Index

Abalones, 362
A-bands, 189
Abdomen, of insects, 365
Abiotic, 275
ABO blood group, 229–230
Abscisic acid, 139
Abscission layers, 138
Absorption spectrum, 108
Acetate, 94
Acetylcholine, 172
Acetyl-CoA, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97
Acoela (acoelomates), 358
Acorn worms (Hemichordata), 367
ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Actin, 190, 191
Actinomycetes, 315
Action potential, 168
Activation energy, 87, 89
Active transport, 16, 19–20
Actomyosin complex, 190
Adenohypophysis (anterior lobe of pituitary), 146
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 92, 94, 96, 112–113, 286
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 19, 27, 87, 91–94, 96, 97, 106, 112–115, 188, 190, 202
ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone
Adhesive cells, 358
ADP. See Adenosine diphosphate
Adrenal cortex, 144
Adrenal glands, 144
Adrenal medulla, 144
Adrenalin (epinephrine), 144
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 146
Aerobic bacteria, 316
Aerobic respiration, 94
Agglutinogenic proteins, 229
Agnatha (agnathans, lampreys, and hagfish), 368
AIDS, 303
Alcohol group, 244
Aldehyde group, 244
Algae, 322, 335, 340, 341
- blue-green, 4, 35, 107, 286, 310, 315, 330
Algal cells, 123–124
Aliens, 270
Allergies, 143
Alligators, 371
Alpine tundra, 281
Alternation-of-generation, 71–75, 338
Alveoli, 217
American cockroach, 365
Amino acids, 5, 18, 97, 220, 242–244
Ammonia, 3, 129–131, 242, 286, 316
Amnion, 370
Amoebas (Sarcodina), 322
Amoeboid cells, 356
Amphibians (Amphibia), 368–369
- closed circulatory system of, 211
- gray matter of, 162
- heart of, 215
- osmoregulation by, 130
Amphineura, 362
Amphioxus, 368
Amylase, 246
Amyloplasts, 29
Anabolic steroids, 149, 254
Anaerobic bacteria, 316
Anaerobic fermentation, 93–94
Anaerobic glycolysis, 94
Anaerobic respiration, 87, 90
- in muscles, 188–189
Anaphase, 53
Anaphase I, 58
Anaphase II, 58
Androgens, 144
Anemia/anemic, 229
Angiosperms, 336, 346–347
Angiotonin (hypertensin), 144
Animal behavior, 288
Animal cells
- cell structure of, 32
- centrioles in, 33
- homeostasis in, 123–124
Animalia (animal kingdom)
- Chordata, 164, 367–373
- higher invertebrates, 361–367
- lower invertebrates, 355–361
Animals. See also specific types
- camouflage of, 290–291
- circulatory system of, 211–220
- hormones of, 140–149
- phosphorus cycle and, 287
- proteins for, 244
- sex of, 78–79
Annelida (annelids), 164, 211, 362–363
Annular secondary cell wall, 201
Antagonistic action, of muscles, 186–187
Anterior lobe of pituitary (adenohypophysis), 146
Anterior vena cava, 217
Anther, 348
Antheridia, 337, 339
Anthocyanins, 105
Anthophyta (anthophytes, flowering plants), 346–347
Anthozoa, 357
Antibiotics, 314
Antibodies, 229, 244
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin), 147–148
Antigen-antibody reaction, 232
Antigens, 229
Antihistamines, 143
Anura (frogs), 369, 370
Anus, 75, 247, 359, 366
Aorta, 217
Aortic semilunar valve, 217
Apoda (salamanders), 369
Aposematic coloration, 290
Arachnids (Arachnida), 365
Arachnoid, 159–160
Archaebacteria, 309, 315
Archaeopteryx, 372
Archegonia, 337–339
Archenteron, 359
Argon, 2
Arrhenius, Svante, 7
Arteries, 214
Arterioles, 214
Arthropods (Arthropoda), 364–366
- exoskeleton of, 191–192
Aschelminthes (sac worms), 360–361
Asci, 328
Ascomycota (sac fungi), 327–328
Ascospores, 328
Asexual budding, 356
Asexual reproduction, 67–68
- of annelids, 363
- of Ascomycota, 327–328
- of sponges, 356
Association neurons (interneurons), 165, 173
Asteroidea (sea stars), 366
Asters, 52
Atherosclerosis, 253
Athlete's foot, 330
Atmospheric cycles, 287
Atmospheric gases, 2–3
Atmospheric pressure, 203, 287
Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), 286–287
ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate
Atrioventricular node (A-V node), 187, 234–235
Atrium, 215
ATRP. See Atom transfer radical polymerization
Aurornisxui, 372
Autonomic nervous system, 173–174
Autotrophic nutrition, oxidation in, 316
Autotrophs, 105, 274
Auxins, 137–138
A-V node. See Atrioventricular node
Ave. See Birds
Avogadro's Number, 112
Axons, 163

B cells, 232
Bacilli, 315
Backbone (vertebral column), 184
Bacteria. See also Blue-green algae
- aerobic, 316
- anaerobic, 316
- antibiotics from, 314
- cell division of, 309
- cell walls of, 21, 310
- chemosynthesis by, 274, 315–316
- as decomposers, 309
- fossils of, 6
- heterotrophic, 314–315
- lactic acid from, 92
- nitrifying, 286
- nitrogen cycle and, 286
- panspermia and, 7
- plasma membrane of, 312
- as prokaryotes, 35, 310
- reproduction of, 312–313
- as single-celled organisms, 13
Bacteriophages (bacterial virus), 31, 301, 313
Bark, 199
Barnacles, 365
Basal bodies, 33
Basidia, 328
Basidiomycota (club fungi), 328–329
Basidiospores, 328
Basophils, 231
Batesian mimicry, 291
Bats, 287
Behavioral biology (ecology), 288–290
Bernal, J. Desmond, 4
Bicarbonate, 233, 284
Bicuspid valve (mitral valve), 217
Bilateral symmetry, 164, 358
Bile, 143
Binary fission, 49, 55, 312, 315
Biodiversity, 276
Biogeochemical cycles, 284–288
Biomass, 275
Biomes, 277–282
Biopsychology, 288
Biotic potential, 267–268
Birds (Ave), 372
- cerebral cortex of, 162–163
- closed circulatory system of, 211
- in estuaries, 283
- guano from, 287
- heart of, 216
- osmoregulation by, 132
- skeleton of, 186
Birth
- hormones in, 149
- rates, 273
Birth canal (vagina), 77
Bivalvia (bivalves), 362
Black-crowned night heron, 372
Bladder, 129
Blastophores, 359
Blastula, 355
Blood, 227–235
- erythrocytes of, 227–229
- inorganic ions in, 233–234
- of insects, 213–214
- leukocytes in, 230–232
- platelets in, 227, 232–233
- proteins in, 233–234, 244
- salts in, 233–234
- of vertebrates, 214
Blood clotting, 233
Blood pressure, 235, 252
Blood test, 232
Blood transfusions, 229
Blood types, 229–230
Bloodsuckers (leeches), 164, 363
Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), 4, 35, 107, 286, 310, 315, 330
Body temperature, 89, 145, 227, 372
Bones, 183–187, 256, 372
Bony fish (Osteichthyes), 130, 368
Boreal forests (taiga), 281
Botulism, 315
Bowman's capsule, 127–129
Brachiopoda (brachiopods), 361
Brain
- membranes of, 159–160
- subviruses of, 304
- of vertebrates, 160–163
- white matter of, 167
Brittle stars, 366
Brown algae (Phaeophyta), 335
Bryophyta (bryophytes, mosses, liverworts, and hornworts), 198, 336–339
Bryozoa, 361
Bubonic plague, 315
Budding, 55, 67
Buds, 137, 138
Bundle of His, 235
Bundles, of skeletal muscle fibers, 187
Butter, 253

