafter CWRWE, vol. 5, English Traits) (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 24.

5 An example of Emerson’s depiction of black people as a piteous race of permanent enslavement appears in one of Emerson’s clearest antislavery statements: An Address delivered in the court-house in Concord, Massachussetts, on 1st August, 1884: on the anniversary of the emancipation of the negroes in the British West Indies (Boston: J. Munroe, 1844).

6 Journal V, pp. 62–63, in The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson (hereafter Journals), vol. 9, 1843–1847, ed. Ralph H. Orth and Alfred R. Ferguson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 125.

7 Journals, vol. 11, 1848–1851, ed. A. W. Plumstead, William H. Gilman, and Ruth H. Bennett (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), xv. Emerson’s comments on the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 take up pp. 343–65 of vol. 11 of Journals.

8 Journal CO, p. 59, in Journals, vol. 11, 385.

9 Journal DO, p. 188, and Journal VS, p. 280, in Journals, vol. 13, 1852–1855, 54, 198.

10 Journals, vol. 9, 1843–1847, 233.

11 Journal Y (1845), pp. 119–20, Journals, vol. 9, 1843–1847, 299–300.

12 Journals, vol. 14, 1854–1861, ed. Susan Sutton Smith and Harrison Hayford (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 171.

13 Journal AB (1847), pp. 105–7, and Journal GH (1847), p. 3, Journals, vol. 10, 1847–1848, ed. Merton M. Sealts Jr. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), 44–45, 131.

14 Philip L. Nicoloff finds Emerson’s instances of racial thought “almost countless.” See Emerson on Race and History: An Examination of English Traits (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 120. Lawrence Buell, Emerson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 248, adds that Emerson “never ceased to harbor racist views of Anglo-Saxon superiority.”

15 For a thoughtful analysis of “Fate” in The Conduct of Life, see Eduardo Cadava, “The Guano of History,” in Of Mourning and Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, forthcoming), and Eduardo Cadava, Emerson and the Climates of History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). Cadava’s and my use of “Fate” differs from that of Phyllis Cole from a generation ago in “Emerson, England, and Fate,” in Emerson: Prophecy, Metamorphosis, and Influence: Selected Papers from the English Institute (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), 83–105.

16 Journal CO, 1851, pp. 28–29, in Journals, vol. 11, 1848–1851: 376.

CHAPTER 13: THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1 Henry S. Patterson, “Memoir of the Life and Scientific Labors of Samuel George Morton,” in Types of Mankind, or Ethnological Researches, Based upon the Ancient Monuments, Paintings, Sculptures, and Crania of Races, and upon Their Natural, Geographical, Philological, and Biblical History: Illustrated by Selections from the Inedited Papers of Samuel George Morton, M.D. (Late President of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia) and by Additional Contributions from Prof. L. Agassiz, LL.D.; W. Usher, M.DD; and Prof. H. S. Patterson, M.D. by N. C. Nott, M.D., and Geo. R. Gliddon (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1857), xxx.

2 Paul A. Erikson, “Morton, Samuel George (1799–1851),” in History of Physical Anthropology, vol. 1, ed. Frank Spencer (New York: Garland, 1997), 65–66.

3 Samuel George Morton, Crania Ægyptiaca, or Observations on Egyptian Ethnography, Derived from Anatomy, History and the Monuments (Philadelphia: John Penington, 1844), 3–4, 46.

4 Ibid., 65–66; Patterson, “Memoir of Samuel George Morton,” xxxvii, xlii.

5 Quoted in Karen E. Fields, “Witchcraft and Racecraft: Invisible Ontology in Its Sensible Manifestations,” in Witchcraft Dialogues: Anthropological and Philosophical Exchanges, ed. George Clement Bond and Diane M. Ciekawy (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2001), 304; Max Weber, “The Religion of Non-Privileged Strata,” in Economy and Society, ed. Geunther Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 490–91.

6 See the controversy as related in Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris (1861): 176, 184–88, 259, 274. The notes to this discussion cite Morton, Nott, Gliddon, and Morton’s biographer J. Aitken Meigs.

7 See Reginald Horsman, Josiah Nott of Mobile: Southerner, Physician, and Racial Theorist (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 113–18.

8 Ibid., 206.

9 Arthur de Gobineau, The Inequality of Human Races, trans. Adrian Collins, preface by George L. Mosse (New York: Howard Fertig, 1999), xii. See also Stephen Jay Gould, “Ghosts of Bell Curves Past,” Natural History 104, no. 2 (Feb. 1995): 12–19.

10 “Jones, Sir William,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Oct. 2007, http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9043950.

11 Tocqueville to Gobineau, Saint-Cyr, 20 Dec. 1853, in Alexis de Tocqueville, “The European Revolution” and Correspondence with Gobineau, ed. and trans. John Lukacs (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1959), 231–33. See also Tocqueville to Gobineau, Paris, 15 May 1852, ibid., 221–23.

12 Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London: Routledge, 1995), 130–35. On Henry Hotze, see Robert E. Bonner, “Slavery, Confederate Diplomacy, and the Racialist Mission of Henry Hotze,” Civil War History 51, no. 3 (2005): 288–311. See also Horsman, Josiah Nott, 205–9.

13 Jean Boissel, Gobineau: Biographie: Mythes et réalité (Paris: Berg International, 1993), 129–30.

14 See esp. Arthur de Gobineau, Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines, in Œuvres, vol. 1, ed. Jean Gaulmer and Jean Boissel (Paris: Gallimard, 1983), 243, 275, 285–86, 344, 773, 922, 923, 978.

15 The Cornell University Library’s electronic texts: http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fsgml%2Fmoa-idx%3Fnotisid%3DABK9283-0007%26byte%3D145175765&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fputn%2Fputn0007%2F&tif=00007.TIF&pagenum=102.

16 In American Journal of the Medical Sciences 6 (1843): 252–56.

17 J. C. Nott, “Postscriptum,” Types of Mankind, xiii.

18 Paul A. Erickson, “American School of Anthropology,” in History of Physical Anthropology, vol. 2, ed. Frank Spencer (New York: Garland, 1997), 690.

CHAPTER 14: THE SECOND ENLARGEMENT OF AMERICAN WHITENESS

1 Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 50; Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Union Army and Navy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951), 146–47, 659–61, 666–74.

2 David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 75–76, terms Decoration Day “America’s first multiracial, multiethnic commemoration.”

3 Ibid., 74–75, 276.

4 See Erika Lee, “American Gatekeeping: Race and Immigration Law in the Twentieth Century,” in Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States, ed. Nancy Foner and George M. Fredrickson (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 124.

5 Two foundational texts of whiteness studies examine this process. See David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991 and 1999), and Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).

6 “Fate,” in Conduct of Life, CWRWE, vol. 6 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 9.

7 Journal CO, 1851, pp. 102–3, in Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 11, 1848–1851, ed. A. W. Plumstead, William H. Gilman, and Ruth H. Bennett (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 397–98.

8 Henry Cabot Lodge, A Short History of the English Colonies in America (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1881), 66, 72, 73.

9 Henry Cabot Lodge, “The Distribution of Ability in the United States,” Century Magazine 42, n.s. 20 (Sept. 1891): 688–89; Dumas Malone, “The Geography of American Achievement,” Atlantic 154, no. 6 (Dec. 1934): 669–80; John Hammond Moore, “William Cabell Bruce, Henry Cabot Lodge, and the Distribution of Ability in the United States,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 86, no. 3 (July 1978): 355–61.

