NOTES

PREFACE

1. Ralph Glaber, Opera, ed. J. France (Oxford 1989), pp. 36–7; 61.

2. C. Morris, The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West (Oxford 2005); M. Biddle, The Tomb of Christ (Stroud 1999).

INTRODUCTION

1. From the only surviving version of the decree of Urban II’s Council of Clermont, November 1095, J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 37; trans. from R. Somerville, The Councils of Urban II: 1. Decreta Claromontensia (Amsterdam 1972), p. 74; cf. pp. 108, 124.

2. P. Jackson, ‘The Crusade against the Mongols (1241)’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 42 (1991), 1–18, esp. 6–7, 17–18; E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III, Gregory IX and Political Crusades’, Reform and Authority in the Medieval and Reformation Church, ed. G. F. Lytle (Washington, DC 1981), pp. 26–9; C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 705 (Baltic) and 904 and nn. 63–5 (anti-crusade crusades).

3. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade (London 2015), pp. 45–50, 204–7; A. Bysted, The Crusade Indulgence: Spiritual Rewards and the Theology of the Crusades c. 1095–1216 (Leiden 2015); J. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (Madison 1969).

4. M. C. Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017).

5. J. B. Pitra, Analecta Novissima (Paris 1885–8), ii, Sermon XI, pp. 328–31; cf. F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Midde Ages (Cambridge 1975), p. 205; in general, G. Constable, ‘The Cross of the Crusaders’, Crusaders and Crusading in the Twelfth Century (Farnham 2008), pp. 45–91.

6. C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusade (Basingstoke 1998), p. 79 and n. 210 p. 147; idem, How to Plan a Crusade, p. 84.

7. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, p. 139.

8. Curia Regis Rolls (London 1922–), viii, 324; in general Brundage, Medieval Canon Law, pp. 159–90.

9. T. Van Cleve, The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (Oxford 1972), p. 528 and n. 1.

10. C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), pp. 111, 185, 414 n. 132; Constable, ‘Cross of the Crusaders’, p. 90.

11. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusade, pp. 76–83, esp. 82–3; idem, How to Plan a Crusade, p. 87.

12. The son of Merot the Jew in 1239, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, ed. M. Bouquet et al. (Paris 1738–1876), xxii, 600.

13. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 150–77.

14. Chanson de Roland, ed. J. Dufornet (Paris 1973), v. 1015.

15. N. Morton, The Field of Blood: The Battle for Aleppo and the Remaking of the Medieval Middle East (New York 2018)

16. J. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade 1213–1221 (Philadelphia 1986), p. 167; John of Tubia, De Iohanne Rege Ierusalem, ed. R. Röhricht, Quinti Belli Sacri Scriptores Minores (Geneva 1879), p. 139; Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 165–7; in general C. Maier, ‘The Roles of Women in the Crusade Movement: A Survey’, Journal of Medieval History, 30 (2004), 61–82.

17. J. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), 216, col. 1262; cf. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law, p. 77.

18. For text, P. G. Schmidt, ‘Peregrinatio periculosa: Thomas von Froidmont über die Jerusalem-Fahrten seiner Schwester Margareta’, Kontinuität und Wandel. Lateinische Poesie von Naevius bis Baudelaire. Franco Munari zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. U. J. Stache et al. (Hildesheim 1986), pp. 461–85; cf. Maier, ‘Roles of women’, pp. 64–7.

19. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), pp. 126–9; Matthew 10:37–8; Vincent of Prague, Annales, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Sciptores, ed. G. Pertz et al. (Hanover etc. 1826–1934), 17, 663.

20. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law, p. 77 and n. 38.

21. Augustine of Hippo, City of God, Bk XIX, c. 7; cf. Bk I, c. 21; trans. H. Bettenson (London 1984), pp. 32, 862.

22. E.g. Exodus 32:26; Joshua 6:21; I Samuel 15:3; Psalm 137; II Maccabees 15:27–8.

23. P. Buc, ‘Some Thoughts on the Christian Theology of Violence, Medieval and Modern’, Rivista di Storia del Christianismo, 5 (2008), 9–28; in general C. Tyerman, ‘Violence and Holy War in Western Christendom’, The Routledge History of Medieval Christianity 1050–1500, ed. R. N. Swanson (London 2015), pp. 185–96; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 28–57; Russell, Just War, pp. 1–39 and passim; C. Erdmann, The Origins of the Idea of the Crusade, trans. M. W. Baldwin and W. Goffart (Princeton 1977).

24. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, ed. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1969), pp. 214–15, 240–3, 251 for the example of Oswald of Northumbria, a new Constantine.

25. R. Bartlett, Why Can the Dead Do Such Great Things? (Princeton 2013), pp. 321–4, 378–83.

26. D. Boutet, ‘Le sens de mort de Roland dans la literature des XIIe et XIIIe siècles’, Chevalerie et christianisme au XIIe et XIIIe siècles, ed. M. Aurell (Rennes 2011), pp. 257–69, esp. 264–6.

27. MGH Epistolarum, v (Berlin 1898), p. 601, s.a. 853; vii (Berlin 1912), pp. 126–7, no. 150.

28. Trans. J. F. O’Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (Philadelphia 2003), p. 30.

29. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 2002), p. 123.

30. Register of Gregory VII, p. 380.

31. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 124.

32. See recent studies by M. C. Gaposchkin, ‘Origins and Development of the Pilgrimage and Cross Blessings’, Medieval Studies, 73 (2011), 261–86; ‘The Place of Jerusalem in Western Crusading Rites of Departure’, Catholic Historical Review, 99 (2013), 1–28; ‘From Pilgrimage to Crusade: The Liturgy of Departure 1095–1300’, Speculum, 88 (2013), 44–91, and her book, Invisible Weapon: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017).

33. Bysted, The Crusade Indulgence, esp. chap. 4.

34. Joinville and Villehardouin. Chronicles of the Crusades, trans. C. Smith (London 2008), p. 176.

35. On Cutting his Hair before Going on Crusade, The Penguin Book of Irish Poetry, ed. P. Crotty (London 2010), pp. 125–6.

36. Yorkshire Charters, viii, ed. C. T. Clay (London 1949), pp. 84–5; cf. M. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record (London 1979), pp. 24–5.

37. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades, pp. 49–55 (‘Language’).

38. C. Tyerman, ‘Paid Crusaders: Money and Incentives on Crusade’, idem, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), no. XIV, pp. 1–40.

39. Recueil des actes de Philippe Auguste, i, ed. H. F. Delaborde et al. (Paris 1916), no. 286.

40. For examples from a large literature, P. Deschamps, ‘Combats de cavalerie et episodes des croisades dans les peintures murales de xiie et du xiiie siècle’, Orientalia Christiana Periodica, xiiii (1947), 454–74; C. Morris, ‘Picturing the Crusades’, The Crusades and their Sources, ed. J. France et al. (Aldershot 1998), esp. pp. 201–6; J. Munns, ‘The Vision of the Cross and the Crusade in England before 1189’, The Crusades and Visual Culture, ed. E. Lapina et al. (Farnham 2015), pp. 57–73.

41. Ed. H. R. Luard (London 1872–84); for criticism, M. Aurell, Des chrétiens contres les croisades (Paris 2013); E. Siberry Criticism of Crusading 1095–1274 (Oxford 1985); P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusades (Amsterdam 1940).

42. Rutebeuf, ‘La desputizons dou croisié et dou descroisié, Onze poems concernant la croisade’, ed. J. Bastin and E. Faral (Paris 1946), pp. 84–94.

43. C. Douais, ed., Documents pour servir à l’histoire de l’Inquisition dans le Languedoc (Paris 1900), ii, 94.

44. S. Lambert, ‘Translation, Citation and Ridicule: Renart the Fox and Crusading in the Vernacular’, Languages of Love and Hate, ed. S. Lambert and H. Nicholson (Turnhout 2012), pp. 65–84.

45. S. Lambert, ‘Playing at Crusading: Cultural Memory and its (Re)creation in Jean Bodel’s Jeu de St Nicholas’, Journal of Medieval History, 40 (2014), 361–80.

46. See now L. Paterson, Singing the Crusades (Woodbridge 2018).

47. Gerald of Wales, De principis instructione, Opera, ed. J. S. Brewer et al. (London 1861–91), viii, 207.

1 THE MEDITERRANEAN CRISIS AND THE BACKGROUND TO THE FIRST CRUSADE

1. The Annals of the Saljuk Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi’l Ta’rikh of Izz al-Din Ibn al-Athir, trans. D. S. Richards (London 2002), p. 192; Gesta Francorum, trans. R. Hill (London 1962), pp. 91–2.

2. In general on structures in the Islamic empire, see J. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800 (Cambridge 2003), esp. chaps 18–23.

3. Nāser-e Khusraw’s Book of Travels, trans. W. M. Thackston (New York 1986), esp. pp. 2–4, 9–10, 13, 21, 35, 37–45, 52 passim. On the Near East, very generally, New Cambridge Medieval History, 4 vols, ed. D. Luscombe and J. Riley-Smith (Cambridge 2004), vol. II, chaps 22 and 23.

4. See esp. D. Wasserstein, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings: Politics and Society in Islamic Spain 1003–1086 (Princeton 1985).

5. For a political overview, M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 (London 1984).

6. E.g. The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalānisī, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London 1932), pp. 41–4.

7. On climate, R. Ellenblum, The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East 950–1072 (Cambridge 2012); on Seljuks, A. C. S. Peacock, Early Seljuk History: A New Interpretation (London 2010), and idem, The Great Seljuk Empire (Edinburgh 2015), and, briefly, P. M. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford 2014), pp. 81–4.