Cairns-Smith, A. G., 5
Calcareous spines and plates, 366
Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin), 145
Calcium, for bones, 256
Calcium carbonate, 183, 356, 372
Calcium ions, 191, 203, 232, 233
Calcium phosphate, 183
Calories, 241
Calvin, Melvin, 4
Calyx, 347
Cambium (lateral meristematic tissue), 199
Camouflage, 290–291
Capillaries, 214, 218
Capillary beds, 217
Carbohydrate synthesis, 114
Carbohydrates, 97, 129, 145, 198, 245, 251, 316
Carbon, 106, 243, 246
Carbon cycle, 284–285
Carbon dioxide, 2, 4, 88, 131, 198, 294–295
Carbon fixation, 114
Carboxyl group (-COOH), 242, 244, 252
Cardiac (heart) muscle, 187
Cardiovascular system, 214
Carnivores (predators), 275, 289
Carotenoids, 29, 104
Carpals, 185
Carpels, 347
Carrier molecules, 18
Carrying capacity, 271
Cartilage, 183
Catalysts, 245
Caudal vertebrae, 184
Cell body, 165, 166, 172
Cell division, 49–58
- of bacteria, 309
- cellular reproduction, 51–53
- meiosis, 56–57
- meiosis I, 57–58
- meiosis II, 58
- mitosis, 51–53
- sex and, 55–56
Cell membrane. See Plasma membrane
Cell plate, 55
Cell sap, 29
Cell structure, 11–13
- of animal cells, 32
- cell size and, 14–15
- cytoplasm of, 15
- internal, 23–35
- nucleoplasm of, 15
- of plant cells, 31
Cell theory, 14
Cell walls, 13, 21, 310
Cellular respiration, 87–98
Cellulose, 21, 246, 250–251
Cellulose microfibrils, 21
Centipedes (Chilopoda), 366
Central (middle) lamella, 21
Central nervous system, 163
- of mollusks, 362
Centrioles, 33–34, 51, 322
Centromeres, 52
Cephalization, 358
Cephalochordata (lancelets), 367–368
Cephalopoda, 164, 362
Cerebellum, 160
Cerebral cortex, 162–163
Cerebrospinal fluid, 160
Cerebrum, 160, 162
Cervical vertebrae, 184
Cervix, 77
Cestoda (tapeworms), 358–360
Chambers, of heart, 215
Chaparral (temperate shrubland), 280
Chelonia (turtles), 371
Chemical defense, 289–290
Chemical evolution, 6
Chemical homeostasis, 16
Chemoreceptors, 358
Chemosynthesis, 274
- of bacteria, 315–316
- of carbohydrates, 316
Chilopoda (centipedes), 366
Chimeras, 368
Chitin, 364
Chitons, 362
Chloride ions, 168, 233
Chlorine, 256
Chlorophyll, 29, 35, 103, 104, 107–110, 256
Chlorophyta (chlorophytes, green algae), 330, 335, 340
Chloroplasts, 29, 30, 104, 106–107, 322
Choanocytes, 356
Cholecystokinin (pancreozymin), 143
Cholesterol, 253
Chondrichthyes, 368
Chordata, 164, 367–373
Chromatids, 51–52, 54
Chromoplasts, 29
Chromosomes, 23, 31, 50, 51
Chrysophyta, 322
Cilia (ciliated), 32–33, 78, 356, 358, 361
Ciliates (Ciliophora), 322
Circulatory system, 211–220
- of humans, 217–218
- lymphatic system, 218–220
- of mollusks, 362
- of vertebrates, 214–218
Clams, 362
Clavicle, 184
Clay, for origin of life, 4–5
Cleavage furrow, 55
Cleavages, 355, 360
Climate, 266
Climate change, 278
Climax communities, 271–273
Clitoris, 77
Clones, 55, 67
Closed circulatory system, 211
- of mollusks, 362
Club fungi (Basidiomycota), 328–329
Club mosses, 336
Club mosses (Lycophyta), 340–341
Clumped spacing, of population, 267
Clusters of regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), 313
Cnidaria (Coelenterata), 163–165, 283, 356–357
Cnidoblasts, 357
CoA. See Coenzyme A
Cobalt, 256
Coccyx, 184
Coelenterata (coelenterates, Cnidaria), 163–165, 283, 356–357
Coelenteron (gastrovascular cavity), 198, 357, 359
Coelom, 358, 360
- of mollusks, 362–363
Coenocytes, 55
Coenocytic (multinuclear) mass, 325
Coenocytic muscle fibers, 187
Coenzyme A (CoA), 94
Coenzymes, 254
Cohesion theory (transpiration theory), 202–203
Cohn, Zanvil, 146
Coitus (sexual intercourse), 78
Cold sores, 303
Cold viruses, 301
Collagen fibers, 183
Collar cells, 356
Collecting duct, 129
Collenchyma, 199
Colloid, 15–17
Colon (large intestine), 247
Colonial hydrozoans, 357
Comb jellyfish (Ctenophora), 357–358
Combs, 358
Commensalism, 288, 289
Communities, 267, 271–273
Compact bone, 183
Competition, in ecology, 270
Competitive exclusion principle, 270
Complete flowers, 347
Composting, 291
Concealing camouflage, 290
Concentration gradient, 16
Conchs, 362
Condensation reaction, 242
Conducting tissues, 200–201
Cones, 344
Conidia, 327–328
Conidiospores, 327–328
Coniferophyta (conifers), 345–346
Conjugation, 56, 313
Contact X-ray microscopy, 12
Contest competition, 270
Continental shelves, 283–284
Contractile vacuoles, 29, 125–126
Contraction period, of muscle contraction, 188
Copper, 214
Coral, 164, 356–357
- polyps, 356
- reefs, 283
Cork, 199, 200
Cork cambium, 199, 200
Corolla, 348
Corpus luteum, 79, 148
Corpuscles, 227
Cortex
- adrenal, 144
- cerebral, 162–163
- of plants, 199
Cortical hormones, 144
Cortisone, 253
Cotyledon, 349
Countershading, 290
Covalent bonds, 242
Cowper's glands, 75
Crabs, 365
Cranial nerves, 173
Cranium, 159, 184
Crayfish, 365
Creationists, 1
Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, 304
Crick, Francis, 7
Crinoidea (crinoids, sea lilies, and feather stars), 366
CRISPR. See Clusters of regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
Cristae, 27
Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators), 371
Crossing over, 57
Crossover, 57
Crustacea (crustaceans), 365
Cryptic camouflage, 290
Ctenophora (comb jellyfish), 357–358
Cuttlefish, 362
Cyanobacteria. See Blue-green algae
Cycadophyta (cycads), 344
Cycads, 343
Cyclic photophosphorylation, 114
Cytochrome system, 94–97
Cytochromes, 96
Cytokinesis, 55
Cytokinins, 139
Cytologists, 11
Cytoplasm, 15
- in eggs, 70
- ER in, 24
- glycolysis in, 90
- ribosomes in, 15
Cytoplasmic streaming, 30, 198, 203