10 Lodge, “Distribution of Ability,” 693–94.

11 James Phinney Munroe, A Life of Francis Amasa Walker (New York: Henry Holt, 1923), 5.

12 Francis Amasa Walker, “Immigration and Degradation,” Forum 2 (1891): 418–19, 420, 421, 425–26.

13 Francis A. Walker, “Restriction of Immigration,” Atlantic Monthly 77, no. 464 (June 1896): 829.

CHAPTER 15: WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY AND THE RACES OF EUROPE

1 Arthur Mann, “Gompers and the Irony of Racism,” Antioch Review 13, no. 2 (June 1953): 212, incorrectly ascribes the phrase to the longtime head of the American Federation of Labor, Samuel Gompers. While Gompers (himself an immigrant from England of Jewish background) undeniably made racist comments regarding immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, the quoted phrase comes from a column by the woman suffragist Lydia Kingsmill Commander, “Evil Effects of Immigration,” American Federationist (Oct. 1905): 749.

2 “When Ripley Speaks, Wall Street Heeds,” by H.I.B., New York Times, 26 Sept. 1926, SM7; William Z. Ripley, “Race Progress and Immigration,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 34, no. 1 (July 1909): 130.

3 “When Ripley Speaks, Wall Street Heeds.”

4 William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (New York: D. Appleton, 1899), ix.

5 See Michael Dietler, “‘Our Ancestors the Gauls’: Archaeology, Ethnic Nationalism, and the Manipulation of Celtic Identity in Modern Europe” (originally published 1994), in American Anthropology, 1971–1995: Papers from the American Anthropologist, ed. Regna Darnell (Arlington, Va: American Anthropological Association, 2002): 732, 738.

6 Ripley, Races of Europe, 37.

7 Ibid., 332.

8 C. Loring Brace terms The Races of Europe “gobbledygook…a classic illustration of the antiscience stance of Romanticism.” See “Race” Is a Four-Letter Word: The Genesis of the Concept (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 171.

9 Charles W. Chesnutt, “What Is a White Man?” Independent, 30 May 1889, pp. 693–94.

10 Ripley, Races of Europe, following p. 208.

11 Ibid., facing p. 394.

12 Ibid., 394–95.

13 Ibid., 318.

14 Review by W.L. of “The Races of Europe,” New York Times, 27 Aug. 1899, IM 10–11.

15 Otis Tufton Mason, “The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study,” American Anthropologist, n.s. 1, no. 4 (Oct. 1899): 770–73. Mason belonged to the anthropology faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and regularly reviewed books for the American Anthropologist.

16 Ripley to Edward Robert Anderson Seligman, Boston, 27 Nov. 1901, Butler Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University.

17 “Future Americans Will Be Swarthy. Prof. Ripley Thinks Race Intermixture May Reproduce Remote Ancestral Type. TO INUNDATE ANGLO-SAXON. His Burden, Though Physically Thus Engulfed, Will Be to Bear Torch of Civilization,” New York Times, 29 Nov. 1908, p. 7.

18 William Z. Ripley, “The European Population of the United States,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 38 (July 1908): 224–25, 234, 239–40.

19 Ripley to Edward Robert Anderson Seligman, Cambridge, Mass., 21 Nov. 1901, Butler Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University.

20 Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “The ‘Hundred Days’ of F.D.R.,” New York Times Book Review, 10 April 1983, http://www.nytimes.com/books/ 00/11/26/specials/schlesinger -hundred.html.

21 Ida S. Ripley died in 1966. See New York Times, 19 March 1966, p. 29.

CHAPTER 16: FRANZ BOAS, DISSENTER

1 Claudia Roth Pierpont, “The Measure of America: How a Rebel Anthropologist Waged War on Racism,” New Yorker, 8 March 2004, p. 52.

2 See George W. Stocking Jr., Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968, 1982), 167.

3 Douglas Cole, Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858–1906 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 60.

4 Quoted ibid., 72.

5 Ibid., 132, 136.

6 Lee D. Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 103.

7 Boas to President Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, 15 Nov. 1902, in A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911, ed. George W. Stocking Jr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974 and 1982), 290; Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution, 166; Cole, Franz Boas, 220, 284. See also Vernon J. Williams Jr., Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 9–12.

8 In Franz Boas Reader, 242.

9 “The Outlook for the American Negro,” in Franz Boas Reader, 310–11, 314–15.

10 Ibid., 310–11, 314–15.

11 In Leonard B. Glick, “Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimilation,” in American Anthropology, 1971–1995: Papers from the American Anthropologist (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 356–58, 360–61.

12 In Glick, “Types Distinct from Our Own,” 341.

13 Gompers went so far as to charge that Chinese men love to “prey upon Americans girls” and “do not care how old the boys are.” See Arthur Mann, “Gompers and the Irony of Racism,” Antioch Review 13, No. 2 (June 1953): 208–9.

14 George M. Fredrickson, “Prejudice and Discrimination, History of,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 836–37, 843–45; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1955), 46–48, 69.

15 Higham, Strangers in the Land, 26–27, 92–93.

16 Williams, Rethinking Race, 23–24. Williams terms anthropologists’ response to Boas “almost hysterical.”

17 In Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1963), 307.

18 Franz Boas, “The Races of Europe” (review), Science, n.s. 10, no. 244 (1 Sept. 1899): 292–96.

19 See Allan Chase, The Legacy of Malthus: The Social Costs of the New Scientific Racism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 96, and Cole, Franz Boas, 268.

20 Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution, 174–77.

21 Franz Boas, Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants (reprinted from the Reports of the United States Immigration Commission) (New York: Columbia University Press, 1912), 33, 59. See also Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz, “Changing Times, Changing Faces: Franz Boas’s Immigrant Study in Modern Perspectives,” American Anthropologist 105, no. 2 (June 2003): 333–37.

22 U.S. Immigration Commission, Brief Statement of the Conclusions and Recommendations of the Immigration Commission, with Views of the Minority (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1910), 12–13, 35–36.

23 Baker, From Savage to Negro, 107.

24 See John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 86–89, 102–11, 123–28.

25 Humbert S. Nelli, “Italians,” and Arthur A. Goren, “Jews,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 554, 585–86; “Jews Who Have Served in the United States House of Representatives,” Jewish Virtual Library of the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/housejews.html.

26 A full examination of newly cosmopolitan urban culture appears in Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995).

27 Williams, Rethinking Race, 6, 16–17.

28 For an extended discussion of The Melting Pot, see Werner Sollors, Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 66–99, and David Biale, “The Melting Pot and Beyond: Jews and the Politics of American Identity,” in Insider/Outsider: American Jews and Multiculturalism, ed. David Biale, Michael Galchinsky, and Susan Heschel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 17–33. See also Todd M. Endelman, “Benjamin Disraeli and the Myth of Sephardi Superiority,” Jewish History 10, no. 2 (Sept. 1996): 22, 25, 28, 30–32.

29 Online version at V Dare.com, http://www.vdare.com/fulford/melting_pot_play.htm.

CHAPTER 17: ROOSEVELT, ROSS, AND RACE SUICIDE

1 Thomas G. Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 2–3. See also Horace M. Kallen, Culture and Democracy in the United States: Studies in the Group Psychology of the American People (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924), 129.

2 The Naval War of 1812 (New York: Putnam’s Sons, 1882); Thomas Hart Benton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1887); Gouverneur Morris (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1888); The Winning of the West, 4 vols. (New York: Putnam’s Sons, 1889–96).

3 Quoted in Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt, 51–52, 66.

4 Neil Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 33–34.

5 In Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt, 53, and Edward N. Saveth, American Historians and European Immigrants, 1875–1925 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1948), 18–25, 51–52, 62.

6 Saveth, American Historians, 35, n. 11, 41, 59.

7 Quoted in Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt, 53, and Saveth, American Historians, 139.

8 Quoted in Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt, 144–45.

9 Quoted ibid., 152.

10 Edward A. Ross, “race suicide,” in “The Causes of Racial Superiority,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 18 (1901): 67–89. See also Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).