8. Annals of the Saljuk Turks, p. 139.

9. N. Morton, ‘The Saljuq Turks’ Conversion to Islam: The Crusading Sources’, Al-Masdaq, 27 (2015), 109–18; and idem, The Field of Blood (New York 2018), pp. 74–7.

10. Annals of the Saljuk Turks, p. 23.

11. Usama ibn Munqidh, Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades, trans. P. M. Cobb (London 2008), pp. 162–3.

12. On Syria’s status, Cobb, Race for Paradise, pp. 33–5, and pp. 78–88 for the Seljuk intervention.

13. J. Shepard. ‘When Greek Meets Greek’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185–278.

14. J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London 2003); Cambridge History of Byzantium, ed. J. Shepard (Cambridge 2009); P. Lock, The Franks in the Aegean 1204–1500 (London 1995).

15. For an accessible account, D. Crouch, The Birth of Nobility (Harlow 2005).

16. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 141, trans. R. Levine, The Deeds of God through the Franks (Woodbridge 1997), p. 47. In general on planning, C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), refs to First Crusade.

17. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 184; trans. p. 89; on the Byzantine connection, P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London 2012).

18. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. M. Chibnall (Oxford 1969–80), III, pp. 134–6, vol. V, pp. 156–9; in general, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 81–3, 112–14 and refs.

19. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), pp. 154–5, 160–1, 190–1, 230–3, 476–9.

20. For a summary and refs, J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge 1994), pp. 165–6, 211, 252–4, 302, 304, 317, 325–6, 334, 358, 368.

21. E.g. Anselm of Ribemont to the archbishop of Rheims, Antioch, July 1098, in E. Peters, ed., The First Crusade (2nd edn, Philadelphia 1998), pp. 289–91; Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, pp. 20–1, 66–7.

22. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 146–7, 164–5; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem, RHC Occ., iii, 278; trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, The History of the Frankish Conquerors of Jerusalem (Philadelphia 1968), p. 91.

23. Anna Komnene, The Alexiad, trans E. R. A. Sewter and P. Frankopan (London 2003), pp. 115, 183–5, 410.

24. Above, notes 15 and 16; K. Ciggaar, ‘Byzantine Marginalia to the Norman Conquest’, Anglo-Norman Studies, ix (1986), 43–63; J. Shepard, ‘The Use of Franks in Eleventh-Century Byzantium’, Anglo-Norman Studies, xv (1993), 275–305.

25. W. J Aerts, ‘The Latin-Greek Wordlist in MS 236 of the Municipal Library of Avranches, fol. 97v’, Anglo-Norman Studies, ix (1986), 64–9.

26. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. F. Rosenthal (Princeton 1958), vol. II, p. 42.

27. See now R. D. Smith, ‘Calamity and Transition: Re-imagining Italian Trade in the Eleventh-Century Mediterranean’, Past and Present, 228 (2015), 15–56.

28. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), pp. 104–7 and refs; in general, S. Menache, The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages (London 1990); cf. C. Maier, Preaching the Crusades (Cambridge 1994), chap. 5.

29. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, trans. C. W. David (New York 1976), pp. 70–1.

30. Aerts, ‘The Latin-Greek Wordlist in MS 236’, 64–9

31. Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, pp. 66–7.

32. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, trans. J. Brundage (New York 2003), p. 53.

33. D. Abulafia, ‘Trade and Crusade 1050–1250’, Cultural Convergences in the Crusader Period, ed. M. Goodich et al. (New York 1995), p. 15, and generally pp. 1–20; on Pisan bacini, idem, ‘The Pisan bacini and the medieval Mediterranean: A historian’s viewpoint’, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean (London 1987), no. XIII; K. R. Mathews, ‘Other Peoples’ Dishes: Islamic Bacini on Eleventh-Century Churches in Pisa’, Gesta, 53 (2014), 5–23; in general, A. Metcalfe and M. Rosser-Owen, ‘Forgotten Connections? Medieval Material Culture and Exchange in the Central and Western Mediterranean’, Al-Masdaq, 25 (2013), esp. 1–8.

34. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 2002), pp. 204–5.

2 THE FIRST CRUSADE

1. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 39.

2. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), vol. 1, 13.

3. Anna Comnena, The Alexiad, trans. E. R. A. Sewter, intro. P. Frankopan (London 2009), pp. 101–3.

4. A. Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem, the Holy Sepulchre and the Origins of the First Crusade’, Crusades, 7 (2008), 35–57.

5. A. Becker, Papst Urban II (Stuttgart 1964–2012); cf. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II’s Preaching of the First Crusade’, History, 55 (1970), and for the general context, C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy: The Western Church from 1050 to 1250 (Oxford 1989).

6. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls Series (London 1887–9), vol. II, p. 390.

7. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), vol. cli, col. 504.

8. Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. cli, col. 303; generally A. Becker, ‘Urbain II, pape de la croisade’, in Y. Bellenger and D. Quéruel, eds, Les champenois et la croisade (Paris 1989), pp. 9–17.

9. R. Somerville, The Councils of Urban II, Decreta Claromontensia (Amsterdam 1972), p. 74 and passim.

10. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey, p. 128 and generally pp. 122–4, 127–8; cf. Urban II’s letters, in J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, pp. 38–40.

11. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, p. 39.

12. C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 72–3 and refs; for crusaders’ letters, see trans. E. Peters, The First Crusade (2nd edn, Philadelphia 1998), pp. 284–96.

13. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. and trans. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), p. 4 and generally pp. 2–45.

14. Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem’, 35–57.

15. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. and trans. Edgington, p. 4 and generally pp. 2–45; for an apparent eyewitness physical description, Guibert of Nogent, The Deeds of God through the Franks, trans. R. Levine (Woodbridge 1997), pp. 47–8.

16. E. Blake and C. Morris, ‘A Hermit Goes to War’, Studies in Church History, 22 (1985), 79–107; J. Flori, Pierre l’ermite et la première croisade (Paris 1999).

17. Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem,’ 35–57.

18. See now D. Park, Papal Protection and the Crusader (Woodbridge 2018).

19. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), pp. 170–7.

20. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, pp. 44, 52.

21. Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. R. Hill (London 1962), pp. 19–20.

22. Caffaro, De liberatione civitatum Orientis, RHC Occ., vol. v, 49.

23. For the example of Rotrou III of Perche, see J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders 1095–1131 (Cambridge 1997), pp. 104–5; K. Thompson, Power and Border Lordship in Medieval France: The County of Perche 1000–1226 (Woodbridge 2002), pp. 54–85.

24. J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge 1994), p. 142 and generally on numbers, pp. 122–42.

25. Baldric of Bourgueil, Historia Jerosolimitana, RHC Occ., iv, 17; C. Tyerman, ‘Paid Crusaders’, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), no. XIV, pp. 1–40.

26. Recueil des chartes de l’abbaye de Cluny, ed. A. Bruel (Paris 1894), vol. V, 51–3, no. 3703; A. V. Murray, ‘Money and Logistics in the First Crusade’, Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, ed. J. H. Pryor (Aldershot 2006), pp. 239–41.

27. For the formula pro anima mea – for my soul – C. Bouchard, Sword, Mitre and Cloister (Ithaca, NY 1987), pp. 241–3.

28. Chartes originals antérieurs à 1121 conservées en France, ed. C. Giraud et al. (Nancy and Orléans 2010), no. 3133; Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, p. 206.

29. P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London 2012), p. 116.

30. Descriptions in Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 50–1; R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987), pp. 223–97, for the earliest Hebrew accounts.

31. H. Hagenmeyer, Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahre 1088–1100 (Innsbruck 1901), pp. 138, 140; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 86–7; cf. pp. 72–3; Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. F. R. Ryan (Knoxville 1969), pp. 80, 83; Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, trans. B. S. and D. S. Bachrach (Aldershot 2005), pp. 42–3.

32. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade; idem, The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom (Cambridge 2006); R. Rist, Popes and Jews 1095–1291 (Oxford 2016).

33. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 80.

34. Peters, The First Crusade, pp. 283–4, for the Patriarch’s and crusaders’ joint letter to the west, January 1098.

35. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 149.

36. Matthew of Edessa, Chronique, RHC Docs Arméniens, vol. II, p. 41; cf. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 316–21.

37. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum Qui Ceperunt Iherusalem, trans. J. H. and L. J. Hill (Philadelphia 1968), p. 80; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 384–5.

38. C. Tyerman, ‘“Principes et Populus”: Civil Society and the First Crusade’, Practices of Crusading, no. XII, pp.1–23.

39. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099’, Crusades, 3 (2004), 15–75.

40. Letter of the crusade leadership to Pope Paschal II, September 1099, trans. Peters, The First Crusade, p. 295; Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, p. 70.

41. Baldric of Bourgueil, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Biddlecombe (Woodbridge 2014), p. 9.

42. Caffaro, Annali Genovesi, trans. M. Hall and J. Phillips, Caffaro, Genoa and the Twelfth Century Crusades (Farnham 2013), p. 56.

43. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade (London 2015), pp. 140–50 and refs.

44. Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, trans. B. S. and D. S. Bachrach (Aldershot 2005), pp. 145, 152.

45. Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, pp. 19–20; A. Andrea, ‘Deeds of the Bishops of Halberstadt’, Contemporary Sources for the Fourth Crusade (Leiden 2000), p. 253 and n. 57.

46. D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade (Philadelphia 1997), pp. 294–5.

47. B. and G. Delluc, ‘Le suaire de Cadouin et son frère: le voile de sainte Anne d’Apt’, Bulletin de la Société Historique et Archéologique de Périgord, 128 (2001), 607–28.