Darwin, Charles, 1
Daughter cells, 49, 50
Day-neutral plants, 140
Deamination, 97, 130, 242
Death rates, 273
Decomposers, 274, 275, 309
Dehydration, 130, 131, 242, 249
Dendrites, 165
Dendritic cells, of thymus, 146
Denitrifying bacteria, 286
Density, of population, 267, 271
Density dependent, 271
Density independent, 271
Deoxygenated blood, 214
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 7, 23, 27, 51, 107
- in plastids, 28
- prokaryotic cells and, 35, 312
- in viruses, 300
Depolarization, 168, 170
- in muscle contraction, 191
Deserts, 279
Desmosomes, 22
Deuterostomia (deuterostomes), 359–360
Diabetes, 143–144
Diaphragm, 373
Diastole, 235
Diatoms, 322
Dicotyledonae, 349
Differential count, 232
Diffusion, 16, 17
- facilitated, 19
- of inorganic ions in plants, 204
- internal transport by, 197–198
Digestion, 241, 246–247
- bylophophorates, 361
Dikaryons, 328
Dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta), 322
Dioecious organisms, 343, 356
Diphtheria, 315
Diploids, 56, 69, 72, 338
Diplopoda (millipedes), 366
Directed movement, 164–165
Disaccharide, 249
Disguise, 290
Dispersion, of population, 267
Disruptive camouflage, 290
Dissecting microscopes, 11, 12
Distal convoluted tubule, 129
DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid
Dominance, 289
Dopamine, 172
Dorsal hollow nerve cord, 367
Dorsal longitudinal vessel, 213
Dorsal-root ganglia, 172
Duodenum, 143, 246
Duplication, 49
Dura mater, 159

Earthworms, 362
Eastern chipmunk, 373
Echinodermata (echinoderms), 366–367
Echinoidea, 366–367
Ecological homeostasis, 269
Ecology, 265–291
- behavioral biology and, 288–290
- biochemical cycles in, 284–288
- biomes in, 277–282
- camouflage and, 290–291
- carrying capacity in, 271
- communities in, 267, 271–273
- competition in, 270
- ecosystems in, 274–286
- habitat in, 266–267
- marine communities of, 282–284
- mimicry and, 291
- niche in, 266–267, 270
- population growth in, 267–268
- populations in, 267
- reproductive strategy in, 273–274
- species diversity in, 268–269
- species turnover and recruitment in, 269–270
- succession in, 271–273
- water treatment, recycling, and composting and, 291
Ecosystem collapse, 276
Ecosystems, 274–296
Ectoderm, 356, 358, 360
Ectoparasites, 289
Ectoprocta (ectoprocts), 361
Effector cells, 163
Eggs, 56, 67, 69, 70, 77–78
- of amphibians, 369
- of birds, 372
- of conifers, 346
- of reptiles, 370
- of vascular plants, 340
Ejaculation, 75
Electrocardiogram (EKG), 235
Electron acceptor Q, 112
Electron microscope (EM), 11
Electron transport chain, 96
EM. See Electron microscope
Embryo, 70, 183
Embryophyta (emphyophytes), 336, 337
Encapsulation, by haemocytes, 213
Encyst, 359
Endocrine glands, 137, 140, 146
Endocrine system, 137
Endocytosis, 21
Endoderm, 356, 358
Endodermal tissue, 202
Endometrium, 148–149
Endoparasites, 289
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 24–25, 34, 108, 322
Endoskeleton, 191
Endosperm, 349
Endosymbionts, 314
Endothelial cells, 218
Endothelium, 218
Engelmann, T. W., 103–104
Enterogastrone, 143
Enzymes, 171, 245, 330
Eosinophils, 231
Epidermal cells, 356
Epidermis, 199
Epididymis, 75
Epinephrine (adrenalin), 144
Episomes, 314
Epstein-Barr virus, 303
Equilibrium, 17
Equisetum, 341
ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum
Erections, 75
Erythroblastosis fetalis, 230
Erythrocytes (red blood cells), 227–229
Erythropoietin, 144
Escherichia coli (E. coli), 314
Esophagus, 246
Essential amino acids, 242
Ester group, 244
Estrogen, 144
- in birth, 149
- in menstrual cycle, 79
- as steroid, 253
Estrus, 79
Estuaries, 282–283
Ethology, 288
Ethylene, 139
Eubacteria, 309, 315
Euglenophyta (euglenoids), 322
Eukaryotic algae, 335
Eukaryotic cells, 34–35
- karyokinesis of, 49–51
Eukaryotic DNA, 312
Excretion, 129
Exocrine glands, 140
Exocytosis, 21
Exoskeleton, 191–192, 364
Extirpation, 270
Extracellular fluid, 124

Facilitated diffusion, 19
FAD. See Flavin adenine dinucleotide
FADH₂, 96
Fallopian tubes, 77
Fat droplets, 27
Fatigue, of muscles, 188
Fats, 129, 252
- from glucose, 247
- hormones from, 143
- respiration of, 97–98
Fat-soluble (lipid-soluble) substances, 18
Fatty acids, 251, 252
Feather stars (Crinoidea), 366
Feathers, 372
Feces, 247
Female reproductive organs, 75–79, 336
Femurs, 185–186
Fermentation, 93–94, 189
Ferns (Pterophyta), 336, 341–353
Ferredoxin, 111–112
Fertile, 78
Fertilization, 56, 74
Fiber, 256
Fibrils, 322
Fibrin, 233
Fibrinogen, 233
Fibrous cells, 356
Fibula, 186
Fifth disease, 301
Fight-or-flight response, 144
Filament, 348
First polar body, 69
Fish (Pisces), 368, 369
- cartilage of, 183
- closed circulatory system of, 211
- in estuaries, 283
- gray matter of, 162
- heart of, 215
- osmoregulation by, 130
Fission, binary, 49, 55, 312, 315
Fission zones, of annelids, 363
Flagella, 32–33, 312
Flagellated gametes, 325
Flagellates (Mastigophora), 322
Flame cell excretory system, 360
Flame cells, 126, 358
Flatworms, 164, 358–360
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), 94
Florigen, 140
Flowering plants (Anthophyta), 346–347
Flowers, 347–349
Flukes (Trematoda), 358–359
Follicles, 69, 79
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 146, 148, 149
Follicle-stimulating hormone-releasing factor (FSHRF), 148
Food chain, 275
Food vacuoles, 198
Food webs, 275
Foot, of mollusks, 362
Forebrain, 160–161
Fossils, 6, 7, 316, 339, 344, 372
Fox, Sydney, 5
Fragmentation, 67, 331, 363
Free radicals, 109
Free-living flatworms (Turbellaria), 358–359
Freshwater wetlands, 282
Frogs (Anura), 369, 370
Fructose, 249, 250
Fruiting bodies, 325, 328
FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone
FSHRF. See Follicle-stimulating hormone-releasing factor
Functional groups, nutrition from, 243, 244
Fundamental niche, 270
Fungi, 286, 314, 325–331
Fur, 373