11 Howard W. Odum, American Sociology: The Story of Sociology in the United States through 1950 (New York: Longmans, Green, 1951), 98–102, http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Odum/ BiographicalSketches/Ross.html.

12 Ross, “Causes of Race Superiority,” 68, 70, 73, 75, 83, 85.

13 Ibid., 75, 79, 84–86.

14 Edward Alsworth Ross, “The Value Rank of the American People,” Independent 57 (Nov. 1904): 1061.

15 Ross, “Causes of Race Superiority,” 89; Ross, “The Value Rank of the American People,” 1063.

16 Ross, “Causes of Race Superiority,” 74, 80.

17 In Jonathan Peter Spiro, “Patrician Racist: The Evolution of Madison Grant” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 2000), 265. See also Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2008).

18 See David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991 and 1999), for a detailed account of the role of labor organization in race formation. See Journal of American Ethnic History 16, no. 3 (Spring 1997): 6, 16–18, 31, and Patrick J. Blessing, “Irish,” Humbert S. Nelli, “Italians,” and Arthur A. Goren, “Jews,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 538, 553, 582, 585.

19 Rudolph J. Vecoli, “‘Free Country’: The American Republic Viewed by the Italian Left, 1880–1920,” in In the Shadow of the Statue of Liberty: Immigrants, Workers, and Citizens in the American Republic, 1880–1920, ed. Marianne Debouzy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 34; Salvatore Salerno, “I Delitti della Razza Bianco (Crimes of the White Race): Italian Anarchists’ Racial Discourse as Crime,” in Are Italians White? How Race Is Made in America, ed. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York: Routledge, 2003), 112, 120

CHAPTER 18: THE DISCOVERY OF DEGENERATE FAMILIES

1 See Philip R. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 9–10, and Nicole Hahn Rafter, White Trash: The Eugenic Family Studies, 1877–1919 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), 1–17.

2 The first description included a notice of Dugdale’s “noble lineage—his family having come into England with the Conqueror.” The second description comes from Arthur H. Estabrook, The Jukes in 1915 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1916), v–vii. The New York Prison Association, founded in 1844, changed its name to the Correctional Association of New York in 1961.

3 Cesare Lombroso, L’uomo delinquente (1876); Martino Beltrani-Scalia, La riforma penitenziaria in Italia (1879).

4 Richard L. Dugdale, “The Jukes”: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity, also Further Studies of Criminals, 5th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1895), 70.

5 Ibid., 13 (emphasis in original).

6 Ibid., 18–26, 31, 38.

7 Ibid., 60–61.

8 Nicole H. Rafter, “Claims-Making and Socio-Cultural Context in the First U.S. Eugenics Campaign,” Social Problems 38, no. 1 (Feb. 1992): 17, 20–22, and Joan Waugh, Unsentimental Reformer: The Life of Josephine Shaw Lowell (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), 3–11.

9 Reilly, Surgical Solution, 12–13.

10 See Christine Rosen, Preaching Eugenics: Religious Leaders and the American Eugenics Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 27–29, and Genevieve C. Weeks, Oscar Carleton McCulloch, 1843–1891: Preacher and Practitioner of Applied Christianity (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1976).

11 Eugenics, Genetics and the Family 1 (1923): 398–99, http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/image_header.pl?id=1489. See also William Alexander Percy, Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter’s Son (originally published 1941) (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 19–20.

12 Oscar C. McCulloch, The Tribe of Ishmael: A Study in Social Degradation, 4th ed. (originally published 1888) (Indianapolis: Charity Organization Society, 1891), 3, 5, 7.

13 See Don Jordan and Michael Walsh, White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain’s White Slaves in America (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 87–90, 128–31, esp. 130.

14 See Michael A. Hoffman II, They Were White and They Were Slaves: The Untold History of the Enslavement of Whites in Early America, 4th ed. (Coeur d’Alene, Idaho: Independent History & Research Co., 1991), 99–100.

15 A loyalist refugee from Georgia, Stokes wrote in 1783. A. Roger Ekirch, Bound for America: The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718–1775 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 193.

16 Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West (originally published 1889) (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1917), 105–6.

17 See Mai M. Ngai, “The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924,” Journal of American History 86, no. 1 (June 1999): 74–75, and Rosen, Preaching Eugenics, 27.

18 [Alice McCulloch, ed.], The Open Door. Sermons and Prayers by Oscar C. McCulloch, Minister of Plymouth Congregational Church, Indianapolis, Indiana (Indianapolis: Press of Wm. B. Burford, 1892), xx. See also Weeks, Oscar Carleton McCulloch, and Nathaniel Deutsch, Inventing America’s “Worst” Family: Eugenics, Islam, and the Fall and Rise of the Tribe of Ishmael (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

19 David Starr Jordan, The Heredity of Richard Roe: A Discussion of the Principles of Eugenics (Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1911), 100, 121.

CHAPTER 19: FROM DEGENERATE FAMILIES TO STERILIZATION

1 Lelia Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998 and 2001), 16, 28, 41–42, 54–57, 338, and Philip R. Reilly, The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 20.

2 Allan Chase, The Legacy of Malthus: The Social Costs of the New Scientific Racism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 114.

3 Ibid., 118–19.

4 Ibid., 144–45. On Galton see also Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 105–13.

5 Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 7–9, 12.

6 Francis Galton, Memories of My Life (London: Methuen, 1908), at http://galton.org/books/memories/chapter-XXI.html.

7 In Chase, Legacy of Malthus, 101–2.

8 In C. Loring Brace, “Race” Is a Four-Letter Word: The Genesis of the Concept (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 180 (emphasis in original).

9 For a longer explanation, see Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 191–93.

10 Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 48–49.

11 Ibid., 47.

12 Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 153–55, 175.

13 Ibid., 154, 169–70.

14 In Chase, Legacy of Malthus, 151. See also John Lisle, “The Kallikak Family, A Study of Feeble-Mindedness by Henry Herbert Goddard,” Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 4, no. 3 (Sept. 1913): 471.

15 In Chase, Legacy of Malthus, 148–50.

16 The statement figured in the 1907 presidential address of Amos Butler to the National Conference of Charities and Corrections. See Allison C. Carey, “Gender and Compulsory Sterilization Programs in America: 1907–1950,” Journal of Historical Sociology 11, no. 1 (March 1998): 81.

17 In Reilly, Surgical Solution, 46.

18 Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 149–50, 189, 227.

19 In Reilly, Surgical Solution, 86. In Segregation’s Science: Eugenics and Society in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008), 8–13, 25–33, 98–104, Gregory Michael Dorr points to Virginians’ enduring fascination with “blood” as a motor of human destiny, beginning with Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia and extending through the 1967 U.S. Supreme Court decision Loving v. Virginia striking down anti-miscegenation laws.

20 Paul Lombardo, “Eugenic Sterilization Laws,” Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement, Dolan DNA Learning Center, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/ html/eugenics/essay8text.html.

21 Harry H. Laughlin, director in charge of the Eugenics Record Office of the Department of Genetics of the Carnegie Institute of Washington, D.C., in Stephen Jay Gould, “Carrie Buck’s Daughter,” Natural History 111, no. 6 (July–Aug. 2002): 12 (originally published July 1984).

22 In Gould, “Carrie Buck’s Daughter.”

23 Carey, “Gender and Compulsory Sterilization Programs,” 74.

24 Chase, Legacy of Malthus, 126, 135; Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 324.

25 Paul A. Lombardo, “Facing Carrie Buck,” Hastings Center Report, 1 March 2003, 15.

CHAPTER 20: INTELLIGENCE TESTING OF NEW IMMIGRANTS

1 Robert M. Yerkes, “Testing the Human Mind,” Atlantic Monthly 131 (March 1923): 359, 364–65, 370. The Boasian anthropologist Robert Lowie of the University of California at Berkeley took Yerkes to task for interpreting national groups in racial terms, as Yerkes does on pp. 364–65 of his Atlantic Monthly article. See Robert Lowie, “Psychology, Anthropology, and Race,” American Anthropologist, n.s. 25, no. 3 (July–Sept. 1923): 299.