48. H. Nickel, ‘A Crusader’s Sword: Concerning the Effigy of Jean d’Alluye’, Metropolitan Museum Journal, 26 (1991), 123–8.

49. In general, Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 140–50, 166, 186, 196, 209, 234, 247–8, 251 and refs; N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca, NY 2012), pp. 90–134.

50. In general, Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps; J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London 1986), ‘Theological refinement’, pp. 135–52.

51. Chronicon S. Andreae Castro Cameracensii, ed. L. C.Bethmann, MGH SS, vii (Hanover 1846), pp. 544–5.

52. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 156–7.

53. Historia Peregrinorum, RHC Occ, vol. III, p. 206.

54. Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders, p. 155; Paul, To Follow in their Footsteps, pp. 85–6, 106–7; F. Arbellot, ‘Les chevaliers limousins à la première croisade’, Bulletin de la Société archéologique et historique de Limousin, 29 (1881), 37.

55. B and G. Delluc, ‘Le suaire de Cadouin et son frère’, 607–28.

56. The phrase is that of the English baron Brian FitzCount, c. 1143, R. H. C. Davis, ‘Henry of Blois and Brian FitzCount’, English Historical Review, XXV (1910), 301.

57. M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapon: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017), esp. chaps 4 and 5. Cf. memorial sermons, P. Cole et al., ‘Application of Theology to Current Affairs. Memorial Sermons and the dead of Mansourah and on Innocent IV’, Historical Research, 63 (1990), 227–47.

58. In general, the pioneering N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps, and pp. 91–3 for Pompadour.

59. Chronicles of the Crusades, ed. C. Smith (London 2008), pp. 346–8.

60. H. Nickel, ‘A Crusader’s Sword’, Metropolitan Museum Journal, 26 (1991), 123–8; in general, M. Cassidy-Welch, Remembering the Crusades and Crusading (London 2017).

3 ‘THE LAND BEYOND THE SEA’

1. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), Part I, pp. 78, 278–9.

2. William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey (New York 1941; 1976 reprint), vol. I, p. 55.

3. Willelmi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon, ed. R. B. C. Huygens (Turnhout 1986); cf. P. W. Edbury and J. G. Rowe, William of Tyre: Historian of the Latin East (Cambridge 1988).

4. Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum, ed. J. Stevenson (London 1875), p. 218; cf. M. Barber, The Crusader States (New Haven and London 2012), p. 299. On settlement, see R. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1998); cf. J. Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (London 1972); idem, Crusader Institutions (Oxford 1980).

5. W. D. Phillips Jr, ‘Sugar Production and Trade in the Mediterranean at the Time of the Crusades’, The Meeting of Two Worlds, ed. V. P. Goss et al. (Kalamazoo 1986), pp. 393–406.

6. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 374–5; Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement, pp. 73–94.

7. For a summary and references to sources, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 219–25; cf. P. Mitchell and A. Millard, ‘Approaches to the Study of Migration during the Crusades’, Crusades, 12 (2013), 1–12.

8. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. F. R. Ryan (Knoxville 1969), p. 271.

9. John of Würzburg in Jerusalem Pilgrimage, ed. J. Wilkinson (London 1988), p. 259.

10. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 222 and 936, n. 22.

11. On this see now Barber, Crusader States, pp. 56–62.

12. William devoted the first eight books of his History, out of twenty-two completed taking the narrative up to the early 1180s, to the First Crusade; see Edbury and Rowe, William of Tyre.

13. H. E. Mayer, ‘Abū ‘Alis am Berliner Tiergarten’, Archiv für Diplomatik (1992), 113–33; The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London 1952), p. 300 and cf. pp. 316–23.

14. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement, p. xviii for map.

15. D. M. Metcalf, Coinage of the Crusades and the Latin East in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (London 1995), esp. pp. 23, 52–3.

16. E.g. in the conflict between Tancred of Antioch (allied with Aleppo) and Baldwin of Edessa (allied with Mosul) in 1108, according to Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans., vol. I, p. 141; cf. N. Morton, The Field of Blood: The Battle for Aleppo and the Remaking of the Medieval Middle East (New York 2018).

17. For the 1183 tax, William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. ii, pp. 486–9.

18. Metcalf, Coinage.

19. Cartulaire general de l’Ordre des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem, ed. J. Delaville le Roulx (Paris 1894–1905), vol. I, pp. 222–3, no. 309.

20. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 486–9.

21. In general on the circumstances and politics of Outremer, Barber, Crusader States; Tyerman, God’s War, chaps 5–7 and 11; B. Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs (Cambridge 2000).

22. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Battle of Hattin Revisited’, The Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (London 1992), pp. 190–207; J. France, Hattin (Oxford 2015); N. Morton, The Field of Blood (New York 2018).

23. T. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130 (Woodbridge 2000), pp. 189–94.

24. J. Riley-Smith, ‘Some Lesser Officials in Latin Syria’, English Historical Review, lxxxvii (1972), 1–26.

25. Livres des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois, chap. 241, RHC Lois (Paris 1843), vol. II, p. 172.

26. A. Boas, Crusader Archaeology (London 1999), pp. 77, 84, 87, 102, 113, 118–19, 163–5, 168–70, 174, 178–9, 188, 217, 219, 237; P. Mitchell, Medicine in the Crusades (Cambridge 2004), pp. 856, 118–19, 148; R. Kool, ‘Coins at Vadum Jacob’, Crusades, 2 (2002), 73–88; R. Ellenblum, ‘Frontier Activities: The Transformation of a Muslim Sacred Site into the Frankish Castle of Vadum Iacob’, Crusades, I (2003), 83–97.

27. K. J. Lewis, ‘Medieval Diglossia: The Diversity of the Latin Christian Encounter with Written and Spoken Arabic in the “Crusader” County of Tripoli’, Al-Masāq, 27 (2015), 119–52; idem, The Counts of Tripoli and Lebanon in the Twelfth Century (Abingdon 2017), pp. 16–17, 150, 214–19.

28. C. Cahen, La Syrie du Nord (Paris 1940), pp. 41–2, 343–4, 405, 540; Usama ibn Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation, trans. P. M. Cobb (London 2008), p. 110; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 224, 229–30; B. Z. Kedar, ‘Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant’, Muslims under Latin Rule, ed. J. M. Powell (Princeton 1990), pp. 135–74.

29. Usama, Book of Contemplation, p. 147.

30. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Samaritans in the Frankish Period’, in idem, The Franks in the Levant (Aldershot 1993), chap. XIX, pp. 86–7.

31. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 323–5.

32. C. MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (Philadelphia 2008); cf. in general, B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States: The Secular Church (London 1980).

33. R. Röhricht, ed., Regesta regni Hierosolymitani (Innsbruck 1893–1904), no. 502.

34. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 231–2.

35. A. E. Doustourian, Armenia and the Crusades: The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa (New York and London 1993), pp. 245–57.

36. For a general survey, D. Pringle, ‘Architecture in the Latin East’, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1995), pp. 160–83; and idem, Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 2009); A. Boas, Crusader Archaeology (London 1999).

37. William of Oldenburg saw it in 1211/12, Peregrinatores medii aevi quatuor, ed. J. C. M. Laurent (Leipzig 1864), p. 166 et seq. passim, trans. D. Pringle, Crusades, 11 (2012); cf. J. Folda, Crusader Art in the Holy Land (Cambridge 2005), p. 136.

38. Above notes 12 and 29; Usama, Book of Contemplation, p. 43.

39. Metcalf, Coinage, esp. pp. 14, 22–3, 40–65; see now A. M. Stahl, ‘The Denier Outremer’, The French of Outremer, ed. L. Morreale and N. Paul (New York 2018), pp. 30–43.

40. Barber, Crusader States, p. 204.

41. For wall inscriptions, al-Harawi’s memories in A Lonely Wayfarer’s Guide to Pilgrimage, trans. J. W. Meri (Princeton 2004), pp. 70, 72.

42. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey vol. II, pp. 292–3; F. Michaeu, ‘Les médecins orientaux au service des princes latins’, Occident et Proche Orient: Contacts scientifiques au temps des croisades, ed. I. Draelants et al. (Louvain 2000), pp. 95–115; cf. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 212–13.

43. B. Kühnel, Crusader Art of the Twelfth Century (Berlin 1994), pp. 67–125; J. Folda, The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land 1098–1187 (Cambridge 1995), pp. 137–63; J. Backhouse, ‘The Case of Queen Melisende’s Psalter’, The Making and Meaning of Illuminated Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts, Art and Architecture, ed. S. L’Engle and G. Guest (London 2006), pp. 457–70.

44. C. Burnett, ‘Antioch as a Link between Arabic and Latin Culture in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries’, Occident et Proche Orient, ed. Draelants et al., pp. 1–78 (perhaps slightly over-egged).

45. Lewis, ‘Medieval Diglossia’, p. 136; Fulcher of Chartres, Historia, trans. Ryan, p. 222; William of Tyre, History, trans Babcock and Krey, vol. II, p. 294.

46. Itinerarium Ricardi Regis, trans. H. Nicholson (Aldershot 1997), pp. 167, 171, 204.

47. De constructione castri Saphet, trans. H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994), pp. 190–8.

48. Kennedy, Crusader Castles; R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge 2006); D. Pringle, Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1997); Boas, Crusader Archaeology, pp. 91–120.

49. J. France, ‘Warfare in the Mediterranean Region in the Age of the Crusades 1095–1291: A Clash of Contrasts’, The Crusades in the Near East: Cultural Histories, ed. C. Kostick (London 2011), pp. 9–26.