Galactose, 249, 250
Gallbladder, 143, 246
Gametes, 56, 69, 72, 73, 75, 325, 337
Gametogenesis, 56–57, 69, 70
Gametophyte generation, 338
Gametophytes, 345, 348
Gamma-aminobutyric acid, 172
Ganglia, 164–165, 358
Gap (nexus) junctions, 22–23
Garter snake, 371
Gastric glands, 141
Gastric juice, 141, 246
Gastrin, 141–143
Gastrointestinal tract, 141–143
Gastropoda, 362
Gastrovascular cavity (coelenteron), 198, 357, 359
Gastrula, 355
Gel state, 15
Generalist species, 269
Genes, 23, 304
Genetic recombination, 56, 57, 72, 313
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 313
Geometric isomers, 247–248
Geotropism, 138
Germ cells, 69
Gibberellins, 138–139
Gill slits, 367
Gills, 362
Ginkgo biloba, 344
Ginkgoes, 343
Ginkgophyta (ginkgo), 344–345
Glial cells, 163
Global cooling, 285
Global warming, 278
Glomerulus, 127
Glucagon, 144, 247
Glucocorticoids, 144
Gluconeogenesis, 92
Glucose, 19, 87–91, 115, 143, 247, 249, 250
Glutamate, 172
Glycerol, 252, 253
Glycogen, 189, 247, 250, 251
Glycolysis, 87–92
Glycoproteins, 26
Glycosaminoglycan, 26
GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms
Gnetophytes, 343
Golgi apparatus (body), 26, 34, 322
Gonadocorticoids, 144
Gonadotropic hormones, 148
Gonads, 148. See also Ovaries; Testes
Gonorrhea, 315
Grana, 29, 106
Granuoles, 322
Grasses, 343
Gray matter, 162
Green algae (Chlorophyta), 330, 335, 340, 341
Green frog, 370
Greenhouse effect, 285, 287
Greenhouse gases, 3, 287
Griffiths, Lynn, 6
Gross primary productivity, 275
Growth hormone, 146
Growth rings, 13, 199
Guano, 287
Gymnosperms, 336, 343

Habitat, 266–267
Haemocoel, 213
Haemocytes, 213–214
Haemolymph, 213–214
Hagfish, 368
Hair, 373
Haldane, J. B. S., 4
Halley's Comet, 5–6
Haploids, 56, 69, 72, 338
Haversian canals, 183
HDL. See High-density lipoprotein
Head, of insects, 365
Heart
- of amphibians, 215
- of birds, 216, 372
- in closed circulatory system, 211
- of fish, 215
- of humans, 217–218
- of insects, 214
- of mammals, 216
- nodes in, 234
- pacemaker of, 187, 234
- of reptiles, 216
Heart chambers, 215
Heart (cardiac) muscle, 187
Heartbeat, 162, 187, 234–235
Helium, 2
Hematocrit value, 228–229
Hemichordata (acorn worms), 367
Hemocoel, 365
Hemocyanin, 214
Hemoglobin, 214, 228, 255
Hemolymph, 365
Hemolysis, 230
Hepatitis, 303
Herbaceous plants, 199
Herbivores (primary consumers), 275
Hermaphroditic organisms, 56, 363
Herpes virus, 303
Heterospory, 340
Heterotrophic bacteria, 314–315
Heterotrophs, 105
Hexoses, 246
High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 253
Hindbrain, 160, 162–163
Hirudin, 363
Hirudinea, 363
Histamine, 143, 172
- in blood clotting, 233
HIV. See Human immunodeficiency virus
Holothurioidea (sea cucumbers), 366, 367
Home range, 288
Homeostasis
- in animal cells, 123–124
- chemical, 16
- invertebrate excretion and, 125–131
- osmoregulation and, 130–132
- in plant cells, 123–124
Homeothermic, 372
Homologous chromosomes, 53
Homologs, 53
Homospory, 339
Hooke, Robert, 13
Hormones
- of animals, 140–149
- facilitated diffusion of, 19
- of humans, 141, 142
- in menstrual cycle, 79
- neural impulse and, 167
- of plants, 137–140
Hornworts, 198, 336–339
Horsetails (Sphenophyta), 336, 341
HPVs. See Human papillomaviruses
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 313
Humans
- bones of, 184–187
- circulatory system of, 217–218
- cranial nerves of, 173
- erythrocytes of, 227–229
- heart of, 217–218
- hormones of, 141, 142
- neurons of, 164
- reproduction of, 75–80
Humerus, 185, 186
Humidity, 266, 287, 288
Hunger, 162
Hydra, 198, 356–357
Hydrogen, 88, 106, 251
Hydrogenation, 252–253
Hydrolysis, 97, 250
Hydrostatic pressure, 129
Hydrozoa, 357
Hymen, 77
Hyperosmotic solution, 17, 124
Hyperparathyroidism, 145
Hypertensin (angiotonin), 144
Hyperthyroidism, 145
Hypertonic solution, 17, 125
Hyphae, 326
Hypoosmotic solution, 17, 124, 130
Hypoparathyroidism, 145
Hypophysis (pituitary), 146–148, 160
Hypothalamus, 148
- brain and, 160, 162
- pituitary and, 146
Hypothyroidism, 145
Hypotonic solution, 17, 125
H-zone, 190

I-bands, 190
ICSH. See Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
Immune system, 231
Imperfect fungi, 329–330
Incomplete flowers, 347
Influenza virus, 301
Infundibulum, 146
Ingen-Housz, Jan, 103
Inhibitors, 139
Inner labia, 75
Inner membrane, 29
Inorganic ions, 129, 203–204, 233–234
Inorganic molecules, 243
Insects (Insecta), 364–366
- blood of, 213–214
- flowering plants and, 347
- heart of, 214
- muscles of, 187
- open circulatory system of, 212–213
Insertion, of muscle to bone, 186
Insulin, 19, 143, 247
Insulin shock, 143
Intercellular diffusion, 198
Interkineses, 58
Internal digestive cavity, 358
Internal fertilization, 370, 372
Internal transport
- in multicellular organisms, 197–198
- in plants, 198–204
Interneurons (association neurons), 165, 173
Interphase, 51
Interspecific dynamics, 270
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), 148, 149
Interstitial fluids, 214
Intraspecific dynamics, 270
Invertebrates
- brain of, 159
- in estuaries, 283
- excretion by, 125–131
- higher, 361–367
- lower, 355–361
Iodine, 256
Iron, 214, 228, 255
Islet cells (islets of Langerhans), 143
Isomers, 247–251
Isosmotic solution, 17, 124
Isotonic solution, 17

Jellyfish, 164, 198, 356–357

Karyokinesis, of eukaryotic cells, 49–51
Kelps, 322
Keto group, 244
Kidneys
- adrenal glands and, 144
- in invertebrate excretion, 127–129
Kilogram-calories, 241
Knee, 186
Kneecap (patella), 186
Krebs, Hans, 94
Krebs cycle, 88, 90, 94, 95, 98
Kwashiorkor, 245
Kymograph, 188, 189