2 Carl C. Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1923), 13. Stephen Jay Gould discusses the Army IQ tests at length, noting the high frequency of zeros on the tests, indicating that soldiers had simply not answered the questions. Such results should have alerted testers to the tests’ unsuitability. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 230–33. Truman Lee Kelley had reached a similar conclusion in Interpretation of Educational Measurement (Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y.: World, 1927).

3 Brigham, Study of American Intelligence, 48.

4 Quoted in Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998 and 2001), 264.

5 Henry H. Goddard, “Mental Tests and the Immigrant,” Journal of Delinquency 1, no. 5 (Sept. 1917): 224.

6 Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 266, 273.

7 Goddard, “Mental Tests and the Immigrant,” 243, 252, 266. In this essay Goddard recognizes that mental handicap can be the result of heredity (“morons beget morons”) or of deprivation. He also concedes that so-called morons may have their place as drudges. See pp. 269, 270. These qualifications disappeared in the xenophobic 1920s discussion of immigration restriction.

8 Donald A. Dewsbury, “Robert M. Yerkes: A Psychobiologist with a Plan,” in Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology, ed. Gregory A. Kimble, C. Alan Boneau, and Michael Wertheimer, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1966), 92, 87–88.

9 Daniel J. Kevles, “Testing the Army’s Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I,” Journal of American History 55, no. 3 (Dec. 1968): 565.

10 Wade Pickren, “Robert Yerkes, Calvin Stone, and the Beginning of Programmatic Sex Research by Psychologists, 1921–1930,” American Journal of Psychology 110, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 608.

11 Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995): 80.

12 Ibid., 80–81.

13 Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 293, 297.

14 Yerkes, “Testing the Human Mind,” 359, 364, 370.

15 Quoted in Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 224–25n. Gould explains the ways military reluctance affected the tests’ administration and reduced the reliability of the results. For a fuller explanation of the Army’s response, see Kevles, “Testing the Army’s Intelligence,” 571–80.

16 The report, entitled Psychological Examining in the United States Army, was published in 1921.

17 David Owen, “Inventing the SAT,” Alicia Patterson Foundation Reporter 8, no. 1, 1985, http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF0801 /Owen/Owen.html.

18 Matthew T. Downey, Carl Campbell Brigham: Scientist and Educator (Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 1961), 5–7.

19 Ibid., 26.

20 Brigham, Study of American Intelligence, vii.

21 Ibid., 124.

22 Ibid., 146.

23 Ibid., vi, 159. See also Jonathan Peter Spiro, “Patrician Racist: The Evolution of Madison Grant” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 2000), 428, 437.

24 Georges Vacher de Lapouge, L’Aryen: Son rôle social (Paris: A. Fontemoing, 1899), 345.

25 U.S. Senate, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., Reports of the Immigration Commission, Dictionary of Races or Peoples (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1911), 5.

26 Brigham, Study of American Intelligence, 100, 101, 107, 110–11.

CHAPTER 21: THE GREAT UNREST

1 See “Lost Laughter,” Time.com, 26 Oct. 1936, http://www.time.com/time/ magazine/article/ 0,9171,788569-1,00.html, Roger Penn Cuff, “The American Editorial Cartoon: A Critical Historical Sketch,” Journal of Educational Sociology 19, no. 2 (Oct. 1945): 93, 95, and S. K. Stevens, “Of Men and Many Things,” Pennsylvania History 14 (Jan. 1947): 55.

2 Richard A. Easterlin, “Immigration: Social Characteristics,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 482.

3 The material that follows comes from Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 261–63, 293–390.

4 Tony Michels, A Fire in Their Hearts: Yiddish Socialists in New York (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005), 3.

5 William Preston, Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903–1933, 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 99.

6 W. E. B. Du Bois from Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil (1920) in W. E. B. Du Bois: A Reader, ed. David Levering Lewis (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 458.

7 Ray Roun cartoon, Saturday Evening Post, 12 Feb. 1921, p. 21. This cartoon illustrates Kenneth L. Roberts’s “Plain Remarks on Immigration for Plain Americans.”

8 Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 362–65, 368–70.

9 Ibid., 372–73.

10 Jan Cohn, Creating America: George Horace Lorimer and the Saturday Evening Post (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), 103, 130–31.

11 Howard C. Hill, “The Americanization Movement,” American Journal of Sociology 24, no. 6 (May 1919): 630.

12 See Neil Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 38–42. The graduation ceremony description is on 42.

CHAPTER 22: THE MELTING POT A FAILURE?

1 Jonathan Peter Spiro, “Patrician Racist: The Evolution of Madison Grant” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 2000), 498. See also Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2008).

2 See Jan Cohn, Creating America: George Horace Lorimer and the Saturday Evening Post (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), 10, 28–29, 166, and “Lorimer, George Horace” (2007), in Encyclopedia Britannica Online, http://searchj.eb.com/eb/article-9048978. See also Frederick Allen, “Star-Spangled Bigot,” American Heritage, Nov.–Dec. 1989, pp. 63–64.

3 John T. Frederick, “Kenneth Roberts,” English Journal 30, no. 6 (June 1941): 436–37, 438.

4 Jack Bales, Kenneth Roberts (New York: Twayne, 1993), 11.

5 “Angry Man’s Romance,” cover story, Time, 25 Nov. 1940, http://www.time.com/time/ magazine/article /0,9171,884165,00.html.

6 Jack Bales, Kenneth Roberts: The Man and His Works (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1989), viii.

7 Ibid., xvi; Edgar Allen Beem, Downeast Magazine, Aug. 1997, in “Kenneth Lewis Roberts,” http://www.waterborolibrary.org/maineaut/r.htm. Roberts, like many other writers obsessed by race, died childless.

8 Bales, Kenneth Roberts (1989), 23–24.

9 Kenneth L. Roberts, “Plain Remarks on Immigration for Plain Americans,” Saturday Evening Post, 12 Feb. 1921, pp. 21, 22, 44; Roberts, Why Europe Leaves Home (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1922), 21–22, 96, 104, 113–14.

10 Roberts, Why Europe Leaves Home, 20–22, 54, 230–32, 271.

11 Ibid., 15, 37, 41, 76–78.

12 E. A. Ross, The Old World in the New: The Significance of Past and Present Immigration to the American People (New York: Century, 1914), 150–51, 256, 285–89 (emphasis in original).

13 Ibid., 289–90.

14 Roberts, Why Europe Leaves Home, 48, 50; Bales, Kenneth Roberts (1989), 17.

15 See, e.g., New York Times, 31 May 1937, p. 15.

16 Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” viii, 6–22, 209, 225–26.

17 Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History, 4th ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1921), xxxiii. Grant’s title page listed his scholarly bona fides: Chairman, New York Zoological Society, Trustee, National Museum of National History, Councilor, National Geographic Society. Grant’s editor at Scribner’s was Maxwell Perkins, the legendary editor of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and Thomas Wolfe. In 1926 Scribner’s published Hemingway’s novella quoting Grant’s work in the title: The Torrents of Spring: A Romantic Novel in Honor of the Passing of a Great Race. See Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 334–35.

18 Madison Grant, “Discussion of Article on Democracy and Heredity,” Journal of Heredity 10, no. 4 (April 1919): 165.

19 Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 325.