50. Ralph Niger, De Re Militari et Triplici Via Peregrinationis Ierosolimitanae, ed. L. Schmugge (Berlin 1977), pp. 186–7, 193–9.

4 CRUSADES AND THE DEFENCE OF OUTREMER, 1100–1187

1. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. F. R. Ryan (Knoxville 1969), pp. 149–50.

2. Quoted in L. Melve, ‘“Even the very laymen are chattering about it”: The Politicisation of Public Opinion 800–1200’, Viator, 44 (2013), 42–3.

3. M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, ‘The Echoes of Victory: Liturgical and Para-Liturgical Commemoration of the Capture of Jerusalem in the West’, Journal of Medieval History, 40 (2014), 237–59, esp. 251–2.

4. C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 170–5.

5. H. E. Mayer, ‘Henry II of England and the Holy Land’, English Historical Review, xcvii (1982), 721–39; C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), pp. 46–7, 54–6.

6. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. M. Chibnall (London 1969–80), vol. VI, pp. 68–73, 100–4.

7. C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (Basingstoke 1998), pp. 22 and 27; for disparate cross-giving rites, M. C. Gaposchkin, ‘The Place of Jerusalem in Western Crusading Rites of Departure (1095–1300)’, Catholic Historical Review, xcix (2013), 1–28.

8. M. Barber, The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple (Cambridge 1994).

9. Roger of Howden, Chronica, ed. W. Stubbs (London 1868–71), vol. II, p. 346; in general, J. Riley-Smith, The Knights Hospitaller in the Levant, c. 1070–1309 (Basingstoke 2012).

10. H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994), esp. pp. 54–61; for transfer of castles, S. Tibble, Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291 (Oxford 1989).

11. A. Forey, The Military Orders from the Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries (Basingstoke 1992), for a concise survey.

12. Fulcher of Chartres, History, trans. Ryan, pp. 237–45, 255–8, 264–6; cf. William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey (New York 1941; 1976 reprint), vol. I, pp. 548–56; vol. II, pp. 1–21.

13. Fulcher of Chartres, History, trans. Ryan, pp. 238–9, 243–5; cf. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. I, pp. 548–50, and for the siege of Tyre, vol. I, pp. 550–6 and vol. II, pp. 1–21; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 265–6 and refs.; Barber, Crusader States, pp. 139–41.

14. Cf. J. Riley-Smith, ‘The Venetian Crusade of 1122–4’, I Communi Italiani nel Regno Crociato Gerusalemme, ed. G. Airaldi and B. Kedar (Genoa 1986), pp. 337–50.

15. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. S. I. Tucker, English Historical Documents, gen. ed. D. Douglas (London 1955–75), vol. II, p. 195.

16. Michael the Syrian, cited in Barber, Crusader States, p. 148.

17. Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi in The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusade, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London 1932), p. 196.

18. Trans. Niall Christie, Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity’s Wars in the Middle East 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources (London 2014), pp. 133–5, quotation at p. 134; P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford 2014), pp. 38–41.

19. Damascus Chronicle, trans. Gibb, pp. 200–2.

20. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), vol. II, p. 320.

21. M. Lyons and D. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of Holy War (Cambridge 1982), pp. 56–7.

22. Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir, trans. Richards, vol. I, p. 337.

23. J. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800 (Cambridge 2003), pp. 197–8.

24. C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), pp. 110–11; cf. idem, ‘“Abominable Acts”: The Career of Zengi’, The Second Crusade, ed. J. Phillips and M. Hoch (Manchester 2002), pp. 111–32; in general, N. Morton, Encountering Islam on the First Crusade (Cambridge 2016).

25. Y. Lev, ‘The jihad of Nur al-Din’, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 35 (2008), 275.

26. Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir, trans. Richards, vol. II, p. 334; Hillenbrand, Crusades, pp. 151–61.

27. Ibn Shaddad’s biography is translated by D. S. Richards, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin (Aldershot 2002); S. Mourad and J. Lindsay, The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period (Leiden 2012), for Ibn Asakir.

28. Berkey, Formation of Islam, p. 189.

29. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), pp. 57–9.

30. Trans. G. Loud, ‘Texts and Documents-2 A’, The Crusades: An Encylcopedia, ed. A. V. Murray (Santa Barbara 2006), p. 1,298 and note 1.

31. Vincent of Prague, Annales, MGH, vol. XVII, 663; G. Constable, ‘A Further Note on the Conquest of Lisbon in 1147’, The Experience of Crusading, vol. I, ed. M. Bull et al. (Cambridge 2003), p. 43 and n. 16 for refs.

32. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters, trans. B. S. James (Stroud 1998), nos 391–5.

33. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), p. 112.

34. Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Fredrick Barbarossa, trans. C. Mierow (New York 1966), p. 74.

35. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters.

36. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters, no. 394, p. 467.

37. Odo of Deuil, De profectione Ludovici VII in orientem, ed. V. Berry (New York 1948), p. 125.

38. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 247–51.

39. De expugnatione Lyxbonesni, ed. C. W. David (New York 1976), p. 57 et passim.

40. C. Marshall, Warfare in the Latin East (Cambridge 1992), pp. 76–7 and n. 134.

41. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 167–70 and refs.

42. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 192–4

43. R.C. Smail, ‘Latin Syria and the West, 1146–1187’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser. 19 (1969), 1–20; cf. the more positive J. Phillips, Defenders of the Holy Land: Relations between the Latin East and the West 1119–1187 (Oxford 1996); for a less rosy view, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 36–56.

44. B. Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs (Cambridge 2000).

45. J. Rubenstein, ‘Putting History to Use: Three Crusade Chronicles’, Viator, 35 (2004), 131–68; The Historia Iherosolimitana of Robert the Monk, ed. D. Kempf and M. Bull (Woodbridge 2013), pp. xliv–xlvii.

46. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. and trans. David, pp. 26–46 for MS; (new edn and forward by J. Phillips, 2000).

47. H. Livermore, ‘The “Conquest of Lisbon” and its Author’, Portuguese Studies, 6 (1990–1), 1–16; but see the doubts of C. West, ‘All in the Same Boat’, East Anglia and the North Sea World, ed. D. Bates et al. (Woodbridge 2013), pp. 287–300, esp. nn. 16 and 19.

48. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. and trans. David, p. 104 note ‘b’.

49. S. Edgington, ‘The Lisbon Letter of the Second Crusade’, Historical Research, 69 (1996), 328–39.

50. De profectione Ludovici VII in orientem, ed. and trans. V. Berry (New York 1948), pp. xxxii–xl for MS.

51. B. Schuster, ‘The Strange Pilgrimage of Odo of Deuil’, Medieval Concepts of the Past, ed. G. Althoff et al. (Cambridge 2002), pp. 253–78; J. Phillips, ‘Odo of Deuil’s De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem as a Source for the Second Crusade’, The Experience of Crusading, vol. 1, ed. M. Bull et al. (Cambridge 2003), pp. 80–95.

5 THE THIRD CRUSADE AND THE REINVENTION OF CRUSADING, 1187–1198

1. M. Lyons and D. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of Holy War (Cambridge 1982), pp. 280–1.

2. J. Folda, The Nazareth Capitals and the Crusader Shrine of the Annunciation (Philadelphia 1986).

3. Audita Tremendi, trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 64.

4. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006–8), vol. II, p. 323; cf. J. France, Hattin (Oxford 2015).

5. Roger of Howden, Gesta Regis Henrici Secundi, ed. W. Stubbs (London 1867), vol. I, pp. 341–2; cf. J. Richard, ‘The Adventure of John Gale, Knight of Tyre’, The Experience of Crusading, vol. II, ed. P. Edbury and J. Phillips (Cambridge 2003), pp. 189–95.

6. Y. Harari, ‘The Military Role of the Frankish Turcopoles: A Reassessment’, Mediterranean Historical Review, 12 (1997), 75–116.

7. Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans. Richards, vol. II, pp. 337, 351–2, 364; for the Alexandria refugees, ‘The Old French Continuation of William of Tyre’, trans. P. Edbury, The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade (Aldershot 1998, pp. 65–6.

8. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem and the Holy Land, 1187–1291, ed. and trans. D. Pringle (Farnham 2012), pp. 120–1.

9. Itinerarium Ricardi Regis, trans. H. Nicholson (Aldershot, 1997), p. 48 (repeated by a later compiler, p. 142).

10. Itinerarium, trans. Nicholson, p. 143.

11. Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin, trans. D. S. Richards (Aldershot 2002), p. 125; Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans. Richards, vol. II, p. 363; Henry of Albano, De peregrinante civitate Dei, J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), vol. CCIV, col. 355.

12. J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 64–7.

13. Alan of Lille, quoted by G. Constable, ‘The Cross of the Crusaders’, Crusaders and Crusading in the Twelfth Century (Farnham 2008), pp. 45–91 at p. 90; cf. Roger of Howden, Gesta Henrici, ed. Stubbs, vol. II, pp. 26–8, for Bertier of Orléans’ poem; C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), esp. pp. 379–80, 388–9; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 66. For the liturgy of the cross, see now C. Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca , NY 2017).

14. Produced in the Bavarian abbey of Schäftlarn, now in the Vatican Library (Bibliotheca Apostolica Vat Lat 2001).

15. Roger of Howden, Gesta Henrici, ed. Stubbs, vol. II, p. 32.

16. N. Barrat, ‘The English Revenues of Richard I’, English Historical Review, 116 (2001), 639–41; cf. C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades (Chicago 1988), pp. 75–80.

17. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), ‘Finance’, pp. 181–227.