Labia majora, 75
Labia minora, 75
Lactic acid, 92, 188–189
Lakes, 282
Lamellae, 29, 106
Lampreys, 368
Lancelets (Cephalochordata), 367–368
Large intestine (colon), 247
Larger collecting ducts, 129
Larvae, 360
- sponges as, 356
Latent period, of muscle contraction, 188
Lateral meristematic tissue (cambium), 199
LDL. See Low-density lipoprotein
Leaves
- of bryophytes, 338
- photosynthesis in, 115–116
Leeches (bloodsuckers), 164, 363
Left atrium, 215
Left ventricle, 217
Leucoplasts, 29
Leukocytes, 230–232
LH. See Luteinizing hormone
LHRF. See Luteinizing hormone-releasing factor
Lichens, 330–331
Life. See Origin of life
Life tables, 268
Ligaments, 186
Light microscope, 11, 12
Lightning, 286
Lignin, 21
Limnologists, 282
Lipids
- in cell membrane, 15, 18
- in microspheres, 5
- nutrition from, 251–254
Lipid-soluble (fat-soluble) substances, plasma membrane and, 18
Lipopolysaccharide, 310
Lipoproteins, 253
Littoral zone, 283
Liver, 247
Liverworts, 198, 336–339
Lizards, 371
Lobsters, 365
Logistic curve, 271
Long-day plants, 140
Longevity, 273
Loop of Henle, 129
Lophophorates, 361
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), 253
Lumbar vertebrae, 184
Lumen, 218
Lungs, 215
- of reptiles, 370–371
Luteinizing hormone (LH), 146
Luteinizing hormone-releasing factor (LHRF), 148
Lycophyta (club mosses), 340–341
Lymph, 219, 227
Lymph nodes, 220
Lymphatic system, 218–220
Lymphatics, 219
Lymphocytes (white blood cells), 220, 227, 230–232
Lysosomes, 26–27

Mad cow disease, 304
Magnesium, 255
Magnesium ions, 233
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 12
Magnification, 11
Male reproductive organs, 75, 76
Malpighian tubules, 127, 214, 365
Mammals (Mammalia), 372–373
- cerebral cortex of, 162–163
- closed circulatory system of, 211
- heart of, 216
- hemoglobin of, 228
- osmoregulation by, 131–132
Mammary glands, 373
Mandible, 184
Manganese, 256
Mantle, of mollusks, 362
Margarine, 253
Marine bristle worms (Polychaeta), 362
Marine communities, 282–284
Marrow, 183
Mass extinctions, 276
Mass-flow hypothesis, 204
Mastigophora (flagellates), 322
Matrix
- of blood, 227
- of mitochondria, 27
Maximal stimulus, 188
McClintock, Barbara, 57
Measles, 301
Medulla oblongata, 160, 162
Medusae, 356
Megaspores, 341
Megasporophylls, 344
Meiosis, 56–57, 69
- centrioles and, 33
- Protists and, 322
Meiosis I, 57–58, 68
Meiosis II, 58, 68
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 146
Membrane potential, 167, 170
Menarche, 149
Meninges, 159
Menopause, 77–78, 149
Menses, 79, 149
Menstrual cycle, 79–80
- first, 149
- FSHRF and LHRF and, 148
Meristematic cells, 201
Mesoderm, 356, 360
Mesodermal muscles, 357–358
Mesoglea, 356
Mesosomes, 35, 312
Messenger RNA (mRNA), 312
Metabolic processes, 92
Metabolism, 92
- thyroxin and, 144–145
Metabolites, 92
Metacarpals, 185
Metamorphosis, 364
Metaphase, 53
Metaphase I, 57
Metaphase II, 58
Metatarsals, 186
Methane, 2
Methanogens, 315
Methyl group, 244
Microclimates, 266
Microfilaments, 30
Micropyle, 344, 345
Microscopes, 11–13
Microspheres, 5
Microspores, 341, 344
Microtubules, 31–34
Midbrain, 160, 162, 163
Middle (central) lamella, 21
Milk, 373
Miller, Stanley, 4
Millipedes (Diplopoda), 366
Mimic, 291
Mimicry, 291
Mineralocorticoids, 144
Minerals, 255–256
Mites ticks, 365
Mitochondria, 27, 34, 94, 322
Mitosis, 33, 51–53, 322
Mitral valve (bicuspid valve), 217
Model, in mimicry, 291
Mollusca (mollusks), 361–362
Molting, 364
Monera, 309–316. See also Bacteria; Blue-green algae
Monocotyledonae, 349
Monocytes, 231
Monoecious organisms, 56, 356
Monomers, 243–245
Monoploids, 56, 69
Monosaccharides, 245, 250
Monotremes, 373
Montlivault, Sales-Guyon de, 6
Morphogenesis, 355
Morula, 355
Mosses, 198, 336–339
Motor neurons, 165
MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging
mRNA. See Messenger RNA
MSH. See Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Mucocomplex, 310
Mucopolysaccharides, 26
Mucosal lining, of vagina, 77
Mullerian mimicry, 291
Multicellular organisms, 13
- in animal kingdom, 355
- internal transport in, 197–198
Multinuclear (coenocytic) mass, 325
Mumps, 301
Muscle cells, 187
- contraction of, 188
Muscle fibers, 187
Muscle twitch, 188
Muscles
- bones and, 186–187
- contraction of, 188–191, 220
Mushrooms, 328–329
Mussels, 362
Mutations, 313
Mutualism, 288, 289
Mycelium, 202, 326
Mycoplasmas, 309, 315
Mycorrhizae, 202, 330
Mycorrhizal associations, 326, 330
Myelin sheathing, 165
Myofibers, 187
Myofibrils, 190
Myoglobin, 188
Myosin, 190, 191

NAD, 93
NADH, 96
NADH₂, 87, 93, 94
NADPH₂, 112–115
Natural selection, 67, 273, 288
Nautiluses, 362
Nectaries, 347
Nekton, 284
Nematocysts, 357
Nematoda (nematodes, roundworms), 164, 360
Nemertea (nemerteans, nemertines, and acoelomates), 358
Neocortex, 162
Neon, 2
Nephridia, 126–127, 362, 364
Nephrons, 127–129
Nerve cords, 358
- dorsal hollow, 367
Nerve net, 164, 357
Nerves, 165
- of spinal cord, 173
Nervous impulse, 167–171
Nervous system, 163–165
- evolution of, 164–165
- of mollusks, 362
- organization of, 173–174
Net productivity, 275
Neural impulse, 167
Neuroglia, 165
Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe of pituitary), 146–148
Neuromuscular junction, 191
Neurons, 163–167
- of Platyhelminthes, 358
Neurotransmitters, 168, 171, 172
Neutrophils, 231
Nexus (gap) junctions, 22–23
Niche, 266–267, 270
Nitrate, 286
Nitric oxide, 172
Nitrification, 316
Nitrifying bacteria, 286
Nitrogen, 2, 106
Nitrogen cycle, 285–286
Nitrogen fixation (fixers), 316
Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, 286
Nitrous oxide, 2
Nodal tissue, 234
Nodes, in heart, 234
Nodes of Ranvier, 165
Noncyclic photophosphorylation, 113
Noradrenalin (norepinephrine), 144, 172
Nuclear membrane, 23–24
Nucleic acids, 23, 250
- in viruses, 300, 301
Nucleoid, 35
Nucleolar organizer, 23
Nucleolus, 23
Nucleoplasm, 15
Nucleotides, 23
Nucleus, 23–24
Nudibranchs, 362
Nutrition (nutrients), 241–256
- from carbohydrates, 245
- from carbon, 243
- with fiber, 256
- from functional groups, 243, 244
- from lipids, 251–254
- from minerals, 255–256
- from monomers, 243–245
- for photosynthesis, 105–106
- from polymers, 243–245
- from proteins, 242–245
- from simple sugars, 245–251
- from vitamins, 254–255

Ocelli, 357
Octopuses, 164, 361–362
Olfactory lobes, 160, 162
Oligochaeta (terrestrial bristle worms), 362
Omnivores, 275