20 Grant, Passing of the Great Race (1921), 54.

21 Ibid., 13, 16, 18–19, 27–29.

22 Ibid., 39.

23 Franz Boas, “Inventing a Great Race,” New Republic, 13 Jan. 1917, pp. 305–7.

24 Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 355, 358, 363.

25 Grant, Passing of the Great Race (1921), 215, 229–30.

26 Ibid., 217–19.

27 “An Appeal for Coöperation toward Lasting Peace” (1916), in David Starr Jordan, The Days of a Man: Being Memories of a Naturalist, Teacher and Minor Prophet of Democracy, vol. 2, 1900–1921 (Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y.: World Book, 1922), 688.

CHAPTER 23: ANTHROPOSOCIOLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF ALIEN RACES

1 F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby, Ruth Prigozy, ed. (New York, Oxford University Press: 1998), 14.

2 Benoit Massin, “L’Anthropologie raciale comme fondement de la science politique: Vacher de Lapouge et l’échec de l’ “anthroposociologie” en France (1886–1936),” in Les Politiques de l’anthropologie: Discours et pratiques en France (1860–1940), ed. Claude Blanckaert (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 296. See also George Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (New York: H. Fertig, 1978).

3 However, Jacques Barzun says Gobineau’s Essai was immediately read “by at least a score of notables”: Renan, Taine, Nietzsche, Wagner, Quatrefages, Schopenhauer, and others, all of whom already embraced racial determinism. Barzun misses the Nott translation. See Barzun, Race: A Study in Superstition, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), (originally published in 1937 as Race: A Study in Modern Superstition), x, 61, 200–218.

4 Georges Vacher de Lapouge, “L’Anthropologie et la science politique,” Revue d’Anthropologie (1887): 150–51, in Jonathan Peter Spiro, “Patrician Racist: The Evolution of Madison Grant” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 2000), 290.

5 For a history of such notions, see Jacques Barzun, The French Race: Theories of Its Origin and Their Social and Political Implications prior to the Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932). See also Anthony M. Ludovici, “Dr. Oscar Levy,” New English Weekly 30 (1946–47): 49–50, and “A Book to Stir Up Prejudice,” New York Times Review of Books, 28 July 1906, BR 472.

6 Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 287.

7 Ibid., 493.

8 Pierre-André Taguieff, La Couleur et le sang: Doctrines racistes à la française, new ed. (Paris: Mille et une Nuits, 2002), 239, 272. Lapouge’s books were Les Sélections sociales (1896), L’Aryen: Son rôle social (1899), and Race et milieu social: Essais d’anthroposociologie (1909).

9 Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 117.

10 Massin, “L’Anthropologie raciale,” 302; Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology in France (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 168, 172, 193. See also Hecht, “Vacher de Lapouge and the Rise of Nazi Science,” Journal of the History of Ideas 61, no. 2 (April 2000): 285–304.

11 Taguieff, La Couleur et le sang, 270–71; Massin, “L’Anthropologie raciale,” 283, 305, 290.

12 Taguieff, La Couleur et le sang, 288–93; Massin, “L’Anthropologie raciale,” 274.

13 Georges Vacher de Lapouge, L’Aryen: Son rôle social (Paris: A. Fontemoing, 1899), 483.

14 Ibid., 464–83.

15 Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 283–84, 365–66.

16 Lapouge, L’Aryen, 345.

17 Madison Grant, Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History, 4th ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1921), 231–32.

18 Ibid., 184–85.

19 Russell A. Kazal, Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 4–6, 151–92.

20 Kathleen Neils Conzen, “Germans,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 410, 422–23.

21 J. B. Moore, review of The French Revolution in San Domingo, by T. Lothrop Stoddard, in Political Science Quarterly 31, no. 1 (March 1916): 179–80.

22 Matthew Pratt Guterl, The Color of Race in America, 1900–1940 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 51–52; Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 439–42.

23 Lothrop Stoddard, The Revolt against Civilization: The Menace of the Under Man (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922), 56, 63.

24 Ibid., 10 (emphasis in original).

25 Ibid., 245, 248, 252, 254, 262–63.

26 Ibid., 23–25, 63–64, 69, 71–72, 94–96, 113, 151–52, 163, 210 (emphasis in original).

27 Ibid., 63, 71, 72.

28 The Post editorials appeared in April and May 1921. See Jan Cohn, Creating America: George Horace Lorimer and the Saturday Evening Post (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), 135–36, 155.

29 William McDougall, Is America Safe for Democracy? (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1921), appendix V, 209.

30 Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 190–203.

31 Jack Bales, Kenneth Roberts: The Man and His Works (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1989), 19.

32 Spiro, “Patrician Racist,” 448.

33 Cohn, Creating America, 195–96.

34 Richard Slotkin, Lost Battalions: The Great War and the Crisis of American Nationality (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 459.

35 Richard V. Oulahan, “Tense Feeling on Ku Klux,” New York Times, 29 June 1924, pp. 1, 7. See also New York Times, 23 June 1924, p. 1.

36 “Deeper Causes,” editorial, New York Times, 5 July 1924, p. 12.

37 Calvin Coolidge, “Whose Country Is This?” Good Housekeeping, Feb. 1921, pp. 13, 14, 109.

38 Neil Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 45–47.

39 Ibid., 25.

40 On the peace ship, see Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 308–9.

41 Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews, 98, 263–65, 306. W. J. Cameron went on to publish his own Anglo-Israelite paper after the closing of the Dearborn Independent.

42 Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews, 309.

43 Ibid., 82–83, 97, 144, 201.

CHAPTER 24: REFUTING RACIAL SCIENCE

1 Walter Lippmann, “A Future for the Tests” New Republic 33 (29 Nov. 1922): 10.

2 Franz Samelson, “From ‘Race Psychology’ to ‘Studies in Prejudice’: Some Observations on the Thematic Reversal in Social Psychology,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 14 (1978): 273.

3 Daniel J. Kevles, “Annals of Eugenics: A Secular Faith—III,” New Yorker, 22 Oct. 1984, pp. 100–101, 107–8; Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 209.

4 Vincent P. Franklin, “Black Social Scientists and the Mental Testing Movement, 1920–1940,” in Black Psychology, ed. Reginald L. Jones, 3rd ed. (Berkeley, Calif.: Cobb & Henry, 1991), 207.

5 Bond in the Crisis 28 (1924), quoted in John P. Jackson Jr., “‘Racially Stuffed Shirts and Other Enemies of Mankind’: Horace Mann Bond’s Parody of Segregationist Psychology in the 1950s,” in Defining Difference: Race and Racism in the History of Psychology, ed. Andres S. Winston (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2004), 264–65. See also Franklin, “Black Social Scientists,” 205–7. Franklin also discusses the theory that black intelligence is related to the amount of “white blood” in the black individual. Supposedly the whiter the Negro, the smarter. Otto Klineberg disproved this assertion in his 1935 Negro Intelligence and Selective Migration.

6 Kevles, “Annals of Eugenics,” 107.

7 Samelson, “From ‘Race Psychology’ to ‘Studies in Prejudice,’” 268–71.

8 Robert E. Park, “Human Migration and the Marginal Man,” American Journal of Sociology 33, no. 6 (May 1928): 887–90, 892–93.

9 Edward Alsworth Ross, Seventy Years of It: An Autobiography (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 276. Emphasis in original.

10 Lelia Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, 2001), 324–26; Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources, Indiana University, http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/kallikak.shtml

11 Franz Boas, Anthropology and Modern Life (originally published 1932), with a new introduction and afterword by Herbert S. Lewis (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004), 273, 282–83.

12 Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, 94.

13 Otto Klineberg, “Reflections of an International Psychologist of Canadian Origin,” International Social Science Journal 25, nos. 1–2 (1973): 40–41. See also Wayne H. Holtzman and Roger W. Russell, “Otto Klineberg: A Pioneering International Psychologist,” International Journal of Psychology 27, no. 5 (Oct. 1992): 346–65.