18. Ambroise, The Crusade of Richard Lion-Heart, trans. M. J. Hubert (New York 1976), ll. 67–8, p. 33.

19. R. Chazan, ‘Emperor Frederick I, the Third Crusade, and the Jews’, Viator, 8 (1977), 83–93.

20. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, esp. pp. 278–81 and, generally, pp. 231–92.

21. C. Tyerman, ‘Paid Crusaders’, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), no. XIV; idem, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 182–91.

22. Itinerarium, trans. Nicholson, p. 83, cf. p. 22; for a blow-by-blow account of the siege, J. D. Hosler, The Siege of Acre 1189–91 (London 2018).

23. Richard of Devizes, Chronicle, ed. and trans. J. T. Appleby (London 1963), p. 15.

24. Ibn Shaddad, Saladin, trans. Richards, p. 145.

25. In general, Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 258–64 and refs.

26. John of Joinville, Life of St Louis, trans. C. Smith, Chronicles of the Crusades (London 2008), p. 187.

27. P. Mitchell, Medicine in the Crusades (Cambridge 2004), pp. 1, 66.

28. For archaeological evidence, A. Boas, Crusader Archaeology (London 1999), pp. 170–80; D. Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1950–1300 (London 1999); J. France, Victory in the East (Cambridge 1994), pp. 26–51, 144–9.

29. Itinerarium, trans. Nicholson, p. 74; William of Newburgh, Historia Rerum Anglicarum, ed. R. Howlett (London 1889), p. 374; Ibn Shaddad, Saladin, trans. Richards, p. 26.

30. Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans. Richards, vol. II, pp. 346–7.

31. Ibn Shaddad, Saladin, p. 212.

32. Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans. Richards, vol. II, p. 392; Al-Harawi, A Lonely Wayfarer’s Guide to Pilgrimage, trans. J. W. Meri (Princeton 2004), p. 78.

33. Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans. Richards, vol. II, p. 397.

34. Trans. W. Lunt, Papal Revenues in the Middle Ages (New York 1965), vol. II, pp. 485–7.

35. On the evidence for Celestine’s Baltic policy, I. Fonnesberg-Schmidt, The Popes and the Baltic Crusades 1147–1254 (Leiden 2007), pp. 67–75.

36. See now G. Loud, ‘The German Crusade of 1197–1198’, Crusades, 13 (2014), 143–71.

37. Odo of Deuil, De profectione Ludovici VII in orientem, ed. V. Berry (New York 1948), pp. 122–3.

38. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters, trans. B. S. James (London 1998), no. 391.

39. John of Joinville, Life of St Louis, trans. C. Smith, Chronicles of the Crusades (London 2008), p. 187.

40. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 150–77; idem, ‘Who Went on Crusades to the Holy Land?’, Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), chap. XIII.

41. Itinerarium, trans. D. Pringle, Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land 1187–1291 (Farnham 2012), pp. 61–94. The account of the Beirut palace is at pp. 65–6.

42. J. Folda, Crusader Art in the Holy Land from the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre (Cambridge 2005), p. 136.

6 RESHAPING THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

1. Quoted in P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusades (Amsterdam 1940), p. 232.

2. For background, A. V. Murray, ‘The Place of Egypt in the Military Strategy of the Crusades 1099–1221’, The Fifth Crusade in Context, ed. E. J. Mylod et al. (London 2017), pp. 117–34; J. H. Pryor, ‘The Venetian Fleet for the Fourth Crusade’, The Experience of Crusading, vol. I, ed. M. Bull and N. Housley (Cambridge 2003), esp. pp. 114–23.

3. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), vol. I, 13–14.

4. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum Qui Ceperunt Iherusalem, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill (Philadelphia 1968), p. 115.

5. Innocent III to Archbishop Hubert Walter of Canterbury, Crusade and Christendom, ed. and trans. J. Bird et al. (Philadelphia 2013), p. 49.

6. See William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey (New York 1941; 1976 reprint), vol. II, p. 408.

7. Geoffrey of Villehardouin, The Conquest of Constantinople, in Chronicles of the Crusade, trans. C. Smith (London 2008), p. 11.

8. For examples, Crusade and Christendom, ed. and trans. Bird et al., pp. 37, 40, 149.

9. P. Edbury, The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation (Aldershot 1998), pp. 181–2.

10. On the 1204 raid on Egypt, B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Fourth Crusade’s Second Front’, Urbs Capta, ed. A. Laiou (Paris 2005), pp. 89–110.

11. Robert of Clari, The Conquest of Constantinople, trans. E. H. McNeal (New York 1976), p. 40.

12. Geoffrey of Villehardouin, Conquest of Constantinople, in Chronicles of the Crusades, trans. Smith, pp. 16–17.

13. For Fulk of Neuilly, James of Vitry, Historia Occidentalis, ed. J. F. Hinnebusch (Freiburg 1972), p. 101.

14. E.g. Contemporary Sources for the Fourth Crusade, trans. A. Andrea (Leiden 2000), p. 84, a letter from the crusaders to Otto IV of Germany, August 1203.

15. Contemporary Sources, trans. Andrea, pp. 188–9.

16. For a translation of Gunther of Pairis, Historia Constantinopolitana, which provides the account of Abbot Martin’s preaching, crusade and theft, The Capture of Constantinople, ed. and trans, A. J. Andrea (Philadelphia 1997); Gunther’s other works include a versification of the First Crusade chronicle by Robert of Rheims, a clear influence along with the works of Bernard of Clairvaux.

17. Peter of Les Vaux-de-Cerney, The History of the Albigensian Crusade, trans. W. A. and M. S. Sibly (Woodbridge 1998), p. 58.

18. Contemporary Sources, trans. Andrea, p. 48.

19. Niketas Choniates, Annals, trans. H. J. Margoulias, O City of Byzantium (Detroit 1984), p. 296.

20. The Anonymous of Soissons, Contemporary Sources, trans. Andrea, p. 234.

21. Villehardouin, Conquest, in Chronicles of the Crusade, trans. Smith, pp. 59–60.

22. D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade (Philadelphia 1997), pp. 294–5.

23. Gunther of Pairis, The Capture of Constantinople, ed. and trans. Andrea, p. 111.

24. Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans. Richards, vol. III, 76; Innocent III letter to legate Peter of Capuano, 12 July 1205, Contemporary Sources, trans. Andrea, p. 166.

25. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Fourth Crusade’s Second Front’, Urbs Capta, ed. A. Laiou (Paris 2005), pp. 89–110.

26. Crusade and Christendom, ed. and trans. Bird et al., pp. 107–12 at p. 110.

27. C. Kohler, ‘Documents inédits concernant l’Orient Latin et les croisades’, Revue de l’Orient Latin (Paris 1893–1911), vol. VII, 1–9.

28. Narratio quomodo reliquiae martyris Georgii ad nos aquicinensis pervenerunt, RHC Occ., vol. V, 251.

29. For the Sacro Catino, William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. I, 437; in general N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca 2012), pp. 79, 99–104, 122–3.

30. The phrase is that of Gunther of Pairis, Capture of Constantinople, trans. Andrea, p. 111.

31. Gunther of Pairis, Capture of Constantinople, p. 124; ‘The Anonymous of Soissons’ and ‘Deeds of the Bishops of Halbetrstadt’, Contemporary Sources, trans. Andrea, pp. 235–8, 260–3.

32. P. Riant, Exuviae sacrae constantinopolitanae (Geneva 1876–7), vol. I, XCV, XCVII, pp. 127–40.

33. M. Barber, ‘The Impact of the Fourth Crusade in the West: The Distribution of Relics after 1204’, Urbs Capta, ed. A. Laiou (Paris 2005), pp. 325–34; Riant, Exuviae, vol. II, pp. 290–304.

34. Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, trans. N. P. Tanner (London and Washington, DC 1990), Lateran IV, canon 62, pp. 263–4.

35. M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, The Making of St Louis: Kingship, Sanctity and Crusade in the Late Middle Ages (Ithaca, NY 2010).

36. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, trans. J. A. Brundage (New York 2003), p. 152; Song of the Cathar Wars, trans. J. Shirley (Aldershot 1996), pp. 74–5.

37. G. Dickson, The Children’s Crusade: Medieval History, Modern Mythistory (Basingstoke 2008).

38. In general, J. M. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade 1213–1221 (Philadelphia 1986).

39. Oliver of Paderborn, Capture of Damietta, in Crusade and Christendom, ed. and trans. Bird et al., pp. 166–7.

40. Dickson, Children’s Crusade.

41. Trans. in Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade, pp. 100–1.

42. C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), p. 98 and n. 49.

43. The poet Freidank quoted by T. Van Cleve, The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (Oxford 1972), p. 217, n. 5.

44. Matthew Paris, Itinerary from London to Jerusalem, trans. D. Pringle, Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land 1187–1291 (Farnham 2012), p. 206.

45. In general, see D. Jacoby, Studies in the Crusader States and on Venetian Expansion (Northampton 1989); idem, Commercial Exchange across the Mediterranean (Aldershot 2005); idem, ‘Silk Economies and Cross-Cultural Artistic Interaction’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 58 (2004), 197–240.

46. T. Vorderstrasse, ‘Trade and Textiles from Medieval Antioch’, Al-Masdaq, 22 (2011), 151–71.

47. D. Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, 3 vols (Cambridge 2009–10).

48. Z. Jacoby, ‘Crusader Sculpture in Cairo’, Crusader Art in the Twelfth Century, ed. J. Folda (Oxford 1982), pp. 121–38; K. R. Mathews, ‘Mamluks and Crusaders: Architectural Appropriation and Cultural Encounter in Mamluk Monuments’, Languages of Love and Hate, ed. S. Lambert et al. (Turnhout 2012), pp. 177–200.