1N, 69

Onychophora (velvet worms, peripatus), 363–364
Oogametes, 337
Oogamous, 337
Oogenesis, 69–71
Oomycota (water molds), 326–327
Ootid, 69
Oparin, S. I., 4, 5
Open circulatory system
- of insects, 212–213
- of mollusks, 362
Open ocean, 283–284
Ophiuroidea, 366
Optic lobes, 160
Optic nerves, 162
Optical isomers, 248
Organelles, 23, 25
- chlorophyll and, 108
- in eukaryotic cells, 34
- ribosomes as, 15
Organic molecules, 243
Orgel, Leslie, 7
Origin, of muscle to bone, 186
Origin of life
- clues from space for, 5–6
- conditions for, 2–4
- experimental search on, 4–5
- panspermia and, 6–7
- spontaneous generation of, 1–2
Osculum, 356
Osmoregulation, 130–132
Osmosis, 16–18, 125
Osmotic pressure, 17, 124
- of blood, 234
Osseous tissue, 183
Osteichthyes (bony fish), 130, 368
Ostia, 213
Outer labia, 75
Outer membrane, of plastids, 29
Ovarian cycle, 79
Ovaries, 77–78, 148–149
- of flowers, 348
Oviducts, 77
Ovulate cones, 344
Ovulation, 78, 149
Ovules, 346, 348
Ovum, 69
Oxidation, 87–91
- in autotrophic nutrition, 316
- in redox reactions, 111
Oxidative phosphorylation, 96
Oxygen, 2, 4
- in bacteria, 310
- in blood, 214
- in erythrocytes, 227–228
- free radicals of, 109
- in insect blood, 213
- in muscles, 188
- for photosynthesis, 106
Oxygen debt, 189
Oxygenated blood, 214
Oxytocin, 147–149
Oysters, 362

P680, 111
P700, 111
Pacemaker, 187, 234
Pancreas, 143–144, 246
Pancreatic juice, 143
Pancreozymin (cholecystokinin), 143
Panspermia, 6–7
Papillomaviruses, 303
Parapodia, 362
Parasites (parasitism), 288, 289
- in flukes, 359
- fungi as, 325–326
Parasympathetic system, 173–174
Parathormone (PTH), 145
Parathyroids, 145
Parenchyma, 199
Parthenogenesis, 67
Parvovirus, 301
Passive transport, 16, 19
Pasteur, Louis, 2, 310
Patella (kneecap), 186
Pathogens, 314
Pecking orders, 289
Pectin, 21
Pelvis, 184
Penis, 75
Pentaradial symmetry, 366
Pentoses, 246
Peptide bonds, 242
Perianth, 348
Periods, 79
- first, 149
Peripatus (Onychophora), 363–364
Peripheral nervous system, 173
- of mollusks, 362
Peristalsis, 188, 246
Permafrost, 281
Permeability, of plasma membrane, 18
Permeable skin, 369
Peroxisomes, 27
Petals, 347–348

3PG. See 3-phosphoglyceric acid

PGA. See Phosphoglyceric acid
PGAL. See Phosphoglyceraldehyde
Phaeophyta (brown algae), 335
Phagocytosis, 21, 26, 29, 130, 213
Phalanges, 185
Phloem, 197, 198, 200–201, 342
Phoronida (phoronids), 361
Phosphate, 233, 287
Phosphate group, 244
Phosphglycerate, 94
Phosphoenolpyruvate, 94
Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL), 92, 97, 114–115
Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA, 3PG), 114
Phospholipids, 15, 251, 253
Phosphoric acid, 253
Phosphorus, 256
Phosphorus cycle, 286–287
Photoperiodism, 139–140
Photoreceptor cells, 167
Photosynthesis, 103–116
- carbohydrate synthesis in, 114, 245
- carbon fixation in, 114
- cyclic photophosphorylation in, 114
- electron passing in, 111–113
- in leaves, 115–116
- light absorption in, 111
- noncyclic photophosphorylation in, 113
- nutrients for, 105–106
- photosynthetic autotrophs for, 105
- primary productivity of, 275
- by Protists, 322
Photosynthetic autotrophs, 105
Photosynthetic phosphorylation, 114
Photosynthetic pigments, 104–105, 107–110
Photosystem I, 111
Photosystem II, 111–113
Photosystems, 111
Phototropic response, 137
Phycobilins, 109
Physical defense, 289
Phytochrome, 140
Pia mater, 160
Pill bugs, 365
Pine cone scales, 345
Pines, 345
Pinocytosis, 21, 26, 218
Pisces. See Fish
Pith, 199
Pituitary (hypophysis), 146–148, 160
Planaria, 198
Plankton, 284
Plant cells
- cell structure of, 31
- homeostasis in, 123–124
- plasma membrane of, 55
- plastids in, 28–29
Plantae (plant kingdom), 335–349
- angiosperms, 336, 346–357
- Bryophyta, 337–339
- Coniferophyta, 345–346
- Cycadophyta, 344
- Ginkgophyta, 344–345
- gymnosperms, 336, 343
- Lycophyta, 340–341
- move to land, 336–337
- Psilophyta, 340
- Pterophyta, 341–353
- Sphenophyta, 341
- vascular plants, 339–340
Plants. See also Photosynthesis
- alternation-of-generation in, 72–75
- camouflage of, 290–291
- cell walls of, 21
- chemical defenses of, 290
- conducting tissues in, 200–201
- flowers of, 347–349
- hormones of, 137–140
- inorganic ions in, 203–204
- internal transport in, 198–204
- minerals for, 256
- mycorrhizae and, 330
- phosphorus cycle and, 287
- as producers, 274
- roots of, 201–203
- starch in, 250
- stems of, 199–200
Planulae, 357
Plasma, 227, 233
Plasma membrane (cell membrane), 13, 15–21
- of bacteria, 312
- desmosomes of, 22
- of eukaryotic cells, 35
- permeability of, 18
- of plant cells, 55
Plasmids, 314–315
Plasmodesmata, 22–23, 198
Plasmodium, 325
Plasmolysis, 124
Plastids, 27–29
Platelets (thrombocytes), 227, 232–233
Platyhelminthes (platyhelminths), 358–360
Platypus, 373
Pollen, 344, 348
Pollen grains, 345
Pollen-bearing cones, 344
Polychaeta (marine bristle worms), 362
Polymerization, 250
Polymers, 243–245
Polypeptides, 5, 243
Polyps, 356
Polyribosomes, 26
Polysaccharides, 18, 21, 246, 250
Polysomes, 26
Ponds, 282
Population, 267
Population density, 267, 271
Population growth, 267–268
Porifera (sponges), 163, 355–356
Posterior lobe of pituitary (neurohypophysis), 146–148
Posterior vena cava, 217
Postovulatory phase, of menstrual cycle, 149
Potassium, 256
Potassium ions, 168, 191, 233
Predators (carnivores), 275, 289
Preovulatory phase, of menstrual cycle, 149
Pressure flow, 204
Priestley, Joseph, 103
Primary cell wall, 21
Primary consumers (herbivores), 275
Primary oocytes, 69
Primary production, 275
Primary productivity, 275
Primary spermatocytes, 69
Prions, 304
Proboscis, 358
Proboscis worms, 358
Producers, 274
Progesterone, 148
- in birth, 149
- in menstrual cycle, 79
- as steroid, 253
Proglottids, 359
Prokaryotes, 35
- bacteria as, 310
- Monera as, 309
- mutations in, 313
Prokaryotic cells, 35
- binary fusion of, 49
Prokaryotic DNA, 312
Prolactin, 146
Prophase, 51–53
Prophase I, 57
Prophase II, 58
Prostate gland, 75
Proteinaceous fibers, 356
Proteins
- in blood, 233–234, 244
- cell membrane of, 15
- nutrition from, 242–245
- plasma membrane and, 18
- respiration of, 97–98
- in subviruses, 304
- in viruses, 300
Prothrombin, 233
Protista, 321–323
Protoctista, 323
Protostomia (protostomes), 359–360
Protozoa, 13, 322
Proximal convoluted tubule, 129
Pseudocoelomates, 360
Pseudoplasmodium, 325
Psilophyta (psilophytes), 340
Psilopsids (vascular plants), 336
Psuedomonadales, 315
Ptatyhelminthes, 164
Pterophyta (pterophytes, ferns), 336, 341–353
PTH. See Parathormone
Puberty, 75, 79, 148
Pulmonary artery, 215
Pulmonary circulatory system, 217
Pulmonary semilunar valve, 217
Pulmonary veins, 217
Pulse rate, 235
Pus, 233
Pyloric sphincter, 143, 246
Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates), 322
Pyruvate, 90, 92–94