14 See Otto Klineberg, A Study of Psychological Differences between ‘Racial’ and National Groups in Europe, Archives of Psychology, no. 132 (New York, 1931).

15 Klineberg, “Reflections,” 41–42.

16 Carl C. Brigham, “Intelligence Tests of Immigrant Groups,” Psychological Review 37, no. 2 (March 1930): 164, 165.

17 Judith Schachter Modell, Ruth Benedict: Patterns of a Life (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), 23–26, 56; Margaret M. Caffrey, Ruth Benedict: Stranger in This Land (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989), 17, 21–22, 40–41.

18 Caffrey, Ruth Benedict, 64.

19 Modell, Ruth Benedict, 64–67.

20 Ibid., 84; Caffrey, Ruth Benedict, 75–81; Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), 8. Mead’s book includes photographs and excerpts from Benedict’s journals and letters.

21 Caffrey, Ruth Benedict, 93–98; Virginia Heyer Young, Ruth Benedict: Beyond Relativity, Beyond Pattern (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 7–8.

22 Lois W. Banner, Intertwined Lives: Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, and Their Circle (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003), 411.

23 This is the subject of Banner, Intertwined Lives.

24 Margaret Mead, An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959), and Ruth Benedict.

25 Mead, Ruth Benedict, 2.

26 Mary Catherine Bateson, “Foreword,” in Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (originally published 1934) (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), ix.

27 Margaret Mead, Blackberry Winter: My Earlier Years (originally published 1972) (New York: Kodansha International, 1995), 130–31.

28 Louise Lamphere, “Unofficial Histories: A Vision of Anthropology from the Margins,” American Anthropologist 106, no. 1 (March 2004): 134.

29 Caffrey, Ruth Benedict, 122, 160–61, 187. See also Banner, Intertwined Lives, 202.

30 Benedict, Patterns of Culture, 11, 15, 78–79, 233–37.

31 Caffrey, Ruth Benedict, 278, 284–85.

32 Ruth Benedict, Race: Science and Politics (New York: Modern Age Books, 1940), v–vi.

33 Benedict, Race (1940), 9, 12–17.

34 Ibid., 3, 119–27.

35 Ibid., 6, 30–31, 37.

36 Ruth Benedict, Race: Science and Politics, rev. ed. (New York: Viking Press, 1943), v.

37 Benedict, Race (1940), vii; (1943), xi–xii; (1945), xi.

38 Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Superstition, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1965); M. F. Ashley Montague, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race, 3rd ed. (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1952), 1. See also Karen E. Fields, “Witchcraft and Racecraft: Invisible Ontology in Its Sensible Manifestations,” in Witchcraft Dialogues: Anthropological and Philosophical Exchanges, ed. George Clement Bond and Diane M. Ciekawy (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2001), 283–315.

39 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, The Race Concept: Results of an Inquiry (Paris: United Nations, 1952), 7–8.

40 Ruth Benedict and Gene Weltfish, Races of Mankind (1943), in Race: Science and Politics, rev. ed. (1943), 176.

41 Ibid., 176–77.

42 Ibid., 182–83.

43 Carleton S. Coon, Adventures and Discoveries: The Autobiography of Carleton S. Coon (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), 129.

44 Ibid., 131, 137–38.

45 Samelson, “From ‘Race Psychology’ to ‘Studies in Prejudice,’” 268, 272–73.

46 Mead, Ruth Benedict, 53.

CHAPTER 25: A NEW WHITE RACE POLITICS

1 Neil Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 108–20.

2 Ibid., 148–51.

3 In Anthology of American Literature, 4th ed., vol. 2, ed. George McMichael, Frederick Crews, J. C. Levenson, Leo Marx, and David E. Smith (New York: Macmillan, 1989), 1351–52.

4 Donald W. Rogers, “Introduction—The Right to Vote in American History,” in Voting and the Spirit of American Democracy: Essays on the History of Voting Rights in America, ed. Donald W. Rogers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 11–12; Paul Kleppner, Who Voted?: The Dynamics of Electoral Turnout, 1870–1980 (New York: Praeger, 1982), 20–62.

5 Kristi Andersen, The Creation of a Democratic Majority, 1928–1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 38–40, 42, 51, 87–88, 90; Kleppner, Who Voted?, 68–70.

6 Louis Adamic, Laughing in the Jungle: The Autobiography of an Immigrant in America (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1932), 105.

7 Allan J. Lichtman, Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 5–6, 200–201, 231, 233. Lichtman takes issue with Samuel Lubell’s designation of 1928 as a critical election. For Lichtman, Smith brought out urban voters, but the election did not signal a new era in U.S. politics (pp. 94–95, 122).

8 According to Michael Denning, Americans born between 1904 and 1923 constituted a huge working-class generation, “the most working-class cohort in American history,” with the highest number of people ever identifying themselves as workers. Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (London: Verso, 1997), 8–9.

9 Andersen, Creation of a Democratic Majority, 112–13, 93.

10 See Nancy Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 209–39.

11 Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews, 294, 297.

12 David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 216, 230–31.

13 Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982), 82–121. Coughlin was especially influential in 1934–35.

14 David Nasaw, The Chief: The Life and Work of William Randolph Hearst (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 488–90, 494–98.

15 Reader’s Digest, Nov. 1939, pp. 62–67.

16 Baldwin, Henry Ford and the Jews, 281–88.

17 Horace M. Kallen, “Democracy versus the Melting-Pot,” Nation, 18 Feb. 1915, pp. 190–94, and 25 Feb. 1915, pp. 217–20, and Culture and Democracy in the United States: Studies in the Group Psychology of the American Peoples (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924). See also Sidney Ratner, “Horace M. Kallen and Cultural Pluralism,” Modern Judaism 4, no. 2 (May 1984), 185.

18 Kallen, “Democracy versus the Melting-Pot,” 192.

19 Ibid., 194.

20 Ibid., 220. Werner Sollors summed up Kallen’s vision as “Once a trombone, always a trombone!” in Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 185.

21 Randolph Bourne, “Trans-National America,” Atlantic Monthly 118 (July 1916): 93; John Dewey, “The Principle of Nationality,” Menorah Journal 3, no. 3 (Oct. 1917): 206, 208.

22 Adamic, Laughing in the Jungle, 67–70, 98, 101–2, 109.

23 Ibid., 262–65; Louis Adamic, My America, 1928–1938 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1938), 48; Dale E. Peterson, “The American Adamic: Immigrant Bard of Diversity,” Massachusetts Review 44, nos. 1–2 (Spring–Summer 2003): 235.

24 Adamic, My America, 135, 191.

25 Ibid., 188.

26 Louis Adamic, “Thirty Million New Americans,” Harper’s Magazine 169 (Nov. 1934): 684, 694.

27 Immigrants as dung in Adamic, Laughing in the Jungle, 18–20, 104, 254, 292–93, 298, 320; the quote appears on 104. Adamic never lost sight of the tremendous toll of industrial accidents on immigrants’ bodies and lives. Workplace accidents also appear as a routine part in the work of Pietro di Donato. The opening scene of his Christ in Concrete, a 1937 novel of Italian immigrant bricklayers, describes a deadly industrial accident. Christ in Concrete succeeded wildly on its initial publication, then largely disappeared from the canon of immigrant literature. Thomas J. Ferraro, in Feeling Italian: The Art of Ethnicity in America (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 52–60.

28 Adamic, “Thirty Million New Americans,” 684, 687, 694.

29 Barbara Diane Savage, Broadcasting Freedom: Radio, War, and the Politics of Race, 1938–1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 22–24. See also the “Inventory of the Rachel Davis DuBois Papers, 1920–1993” in the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College, http://www.swarthmore.edu/ Library/friends/ead/ 5035dubo.xml#bioghist.