49. D. Pringle, ‘Architecture in the Latin East’, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1995), pp. 160–83.

50. E. Lapina, ed., The Crusaders and Visual Culture (Farnham 2015), p. 63.

51. D. H. Weiss and L. Mahoney, France and the Holy Land: Frankish Culture and the End of the Crusades (Baltimore 2004); J. Lowden review of D. Weiss, Art and Crusade in the Age of Saint Louis (Cambridge 1998) http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/92; accessed 28 June 2018; R. Abels, ‘Cultural Representation of Warfare in the High Middle Ages’, Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages, ed. S. John et al. (Farnham 2014); C. Maier, ‘The bible moralisée and the Crusades’, The Experience of Crusading, vol. I, ed. M. Bull et al. (Cambridge 2003), pp. 209–24.

52. J. Folda, Crusader Art: The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land 1099–1291 (Aldershot 2008), and refs there to his earlier works and comments; idem, ‘Figurative Arts in Crusader Syria and Palestine 1187–1291, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 58 (2004), 315–31.

53. Crusade and Christendom, ed. and trans. Bird et al., pp. 266–98; M. Lower, The Barons’ Crusade (Philadelphia 2005).

54. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, trans. R. Levine, The Deeds of God through the Franks (Woodbridge 1997), p. 47.

55. Matthew Paris, Historia Anglorum, ed. F. Madden (London 1866–9), vol. III, p. 55.

56. Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, trans. B. S. and D. S. Bachrach (Aldershot 2005), pp. 42–3; for Barzella’s will, J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), pp. 174–5.

57. M. S. Giuseppi, ‘On the Testament of Sir Hugh de Nevill’, Archaeologia, 56 (1899), 352–4; A.-M. Chazaud, ‘Inventaires et comptes de la succession d’Eudes, comte de Nevers’, Mémoires de la Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France 32, 4th ser., ii (1871), 164–206; cf. J. Folda, Crusader Art in the Holy Land 1187–1291 (Cambridge 2005), pp. 356–8; J. Gillingham, Richard I (New Haven and London 1999), pp. 4, 141.

58. W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade (Princeton 1979).

59. John of Joinville, Life of Saint Louis, in Chronicles of the Crusades, trans. Smith, esp. pp. 199–207.

60. John of Joinville, Life of St Louis, p. 190.

61. Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, ed. H. R. Luard (London 1872–84), vol. V, p. 107; vol. VI, p. 163.

62. A. Leopold, How to Recover the Holy Land (Aldershot 2000).

63. S. Stanchev, Spiritual Rationality: Papal Embargo as Cultural Practice (Oxford 2014).

64. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), pp. 142–5.

65. Itinerarium Ricardi Regis, trans. H. Nicholson (Aldershot 1997), p. 55.

66. Itinerarium, trans. Nicholson, pp. 237, 255.

67. In general, the pioneering study by P. Mitchell, Medicine in the Crusades (Cambridge 2004); see also S. Edgington, ‘Medical Knowledge of the Crusading Armies’, The Military Orders, ed. M. Barber (Aldershot 1994), vol. I, pp. 320–6.

68. Hayton (or Hetoum), La Flor des estoires de la Terre Sainte, Recueil des historiens des croisades, Documents Arméniens (Paris 1869–1906), vol. II.

69. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), pp. 275–82 and figs 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29.

70. Pierre Dubois, De recuperatione Terrae Sanctae, trans. W. I. Brandt, The Recovery of the Holy Land (New York 1956); in general P. Biller, The Measure of Multitude (Oxford 2000).

71. John of Joinville, Life of St Louis, pp. 222, 242–3; Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 167, 252.

7 CRUSADES IN SPAIN

1. P. M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517 (London 1986), p. 27.

2. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 40.

3. D. Wasserstein, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings (Princeton 1985).

4. R. Fletcher, Moorish Spain (London 1992), p. 99.

5. R. Fletcher, The Quest for El Cid (London 1990).

6. Trans. J. F. O’Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (Philadelphia 2003), pp. 8, 30.

7. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 2002), p. 7; cf. pp. 66–9; O’Callaghan, Reconquest, p. 29.

8. Bishop Pelayo of Orviedo, Chronicon regum Legionensium, trans. S. Barton and R. Fletcher, The World of El Cid (Manchester 2000), pp. 87–8 and n. 95.

9. For example, Historia Compostellana, ed. E. Falque Rey (Turnhoult 1987); Chronica Adefonsi Imperatoris, trans. Barton and Fletcher, World of El Cid, pp. 162–263; cf. S. Barton, ‘Islam and the West: A View from Twelfth-Century León’, Cross, Crescent, and Conversion, ed. S. Barton and P. Linehan (Leiden 2008), pp. 153–74, esp. p. 162. Pope Paschal II also called the Almoravids ‘Moabites’, trans. O’Callaghan, Reconquest, p. 34.

10. Trans. O’Callaghan, Reconquest, pp. 31–2.

11. A. Ubieto Arteta, Colección diplomática de Pedro I de Aragón y Navarra (Zaragoza 1951), p. 113 and n. 6 and p. 115 n. 9.

12. Historia Silense, trans. Barton and Fletcher, World of El Cid, pp. 50–2.

13. Historia Roderici, trans. Barton and Fletcher, World of El Cid, pp. 90–147; The Poem of the Cid, ed. and trans. R. Hamilton et al. (London 1984).

14. R. Bartlett, The Making of Europe (London 1994), pp. 240–2; N. Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002), pp. 75–82, 201–4.

15. Historia Compostellana, ed. Falque Rey, pp. 25–6, 77–8.

16. J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova amplissima, vol. XXI (Venice 1776), col. 284; trans. O’Callaghan, Reconquest, p. 38; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 74.

17. R. Fletcher, St James’s Catapult (Oxford 1984), pp. 298–9.

18. E. Lourie, ‘The Will of Alfonso I’, Speculum, 50 (1975), 635–51; A. Forey, ‘The Will of Alfonso I’, Durham University Journal, 73 (1980), 59–65.

19. C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), p. 665 and nn. 31 and 32, p. 967; trans. O’Callaghan, Reconquest, pp. 44–6.

20. Poem of Almeria, trans. Barton and Fletcher, World of El Cid, pp. 250–63.

21. A distinction usefully advanced by R. Rist, The Papacy and Crusading in Europe 1198–1245 (Bloomsbury 2009), p. 225.

22. J. Bird et al., Crusade and Christendom (Philadelphia 2013), p. 110; for the 1188 bull, trans. O’Callaghan, Reconquest, pp. 57–8.

23. N. Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002), pp. 75–82, 201–4.

24. Documents on the Later Crusades 1274–1588, trans. N. Housley (Basingstoke 1996), pp. 156–62, at p. 158.

25. J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels (Liverpool 1979).

26. A. Hamdani, ‘Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 99 (1979), 39–48.

8 BALTIC CRUSADES

1. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters, trans B. S. James (London 1953, 1998), no. 394, p. 467; Innocent III to Valdemar II, trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 77.

2. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 40.

3. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 75–7.

4. H. Richter, ‘Militia Christi’, Journeys Towards God, ed. B. N. Sargent-Baur (Michigan 1992).

5. Helmold of Bosau, Chronicle of the Slavs, trans. F. Tschan (New York 1966), pp. 169, 176–7.

6. Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa, trans. C. C. Mierow (New York 1966), p. 76.

7. Helmold of Bosau, Chronicle, p. 180.

8. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), 200, cols 860–1.

9. Helmold of Bosau, Chronicle, p. 188.

10. Helmold of Bosau, Chronicle, p. 221.

11. E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades (2nd edn London 1997), pp. 61–2, 69–70, 72; R. Bartlett, The Making of Europe (London 1993), pp. 268, 274–8.

12. In general, I. Fonnesberg-Schmidt, The Popes and the Baltic Crusades 1147–1254 (Leiden 2007).

13. Arnold of Lübeck, Chronica Slavorum, ed. J. M. Lappenberg (Hanover 1868), p. 215.

14. A. Pluskowski, The Ecology of Crusading, Colonisation and Religious Conversion in the Medieval Eastern Baltic (Turnholt 2017).

15. Henry of Livonia, Chronicle, trans J. Brundage (Madison 1961), passim; C. Tyerman, ‘Henry of Livonia and the Ideology of Crusading’, in idem, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), no. VII; Innocent III to Valdemar II of Denmark, in J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, p. 78.

16. Henry of Livonia, Chronicle, p. 152.

17. Christiansen, Northern Crusades, p. 128.

18. Tyerman, ‘Henry of Livonia’, p. 30; Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Popes and the Baltic Crusades, pp. 99–104, 111.

19. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, trans. J. Brundage (New York 2003); Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier, ed. L. Kaljundi et al. (Farnham 2011).

20. Arnold of Lübeck, ‘De conversione Livonie’, Chronica Slavorum, pp. 212–31; Henry of Livonia, Chronicle, pp. 6–12.

21. For Livonia after 1300, W. Urban, The Livonian Crusade (Washington DC 1981).

22. Saxo Grammaticus, Danorum Regum Historia, Books X–XVI, trans. E. Christiansen (Oxford 1980–1), vol. II, p. 611; R. Rist, The Papacy and Crusading in Europe 1198–1245 (London 2009), p. 25 and n. 112.

23. T. Lindkvist, ‘Crusades and Crusading Ideology in the Political History of Sweden’, Crusade and Conversion on the Baltic Frontier 1150–1500, ed. A. Murray (Aldershot 2001), pp. 119–30; K. Villads Jensen, ‘Denmark and the Second Crusade: The Formation of a Crusading State?’, The Second Crusade, ed. J. Phillips and M. Hoch (Manchester 2001), pp. 164–79.