Quaternary consumers, 275

Rabies, 303
Radial symmetry, 164, 356
Radiate phyla, 360
Radius, 185
Rainfall, 266, 277–279
Random spacing, of population, 267
Rays, 183, 368
RDA. See Recommended Dietary Allowance
Realized niche, 270
Receptacle, 347–348
Receptor sites, 163
Receptor-conductor cells, 163
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), 245
Recruitment, 269–270
Rectum, 247
Recycling, 291
Red algae (Rhodophyta), 335
Red blood cells (erythrocytes), 227–229
Redi, Francesco, 2
Redox reactions, 111
Reduction, in redox reactions, 111
Reflex arc, 172–173
Refractory period, 168
Regeneration, 67
- of annelids, 363
Relaxation period, of muscle contraction, 188
Relaxin, 149
Releasing factors, 148
Renal artery, 127
Renin, 144
Replication, 49
Repolarization, 191
Reproduction. See also Asexual reproduction; Sexual reproduction
- alternation-of-generation, 71–75
- asexual, 67–68
- of bacteria, 312–313
- human, 75–80
- sexual, 68–71
Reproductive strategy, 273–274
Reptiles (Reptilia), 369–371
- closed circulatory system of, 211
- heart of, 216
- neocortex of, 162
- osmoregulation by, 132
Residue, 249
Resolution, of microscopes, 11
Retroviruses, 303
Rh system, 230
Rhinoviruses, 301
Rhizoids, 338
Rhodophyta (red algae), 335
Rhynchocephalia, 371
Ribbon worms, 358
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 23
- in mitochondria, 27
- mRNA, 312
- phosphorus cycle and, 287
- in plastids, 28
- in ribosomes, 15
- rRNA, 26
- subviruses and, 304
- tRNA, 315
- in viruses, 300–301
Ribose, 250
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 26
Ribosomes, 24–28, 35, 107, 312
Ribs, 184
Ribulose biphosphate, 114–115
Richter, H. E., 6
Rickettsias, 315
Right atrium, 215
Right ventricle, 216–217
Ringworm, 330
Rivers, 281–282
RNA. See Ribonucleic acid
Root hairs, 202, 330, 340
Root pressure, 202
Roots, 201–203, 339
Rotifera (rotifers), 361
Rough endoplasmic reticulum, 24–25
Roundworms (Nematoda), 164, 360
rRNA. See Ribosomal RNA
Rubella, 301
Rushes, 343

S-A node. See Sinoatrial node
Sac fungi (Ascomycota), 327–328
Sac worms (aschelminthes), 360–361
Sacrum, 184
Salamanders (Apoda), 369
Saliva, 246
Salt balance, 129–131
Salts, in blood, 233–234
Sand dollars, 366–367
Saprophytes, 325
Sarcodina (amoebas), 322
Sarcomere, 190, 191
Satellite viruses, 304
Saturated fatty acids, 252–253
Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore de, 103
Scallops, 362
Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 12
Scanning tunneling microscope, 12
Scapulas, 184
Schleiden, Matthias, 14
Schwann, Theodor, 14
Schwann cells, 165, 166
Scientific method, 1
Scientists, 1
Scolex, 359
Scorpions, 365
Scramble competition, 270
Scrapie, 304
Scrotum, 75
Scyphozoa, 357
Sea anemones, 163, 164, 356–357
Sea cucumbers (Holothurioidea), 366, 367
Sea fans, 357
Sea lilies (Crinoidea), 366
Sea squirts, 367
Sea stars (Asteroidea), 366
Sea urchins, 366–367
Second polar bodies, 69
Secondary consumers, 275
Secondary oocytes, 69
Secondary wall, 21
Secretin, 143
Secretory glands, 365
Sedentary (sessile), 356
Sedges, 343
Sedimentary cycle, 287
Seed ferns, 343
Seed plants, 336
Seeds, 340, 346
SEM. See Scanning electron microscope
Semen, 75
Seminal vesicles, 75
Seminiferous tubules, 69, 149
Semipermeable membrane, 16–17, 125
Senebier, Jean, 103
Sensory nerve endings, 163
Sensory neurons, 165
Sepals, 347
Septa, 326, 362
Serotonin, 172
Serpent stars, 366
Serum, 227
Sessile (sedentary), 356
Sex, 55–56
- of animals, 78–79
Sex cells, 56
Sexual intercourse (coitus), 78
Sexual reproduction, 68–71
- of sponges, 356
Sexual union, 55
Sexuality, 55–56
Sharks, 131, 183, 368
Shell, of mollusks, 362
Shelled eggs, 370
Short-day plants, 140
Shrimp, 365
Sieve elements, 200
Sieve plates, 200
Sieve tubes, 200–201, 203–204
Silica, 356
Simple sugars, 18, 29, 245–251
Single-celled organisms, 13, 197
Sinoatrial node (S-A node), 187, 234
Skates, 368
Skeletal muscle, 187
- lymph system and, 220
Skeletal system, 183
Skull, 159
Sliding-filament theory, for muscle contraction, 189–191
Slime molds, 325
Slugs, 362
Small intestine, 143, 246
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 24–25
Smooth (visceral) muscle, 187–188
Snails, 362
Snakes, 371
Snapping turtle, 371
Society, 289
Sodium, 256
Sodium chloride, 233
Sodium ions, 168, 170, 233
Sodium-potassium pump, 168
Sol state, 15
Solute, 17, 124, 198
Solution, 15–18, 124, 198
Solvent, 17, 124
Somatic nervous system, 173
Somatotrophic hormone (STH), 146
Spartina, 282–283
Specialist species, 269
Species diversity, 268–269
Species turnover, 269–270
Sperm, 56, 67, 69, 75
- of reptiles, 370
- of vascular plants, 339–340
Sperm cells, 68
Sperm duct, 75
Spermatogenesis, 69–71
Spermatophyta, 343
Spermatozoa, 69
Sphenophyta (horsetails), 336, 341
Sphincter muscle, 77
Sphygmomanometer, 235
Spicules, 356
Spiders, 365
Spinal cord
- nerves of, 173
- reflex arcs of, 172
- white matter of, 167
Spindle fibers, 52, 53
Spindles, 33–34, 52, 53
Spiny anteater, 373
Spiracles, 365
Spiral secondary cell wall, 201
Spirilla, 315
Spirochaetes, 315
Spleen, 220
Sponges (Porifera), 163, 355–356
Spongocoel, 356
Spongy bone, 183
Spontaneous generation, 1–2
Sporangia, 345–346
Spores, 67, 74, 313–314, 325, 340
Sporophylls, 341, 343
Sporophyte generation, 338
Sporophytes, 343, 346
Sporozoa, 322
Squamata (lizards and snakes), 371
Squid, 362
Stalk, 338
Stamens, 347
Staminate cones, 344
Standing crop, 276
Starch, 29, 246, 250–251
Starfish, 366
Statocysts, 357
Steinman, Ralph, 146
Stems, 199–200
Stereomicroscopes, 11, 12
Sternum, 184
Steroids
- from adrenal cortex, 144
- anabolic, 149, 254
- cell membrane of, 15
- as lipids, 251, 253–254
STH. See Somatotrophic hormone
Stigma, 348
Stimulus, 167
Stomach, 143
- digestion in, 246
Streams, 281–282
Striated muscles, 187
Strobili, 341
Stroma, 106, 107, 112
Structural isomers, 247
Style, 348
Sublittoral zone, 283–284
Subviruses (subviral infectious agents, subviral agents), 304
Succession, in ecology, 271–273
Succulents, 279
Sucrose, 115
Sulfate, in blood, 223
Summation, of muscle contraction, 188
Survivorship curves, 273–274
Sutures, 186
Symbionts, 314
Symbiosis, 288
- of lichens, 330
- of mitochondria, 27
Sympathetic system, 173–174
Synapse, 168, 171, 172
Synapsis, 57
Syncytia, 55
Syphilis, 315
Systemic circulatory system, 217
Systole, 235