30 Savage, Broadcasting Freedom, 24–26, 291.

31 Ibid., 61; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 761.

CHAPTER 26: THE THIRD ENLARGEMENT OF AMERICAN WHITENESS

1 Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 188, 196, 203–4.

2 James N. Gregory, “The Southern Diaspora and the Urban Dispossessed: Demonstrating the Census Public Use Microdata Samples,” Journal of American History 82, no. 1 (June 1995): 112, 117; Gerstle, American Crucible, 35, 196.

3 Norman Mailer, The Naked and the Dead (New York: Rinehart, 1948), 18–20, 63–67, 156–64, 222–35.

4 Thomas A. Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,” Journal of American History 92, no. 4 (March 2006): 1215–16. After 1945, Native American Indians were included with Caucasians (1232).

5 Joseph Heller, Now and Then: From Coney Island to Here (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 152–53.

6 Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 101–2. See also John M. Kinder, “The Good War’s ‘Raw Chunks’: Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead and James Gould Cozzen’s Guard of Honor,” Midwest Quarterly 46, no. 2 (Winter 2005): 106, 187–202.

7 David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 760.

8 “Lindbergh Sees a ‘Plot’ for War,” New York Times, 12 Sept. 1941, p. 2; “The Un-American Way,” ibid., 26 Sept. 1941, p. 22. See also “Lindbergh Is Accused of Inciting Hate,” ibid., 14 Sept. 1941, p. 25.

9 Quoted in Gerstle, American Crucible, 173–74. See also 153, 170–75. Jonathan J. Cavallero, “Frank Capra’s 1920s Immigrant Trilogy: Immigration, Assimilation, and the American Dream,” MELUS 29, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 27–53, reminds readers that Capra’s three films of the 1920s treat the American immigrant experience and criticize the materialism at the core of the American dream.

10 Gerstle, American Crucible, 166, 172.

11 Louis Adamic, A Nation of Nations (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1945), 7.

12 In Gary Gerstle, “The Working Class Goes to War,” in The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness during World War II, ed. Lewis A. Erenberg and Susan E. Hirsch (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 118. Cynthia Skove Nevels, Lynching to Belong: Claiming Whiteness Through Racial Violence (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2008), 1, 6–7, 36, 154–160, makes a similar point.

13 David R. Roediger, ed., Black on White: Black Writers on What It Means to Be White (New York: Schocken, 1998), 19. In 1965 the noted African American theologian Howard Thurman contended, “The immigrant who comes to this country seeking a new home soon realizes…[that the] sooner he accepts the dominant mood, the sooner will he be accepted, not as a foreigner but as a white American…. That he may have been the victim of racial, religious, or political persecution in his homeland does not matter. The general tendency is for him to make his place in the new world secure by ingratiating himself to the white community as a white man in good standing.” Thurman, The Luminous Darkness: A Personal Interpretation of the Anatomy of Segregation and the Ground of Hope (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 36.

14 Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 106–7.

15 Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998), 10–11, 17.

16 Heller, Now and Then, 167.

17 Ibid., 167–68.

18 Richard D. Alba, Italian Americans: Into the Twilight of Ethnicity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 75, 83–84.

19 See Rudolph M. Susel, “Slovenes,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 941.

20 Theda Skocpol, “The G.I. Bill and U.S. Social Policy, Past and Future,” Social Philosophy and Policy 14 (Summer 1997): 96–97.

21 Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 206.

22 Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White, 112–15.

23 See David Kushner, Levittown: Two Families, One Tycoon, and the Fight for Civil Rights in America’s Legendary Suburb (New York: Walker, 2009). See also Tom Vanderbilt, “Alien Nations,” Bookforum 15, no. 5 (Feb.–March 2009): 14.

24 The American Experience, “Miss America,” http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ amex/missamerica/ peopleevents/e_inclusion.htm.

25 Michelle Mart, “The ‘Christianization’ of Israel and Jews in 1950s America,” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 14, no. 1 (2004): 116–25.

26 Robert Zussman, “Review: Still Lonely after All These Years,” Sociological Forum 16, no. 1 (March 2001): 157–58.

27 Carol A. O’Connor, “Sorting Out the Suburbs: Patterns of Land Use, Class, and Culture,” American Quarterly 37, no. 3 (1985): 383.

28 Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), 122–23.

29 Louise DeSalvo, Crazy in the Kitchen: Food, Feuds, and Forgiveness in an Italian American Family (New York: Bloomsbury, 2004), 9–13.

30 Cohen, Consumers’ Republic, 152–53.

31 Thomas A. Guglielmo, “‘No Color Barrier’ Italians, Race, and Power in the United States,” in Are Italians White? How Race Is Made in America, ed. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York: Routledge, 2003), 29.

32 Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn against Liberalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 27–28.

33 See Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). Whereas the role of government was glaringly obvious and unpleasant in the creation and maintenance of public housing for the urban poor, e.g., Chicago’s depressing Robert Taylor projects, the crucial federal role in financing suburbanization was hidden, allowing home buyers to believe they had acquired their homes purely through their own virtuous, hard work. See David Freund, “Marketing the Free Market: State Intervention and the Politics of Prosperity in Metropolitan America,” in The New Suburban History, ed. Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 11–32, Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 201–7, and Thomas J. Sugrue, “The New American Dream: Renting,” Wall Street Journal, 14–15 Aug. 2009, W1–2.

34 James Loewen, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism? (New York: New Press, 2005), 6–17.

35 Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White, 114–15; Cohen, Consumers’ Republic, 167–72.

36 Herbert J. Gans’s pioneering study, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community (New York: Pantheon Books, 1967), notes racial restriction only in passing, and not until p. 185.

37 Restrictive covenants can be used for a variety of ends, from stipulating lot size to regulating where owners can cut down trees. However, the restrictive covenants in question here deal with race. When the Roosevelt administration created the FHA in 1934, its manual to sellers included a model racially restrictive covenant on the ground that “if a neighborhood is to retain stability, it is necessary that properties shall continue to be occupied by the same social and racial classes.” After the U.S. Supreme Court outlawed the enforcement of racially restrictive covenants in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), the FHA and the VA continued to practice segregation, but not in writing. Their lending did not open suburban housing to African Americans until the 1970s. See http://www.developmentleadership.net/ current/worksheet.htm.

38 Kenneth T. Jackson, “Race, Ethnicity, and Real Estate Appraisal: The Home Owners Loan Corporation and the Federal Housing Administration,” Journal of Urban History 6 (1980): 433. On racial segregation in the mid-twentieth-century North, see Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty.

CHAPTER 27: BLACK NATIONALISM AND WHITE ETHNICS

1 Bruce Perry, Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America (Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill Press, 1991), 2–3, 113–17, 139–41, 161–62.

2 Autobiography of Malcolm X as Told to Alex Haley (New York: Ballantine Books, 1965), 404. See also Thulani Davis and Howard Chapnick, Malcolm X: The Great Photographs (New York: Stewart Tabori and Chang, 1993).

3 Perry, Malcolm, 115–16; Nell Irvin Painter, Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 254.

4 Perry, Malcolm: 181. See also Nell Irvin Painter, “Malcolm X across the Genres,” American Historical Review 98, no. 2 (April 1993): 396–404.

5 Perry, Malcolm, 175–76.

6 Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 71–77.

7 James Baldwin, The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonfiction, 1948–1985 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), xiv, xviv, xx, 431–32.

8 Margaret Mead and James Baldwin, A Rap on Race (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971), and Kai T. Erikson, In Search of Common Ground: Conversations with Erik H. Erikson and Huey P. Newton (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973).