24. Migne, Patrologia Latina, 200, cols 860–1.

25. Henry of Livonia, Chronicle, p. 64.

26. Christiansen, Northern Crusades, pp. 190–2, 276 n. 135.

27. D. von Güttner-Sporzynski, ‘Constructing Memory: Holy War in the Chronicle of the Poles by Bishop Vincentius of Cracow’, Journal of Medieval History, 40 (2014), 289 and n. 63.

28. Codex Diplomaticus Prussicus, ed. J. Voigt (Königsberg 1836–61), vol. I, pp. 59–60.

29. N. Morton, ‘In subsidium: The Declining Contribution of Germany and Eastern Europe to the Crusades to the Holy Land 1187–1291’, German Historical Institute Bulletin, 33 (2011), 38–66.

30. Epistolae saeculi XIII e regestis pontificorum romanorum, ed. G. Pertz and C. Rodenberg, vol. II (Berlin 1887), no. 5.

31. Alexander IV, Registres, ed. C. Bourel de la Roncière et al. (Paris 1895–1953), no. 3068.

32. Geoffrey Chaucer, General Prologue, Canterbury Tales, ll. 52–4.

33. T. Guard, Chivalry, Kingship and Crusade: The English Experience in the Fourteenth Century (Woodbridge 2013).

34. Calendar of Papal Registers, ed. W. T. Bliss et al. (London 1893–1960), vol. IV, p. 19.

35. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 272–4.

36. A. Brown and A. Pluskowski, ‘Detecting the Environmental Impact of the Baltic Crusades’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 38 (2011), 1,957–66; Science, 338 (2012), 1,144–5.

9 CRUSADES AGAINST CHRISTIANS

1. C. Erdmann, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. M. Baldwin and W. Goffart (Princeton 1977).

2. Gregory VII, Epistolae Vagantes, ed. and trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 1972), p. 135. In general, idem, ‘Pope Gregory VII and the Bearing of Arms’, Montjoie, ed. B. Z. Kedar et al. (Aldershot 1997), pp. 21–35, and esp. Erdmann, The Origins of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Baldwin and Goffart; and above, Introduction, pp. 19.

3. Guibert of Nogent, Autobiographie, ed. E.-R. Labande (Paris 1971), pp. 410, 412–14; Orderic Vitalis, Historia Ecclesiatica, ed. and trans. M. Chibnall (Oxford 1969–80), vol. VI, pp. 156–7; Suger, The Deeds of Louis the Fat, trans. R. Cusimo and J. Moorhead (Washington DC 1992), pp. 80, 84–9, 106–9.

4. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), 214, cols. 780–2.

5. Migne, Patrologia Latina, 215, cols 1,469–71; J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), pp. 79–85.

6. For a summary, C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), pp. 56–7.

7. Geoffrey of Villehardouin, The Conquest of Constantinople, in Chronicles of the Crusade, trans. C. Smith (London 2008), p. 60, cc. 224–5.

8. See discussion in F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1975), esp. p. 205 and refs.

9. On Cathars, M. Barber, The Cathars (London 2000; 2nd edn 2013); on recent debates, Cathars in Question, ed. A. Sennis (Woodbridge 2016). On reconstructing Cathar texts, J. Arnold and P. Biller, Heresy and Inquisition (Manchester 2016); on circulation, B. Hamilton, ‘Wisdom from the East’, Heresy and Literacy, ed. P. Biller and A. Hudson (Cambridge 1994), pp. 38–61.

10. William of Puylaurens, Chronicle, trans. W. A. and M. D. Sibley (Woodbridge 2003), p. 25.

11. N. Tanner, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils (London and Washington DC 1990), vol. I, p. 224.

12. Migne, Patrologia Latina, 215, cols 360, 361–2.

13. J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 79, 80–5.

14. D. Power, ‘Who Went on the Albigensian Crusade?’, English Historical Review, cxxviii (2013), 1,047–85.

15. Peter of les Vaux-de-Cernay, The History of the Albigensian Crusade, trans. W. A. and M. D. Sibley (Woodbridge 1998), p. 56.

16. William of Puylaurens, Chronicle, p. 128.

17. Caesarius of Heisterbach, Dialogus Miraculorum, ed. J. Strange (Cologne 1851), vol. I, p. 302.

18. See now G. Lippiatt, Simon V of Montfort and Baronial Government 1195–1218 (Oxford 2017).

19. Peter of Les Vaux-de-Cernay, History of the Albigensian Crusade, p. 58, perhaps a post hoc gilding of Simon’s pious credentials.

20. Peter of Les Vaux-de-Cernay, History of the Albigensian Crusade, pp. 320–9.

21. C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades (Chicago 1988), pp. 133–51; Albert von Behan und Regesten Pabst Innocenz IV, ed. C. Höfler (Stuttgart 1847), pp. 16–17.

22. Or possibly 1259, N. Housley, The Italian Crusades (Oxford 1982), p. 167, n. 101.

23. For a translation of Salimbene’s account, see J. Bird et al., Crusade and Christendom (Philadelphia 2013), pp. 414–17.

24. T. Guard, ‘Pulpit and Cross: Preaching the Crusade in Fourteenth-Century England’, English Historical Review, cxxix (2014), 1,319.

25. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 343–70; N. Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002), pp. 195–7 and below esp. pp. 433–6.

26. See now, L. Patterson, Singing the Crusades (Woodbridge 2018), esp. chaps 6 and 8.

27. Epistolae selectae saeculi XIII, ed. C. Rodenberg (Berlin 1883–94), no. 214, pp. 161–2.

10 THE END OF THE JERUSALEM WARS, 1250–1370

1. For the decline in noble German involvement in Holy Land crusading, N. Morton, ‘In subsidium: The Declining Contribution of Germany and Eastern Europe to the Crusade to the Holy Land 1221–91’, German Historical Institute Bulletin, 33 (2011), 38–66. For critical German attitudes, M. Fischer, ‘Criticism of Church and Crusade in Ottokar’s Österreichische Reimchronik’, Forum for Modern Language Studies, 22 (1986), 157–70; generally, for criticism, see Throop and Aurell in the bibliography for Chapter 9.

2. John of Joinville, Life of St Louis, in Chronicles of the Crusades, trans. C. Smith (London 2008), p. 329.

3. C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), p. 803 and nn. 92–3, p. 977.

4. Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, ed. H. R. Luard (London 1872–84), vol. V, p. 253.

5. W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade (Princeton 1979); J. Le Goff, St Louis (Paris 1996); M. C. Gaposchkin, The Making of St Louis (Ithaca, NY 2008).

6. In general, P. Jackson, The Mongols and the Islamic World (London 2017).

7. J. Richard, St Louis: Crusader King of France, trans. J. Birrell (Cambridge 1992), pp. 293–332.

8. For the English preparations, S. Lloyd, English Society and the Crusade 1216–1307 (Oxford 1988), esp. pp. 113–53; J. R. Maddicott, The Origins of the English Parliament 924–1327 (Oxford 2010), pp. 266–72.

9. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), p. 281 and n. 23.

10. P. B. Baldwin, Gregory X and the Crusades (Woodbridge 2014).

11. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 194–5.

12. P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusade (Amsterdam 1940), pp. 229–30, for James I’s account.

13. Salimbene of Adam, Chronicle, ed. and trans. J. L. Baird (Binghampton 1986), pp. 504, 505.

14. C. Marshall, Warfare in the Latin East 1192–1291 (Cambridge 1992), p. 223, and generally pp. 210–56; cf. R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare 1097–1193 (Cambridge 1956); R. Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century (Oxford 1992).

15. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 272–3 and refs.

16. For a detailed study of an exceptional siege, J. Hosler, The Siege of Acre 1189–91 (London 2018).

17. Quoted P. Holt, The Age of the Crusades (London 1986), p. 104.

18. See below, n. 21.

19. S. Schein, ‘Gesta Dei Per Mongolos: The Genesis of a Non-Event’, English Historical Review, xciv (1979), 805–19.

20. C. Tyerman, ‘New Wine in Old Skins? Crusade Literature and Crusading in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Later Middle Ages’, Byzantines, Latins and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World after 1150, ed. J. Harris et al. (Oxford 2012), pp. 265–89.

21. W. C. Jordan, The Great Famine (Princeton 1996); C. Tyerman, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), articles II, III, IV.

22. A. Leopold, How to Recover the Holy Land (Aldershot 2000).

23. Leopold, How to Recover the Holy Land, for a summary.

24. M. Barber, The Trial of the Templars (Cambridge 1978); idem, The New Knighthood (Cambridge 1994), esp. pp. 1 and 280–313; for another dimension, The Proceedings against the Templars in the British Isles, ed. and trans. H. Nicholson (Farnham 2011).

25. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, esp. pp. 274–92. For Sanudo’s book, see the translation by P. Lock, The Book of the Secrets of the Faithful of the Cross (Farnham 2011).

26. S. Throop, ‘Mirrored Images: The Passion and the First Crusade in a Fourteenth-Century Parisian Illuminated Manuscript’, Journal of Medieval History, 41 (2015), 184–207.

27. P. D. A. Harvey, Medieval Maps of the Holy Land (London 2012), esp. chaps 9–12.

28. Guillaume de Nangis, Gesta Sancti Ludovici, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, ed. M. Bouquet et al. (Paris 1738–1876), vol. XX, pp. 444–5.