T cells, 232
Taiga (boreal forests), 281
Tapeworms (Cestoda), 358–360
Tarsals, 186
Teeth, 184, 246
Telomeres, 50
Telophase, 55
Telophase I, 58
Telophase II, 58
TEM. See Transmission electron microscope
Temperate deciduous forests, 279
Temperate deserts, 281
Temperate evergreen forests, 279
Temperate forests, 279
Temperate grasslands, 280–281
Temperate rain forests, 279
Temperate shrubland (chaparral), 280
Temperate woodland, 279–280
Temperature, 266
Tendons, 186
Tentacles, 357
Termites, 314
Terrestrial bristle worms (Oligochaeta), 362
Territory, 288–289
Tertiary consumers, 275
Testes, 68, 149
Testosterone, 149
- as steroid, 253
Tetanus, 315
- of muscle contraction, 188
Tetrads, 57
Tetroses, 246
TF. See Tissue factor
Thalamus, 160, 162
Thallophytes, 335
Thallus, 335
Thermoacidophiles, 315
Thirst, 162
Thoracic vertebrae, 184
Thorax, of insects, 365
Threshold, 168
Thrombin, 233
Thrombocytes (platelets), 227, 232–233
Thromboplastins, 232–233
Thylakoids, 106–107
Thymosin, 145
Thymus gland, 145–146
- lymph system and, 220
Thyrocalcitonin (calcitonin), 145
Thyroid gland, 144–145
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 148
Thyrotropin (thyrotropic hormone), 146
Thyroxin, 144–145
Tibia, 186
Tidal marshes, 282–283
Timberline, 281
Tissue, 234
- of animals, 355
- blood as, 227
- cambium, 199
- conducting, 200–201
- endodermal, 202
- nodal, 234
- osseous, 183
- vascular, 338
Tissue factor (TF), 233
Tonoplasts, 29
Tonsils, 220
Toxins, 314
TPN. See Triphosphopyridine nucleotide
Trachea, of insects, 365
Tracheal system, 213, 363–364
Tracheids, 201
Tracheophyta (tracheophytes, vascular plants), 336, 339–340
Transduction, 56
- in bacterial reproduction, 313
Transfer RNA (tRNA), 315
Transformation, 56
- in bacterial reproduction, 312
Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 11–12
Transpiration, 202
Transpiration theory (cohesion theory), 202–203
Trans-unsaturated fatty acids (trans fats, trans fatty acids), 253
Trematoda (flukes), 358–359
Tricuspid valve, 217
Triglycerides, 251, 252
Triglycerol, 252
Triiodothyronin, 145
Trioses, 246
Triphosphopyridine nucleotide (TPN), 112
Triploid nucleus, 349
tRNA. See Transfer RNA
Trophic level, 275
Tropical rain forest, 277–276
Tropical savannas, 278
Tropical seasonal forest, 278
Tropical thornwood, 279
Tropisms, 138
TSH. See Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Tuatara, 371
Tubular excretory system, 358
Tundra, 281
Tunicates (Urochordata), 367
Turbellaria (free-living flatworms), 358–359
Turgor, 204
Turtles (Chelonia), 371

2N, 69

Tyndall, John, 2

Ulna, 185
Unicellular organisms, 13
Uniform spacing, of population, 267
Universal donors, 229
Unsaturated fatty acids, 252–253
Urban ecosystems, 280
Urea
- in invertebrate excretion, 129
- in sharks, 131
Ureter, 129
Urethra, 77, 129
Uric acid, 129
Uric acid crystals, 127
Urinary meatus, 75, 77
Urine, 127
Urochordata (tunicates), 367
Uterine cycle, 79
Uterus, 77, 79, 148–149

V-A node. See Atrioventricular node
Vacuolar membrane, 29
Vacuoles, 322
- contractile, 29, 125–126
- food, 198
Vagina (birth canal), 77
Valves, 211
van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie, 11
Vascular cambium, 199, 200, 341
Vascular plants (tracheophytes), 336, 339–340
Vascular rays, 201
Vascular tissue, 338
Vasopressin. See Antidiuretic hormone
Vegetative reproduction, 67
Veins, 214
Velvet worms (Onychophora), 363–364
Ventricles
- of brain, 160
- of heart, 215–217
Venules, 214
Vertebrae, 184
Vertebral column (backbone), 184
Vertebrates (Vertebrata), 368–373. See also Amphibians; Birds; Fish; Mammals; Reptiles
- brain of, 160–163
- cartilage of, 183
- circulatory system of, 214–218
- closed circulatory system of, 211
Vessel elements, 201
Villi, 246
Viral capsid, 300
Virchow, Rudolf, 14
Virinos, 304
Virogenes, 304
Viroids, 304
Viruses, 299–303
- bacterial, 31, 301, 313
- in cells, 14
- satellite, 304
Virusoids, 304
Visceral (smooth) muscle, 187–188
Viscosity, of plasma, 233
Vital force (principle), 2
Vitalist doctrine, 2
Vitamins, 254–255
Vulva, 75

Water balance, 162
- in invertebrate excretion, 129–131
- lipids and, 251
Water cycle, 287–288
Water fleas, 365
Water molds (Oomycota), 326–327

Water vapor
- in atmosphere, 2
- from transpiration, 202
- water cycle and, 287
Water vascular system, 366
Watson, James, 7
Waxy cuticular layer, 339
Weather, 266
Weiss, A., 5
Whelks, 362
White blood cells (lymphocytes), 220, 227, 230–232
White matter, 167
Womb, 75
Wood, 199
Wood lice, 365

Xanthophylls, 29, 104
Xylem, 197–204, 342

Yellow-brown algae, 322
Yellow-green algae, 322

Zinc, 256
Z-line, 190
Zygomycota, 327
Zygote, 56, 72, 325, 336, 338, 343, 346