9 Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 99.

10 See Mary Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 90–93, and Micaela de Leonardo, “Racial Fairy Tales,” Nation 253, no. 20 (9 Dec. 1991): 752–54. Herbert Gans coined the phrase “symbolic ethnicity” in “Symbolic Ethnicity: The Future of Ethnic Groups and Cultures in America,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 2 (Jan. 1979): 1–20.

11 Pierre L. van den Berghe, Race and Ethnicity: Essays in Comparative Sociology (New York: Basic Books, 1970), 10. Van den Berghe explains, “What makes a society multiracial is not the presence of physical differences between groups, but the attribution of social significance to such physical differences as may exist.”

12 See Richard Alba, Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), and Waters, Ethnic Options.

13 Novak, Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, 135, 166–67, 198.

14 Ibid., 67, 71, 77.

15 Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 137–38, 146–51.

16 Michael Novak, “Novak: The Rise of Unmeltable Ethnics, Part I,” 30 Aug. 2006, http://www.firstthings.com/onthesquare/?p=450.

17 James Traub, “Nathan Glazer Changes His Mind, Again,” New York Times, 28 June 1998.

18 Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City, 2nd ed. (New York: MIT Press, 1970), 16–17.

19 Alejandro Portes, “The Melting Pot That Did Happen,” International Migration Review 34, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 243–44.

20 Glazer and Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: lxii–lxvi, lxviii, lxxiv (quote on lxxxiii, emphasis added). Michael Novak quoted this insult in Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, 93.

21 Glazer and Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot, xvi.

CHAPTER 28: THE FOURTH ENLARGEMENT OF AMERICAN WHITENESS

1 Victoria Hattam, “Ethnicity and the Boundaries of Race: Rereading Directive 15,” Daedalus 134, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 61–62, 67.

2 Measuring America: The Decennial Census from 1790 to 2000, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2002), 100, and Jennifer L. Hochschild, “Looking Ahead: Racial Trends in the United States,” Daedalus 134, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 71.

3 Hochschild, “Looking Ahead,” 76.

4 Richard D. Alba, Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 9–12.

5 Lillian Smith, Killers of the Dream, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), 36–37, 84, 90–94, 123–24, 163–65.

6 John Howard Griffin, Black like Me (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961); Robert Bonazzi, Man in the Mirror: John Howard Griffin and the Story of Black like Me (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books: 1997), 54–92.

7 Grace Halsell, Soul Sister: The Journal of a White Woman Who Turned Herself Black and Went to Live and Work in Harlem and Mississippi (New York: World Publishing, 1969), and Grace Halsell, In Their Shoes (Forth Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1996), 123–68.

8 See Troy Duster, “The ‘Morphing’ Properties of Whiteness,” in Making and Unmaking of Whiteness, ed. Birgit Brander Rasmussen, Eric Klineberg, Irene J. Nexica, and Matt Wray (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 129.

9 David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991), and How Race Survived U.S. History: From the American Revolution to the Present (New York: Verso, 2008). See also Kimberlé Crenshaw et al., eds., Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement (New York: New Press, 1995), Richard Delgado, ed., Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, eds., Critical White Studies: Looking behind the Mirror (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997), and Ian F. Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996), provide useful introductions.

10 Rasmussen et al. eds., Making and Unmaking of Whiteness, 7. To confuse matters further, sociologists have discovered that multiracial people change their identities according to context. Other people’s perceptions influence how their identity gets phrased.

11 See chapter 11. The quote comes from The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 5, English Traits, ed. Philip Nicoloff (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 26.

12 See Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), 536–39.

13 Editorial, Nature Genetics 24, no. 2 (Feb. 2000): no pagination.

14 Joseph L. Graves Jr., The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 155–56.

15 William S. Klug and Michael R. Cummings, Concepts of Genetics, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000), 5–7, 17–18, and Matt Ridley, Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 123–24.

16 The newspaper stories ran on 21 Feb. 1995. See Graves, Emperor’s New Clothes, 155–56.

17 Ridley, Genome, 247, and Arthur L. Caplan, “His Genes, Our Genome,” New York Times, 3 May 2002, p. A23.

18 Natalie Angier, “Skin Deep,” New York Times, 5 Feb. 2001, pp. 14–15.

19 This is the view of the journalist Jon Entine, a fellow (like Michael Novak) of the American Enterprise Institute and author of Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We are Afraid to Talk about It (2000) and Abraham’s Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People (2007).

20 Hillel Halkin, “Jews and Their DNA,” Commentary, Sept. 2008, pp. 37–43, and reader letters from Commentary, Dec. 2008, unpaginated. Halkin is a columnist for the New York Sun and frequent Commentary contributor.

21 Bryan Sykes, Saxons, Vikings, and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 279–87.

22 Nicholas Wade, “The Palette of Humankind,” New York Times, 24 Dec. 2002, p. F3. See also Anne Fausto-Sterling, “Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health Care,” differences 15, no. 3 (2004): 10.

23 Michael Bamshad and Steve E. Olson, “Does Race Exist?” Scientific American, Dec. 2003, pp. 78–85.

24 Fausto-Sterling, “Refashioning Race,” 30. See also a report from the National Human Genome Center of the Howard University College of Medicine: Charmaine D. M. Royal and Georgia M. Dunston, “Changing the Paradigm from ‘Race’ to Human Genome Variation,” Nature Genetics Online, 26 Oct. 2004.

25 Lehrman, “Reality of Race,” 33. See Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics (New York: Routledge, 1990).

26 See Sally Satel, “I Am a Racially Profiling Doctor,” New York Times, 5 May 2002, p. 56.

27 Fausto-Sterling, “Refashioning Race,” 17–18. It is often assumed that sickle-cell anemia occurs only among African-descended people, which is not the case. The sickling trait evolved in malarial regions, and people descended from such places, e.g., Italy and Greece, are also susceptible to sickle-cell anemia.

28 Michael J. Bamshad and Steve E. Olson, “Does Race Exist?” Scientific American.com 10 Nov. 2003. Bamshad and Olson conclude, “If races are defined as genetically discrete groups, no. But researchers can use some genetic information to group individuals into clusters with medical relevance.” Also Troy Duster, “Race and Reification in Science,” Science 307, no. 5712 (18 Feb. 2005): 1050–51. See also Wikipedia, “Isosorbide dinitrate/hydralazine,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Isosorbide_dinitrate/ hydralazine, and BiDil’s website, headlined, “Prescription Drug for African Americans with Heart Disease,” and showing an Asian American M.D. and an African American patient, http://www.bidil.com/.

29 The material in this section comes from several sources: Nina G. Jablonski and George Chaplin, “The Evolution of Human Skin Coloration,” Journal of Human Evolution 39 (2000): 57–106, and “Skin Deep,” Scientific American, Oct. 2002, pp. 74–82; and R. L. Lamason, V. A. Canfield, and K. C. Cheng, “SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans,” Science 310 (Dec. 16, 2006): 1782–86. See also Rick Weiss, “Scientists Find a DNA Change That Accounts For White Skin,” Washington Post, 16 Dec. 2005, p. A01, ScientificAmerican.com, 16 Dec. 2005, Christen Brownlee, Science News Online, week of 17 Dec. 2005 (vol. 168, no. 25), and Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin_color.

30 Aravinda Chakravarti, “Kinship: Race Relations,” Nature 457 (22 Jan. 2009): no pagination.

31 Consider Newark, New Jersey, a place supposedly characterized by “ruin, a town known only for murder, blight, and feckless negritude…a state of spiritual and moral zombiehood…angry Zulus…a Mugabe manqué…the Heart of Newark Darkness.” Scott Rabb, “The Battle of Newark,” Esquire, July 2008, pp. 66–73, 116–17.