29. Marino Sanudo Torsello, The Book of the Secrets of the Faithful of the Cross, trans. Lock, esp. pp. 20, 25, 392–8 for the use of the map grid in the text; Harvey, Medieval Maps of the Holy Land, p. 107 n. 1 and pp. 107–27.

30. In general, Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 91, 276–82 and plates 1, 2, 23–7, 29.

31. C. Tyerman, ‘Philip VI and the Recovery of the Holy Land’, English Historical Review (1985), 25–52.

32. Thomas Walsingham, Historia Anglicana, ed. H. T. Riley (London 1863–4), vol. I, pp. 301–2.

33. P. W. Edbury, ‘The Crusading Policy of King Peter I of Cyprus 1359–69’, The Eastern Mediterranean Lands in the Period of the Crusades, ed. P. M. Holt (Warminster 1977), pp. 90–105; idem, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191–1374 (Cambridge 1991), pp. 141–79.

34. C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), esp. chap. 2.

35. Tyerman, ‘New Wine in Old Skins?’, pp. 274–80.

36. L. H. Loomis, ‘Secular Dramatics in the Royal Palace, Paris, 1378, 1389, and Chaucer’s “Tregetours”’, Speculum, 33 (1958), 242–55; cf. D. A. Bullough, ‘Games People Played: Drama and Ritual as Propaganda in Medieval Europe’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., xxiv (1974), 97–122.

37. Le Songe du Vieil Pèlerin, ed. G. W. Coopland (Cambridge 1969), vol. II, p. 318.

11 THE OTTOMANS

1. Quoted in C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), p. 837 and n. 24 for refs.

2. K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (Philadelphia 1976), vol. I, p. 245.

3. Tyerman, God’s War, p. 846.

4. N. Oikonomides, ‘Byzantium between East and West’, Byzantium and the West, ed. J. Howard-Johnstone (Amsterdam 1988), pp. 326–7 and n. 17.

5. Setton, Papacy and the Levant, vol. I, pp. 329–41 and refs.

6. J. J. N. Palmer, England, France and Christendom (London 1972), esp. pp. 180–210.

7. Setton, Papacy and the Levant, vol. I, pp. 341–69; A. S. Atiya,. The Crusade of Nicopolis (London 1934); N. Housley, The Later Crusades (Oxford 1992), pp. 76–81.

8. Quoted in N. Bishaha, ‘Pope Pius II and the Crusade’, Crusading in the Fifteenth Century, ed. N. Housley (Basingstoke 2004), p. 40.

9. J. Paviot, Les Ducs de Bourgogne, la croisade et l’Orient (Paris 2003); B. Weber, Lutter contre les Turcs: Les formes nouvelles de la croisade pontificale au xve siècle (Rome 2013).

10. Setton, Papacy and the Levant, vol. II, p. 235.

11. N. Housley, ‘Giovanni da Capistrano and the Crusade of 1456’, and J. M. Bak, ‘Hungary and Crusading in the Fifteenth Century’, Crusading in the Fifteenth Century, ed. Housley, pp. 94–127.

12. Cardinal Bessarion’s instructions to preachers in Venice in August 1463, Documents of the Later Crusades 1274–1580 (Basingstoke 1996), pp. 147–54.

13. M. Mallet, The Borgias (London 1969), p. 92.

14. S. K. Stantchev, Spiritual Rationality: Papal Embargo as Cultural Practice (Oxford 2014), p. 171 and n. 40.

15. N. Nowakowska, ‘Poland and the Crusade’, Crusading in the Fifteeenth Century, ed. Housley, p. 139.

16. Setton, Papacy and the Levant, vol. III, p. 486.

17. P. McCluskey, ‘“Les ennemis du nom Chrestien”: Echoes of the Crusade in Louis XIV’s France’, French History, 29 (2015), 46–61; G. Poumarède, Pouir finir avec la croisade (Paris 2004).

12 NEW CHALLENGES AND THE END OF CRUSADING

1. C.-M. de Witte, ‘Les bulles pontificales et l’expansion Portugaise’, Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique, xlviii (1953), 699–718; xlix (1954), 438–61.

2. J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels (Liverpool 1979), esp. pp. 119–31; in general, C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825 (London 1969). F. Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonisation from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic 1229–1492 (London 1987); P. E. Russell, Henry the Navigator (Oxford 1984).

3. B. Weber, ‘Nouveau mot ou nouvelle réalité? Le terme cruciata et son utilisation dans les textes pontificaux’, La papauté et les croisades, Crusades: Subsidia, vol. 3, ed. M. Balard (Farnham 2011), pp. 11–25. On indulgences, N. Housley, ‘Indulgences for Crusading 1417–1517’, Promissory Notes on the Treasury of Merits: Indulgences in Later Medieval Europe, ed. R. Swanson (Leiden 2006), pp. 277–307.

4. J. Paviot, Les ducs de Bourgogne, la croisade et l’Orient (Paris 2003); idem, ‘Burgundy and the Crusade’, Crusading in the Fifteenth Century, ed. N. Housley (Basingstoke 2004), pp. 70–80; R. J. Walsh, ‘Charles the Bold and the Crusade’, Journal of Medieval History, iii (1977), 53–87.

5. Voyage d’outremer de Bertrandon de la Broquière, ed. C. Schefer (Paris 1892), pp. 1–262.

6. Paviot, ‘Burgundy and the Crusade’, p. 79.

7. Paviot, Ducs de Bourgogne, p. 238.

8. N. Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat: 1453–1505 (Oxford 2012), pp. 174–210; C. J. Tyerman, England and the Crusades (Chicago 1988), pp. 315–17.

9. J. Ing, ‘The Mainz Indulgences of 1454/5’, British Library Journal (1983), 14–31; F. Heal, ‘The Bishops and the Printers’, The Prelate in England and Europe 1300–1560, ed. M. Heale (Woodbridge 2014), p. 142; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 304–7; J. Hankins, ‘Renaissance Crusaders’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 49 (1995), pp. 117–18.

10. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 305; Capystranus, ed. S. H. A. Shepherd, Middle English Romances(New York and London 1985), pp. 391–408.

11. J. W. Bohnstedt, Infidel Scourge of God (Philadelphia 1968), passim.

12. M. Andrieu, Le pontificale romain au môyen âge (Vatican 1940), vol. III, 30, 228, 243, 330.

13. Trans. Documents on the Later Crusades: 1274–1588, ed. N. Housley (Basingstoke 1996), pp. 147–54; idem, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat, p. 84, for Carvajal’s crosses; Paviot, ‘Burgundy and the Crusade’, p. 79, for Ghent crucesignati.

14. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 308; for Axel, Paviot, ‘Burgundy and the Crusade’, p. 79.

15. A. Linder, Raising Arms: Liturgy in the Struggle to Liberate Jerusalem in the Late Middle Ages (Turnhout 2003).

16. N. Housley, ‘Crusading as Social Revolt: The Hungarian Peasant Uprising of 1514’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 49 (1998), 1–28.

17. See the commentary on Perault’s work throughout Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat.

18. P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusade (Amsterdam 1940), pp. 82–95.

19. Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope: The Commentaries of Pius II, trans. F. A. Gragg, ed. L. C. Gabel (London 1960), p. 237; for Gilbert of Tournai’s comments, Crusade and Christendom, trans. J. Bird et al. (Philadelphia 2013), p. 455.

20. E. Charrière, ed., Négotiations de la France dans le Levant, vol. I (Paris 1848), p. 47.

21. For a descriptive summary, N. Housley, The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: from Lyons to Alcazar (Oxford 1992), pp. 291–321; for Portuguese bulls, C.-M. de Witte, ‘Les bulles pontificales et l’expansion portugaise au XVe siècle’, Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique, xlviii (1953), 683–718; xlix (1954), 438–61; li (1956), 413–53, 809–36; liii (1958), 1–46, 443–71; idem, Les lettres papales concernant l’expansion portugaise au XVIe siècle (Uznach 1986); J. Goñi Gaztambide, Historia de la bula de la cruzada en España (Vitoria 1958); and above, pp. 300–5.

22. Trans. Documents on the Later Middle Ages, ed. Housley, pp. 156–62 at p. 158.

23. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels, pp. 119–52.

24. Hankins, ‘Renaissance Crusaders’, pp. 121–2.

25. A. Milhou, Colón y su mentalidad mesiánica en el ambiente franciscanista español (Valladolid 1983); A. Hamdani, ‘Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 99 (1979), 39–48.

26. J. Muldoon, ‘Papal Responsibility for the Infidel: Another Look at Alexander VI’s Inter Cetera’, Catholic Historical Review, 64 (1978), 168–84; trans. of Inter Cetera and the Tordesillas treaty, F. G. Davenport, ed., European Treaties bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 (Washington, DC 1917), pp. 61–3, 86–100.

27. Housley, Later Crusades, pp. 311–12. For a wider view, J. J. Lopez-Portillo, ‘Another Jerusalem’ (Leiden 2018).

28. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels, pp. 139–52; A. Grafton, New Worlds: Ancient Texts (Cambridge, MA 1992), pp. 136–7; A. Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge 1982), esp. pp. 15–16, 29, 30–8, 50–3, 65–118.

29. Housley, Later Crusades, p. 249; for a general survey, pp. 234–66.

30. C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (London 1998), p. 103; idem, England and the Crusades, p. 359 and n. 74.

31. S. Morland, The History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piedmont (London 1658), pp. 196–214, for the papal bull; E. Cameron, The Reformation of the Heretics (Oxford 1984), pp. 38, 46.

32. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 343–5, 351–4, 360–7.

33. N. Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002), pp. 194–8; B. B. Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (Oxford 1991).

34. Housley, Religious Warfare, pp. 190–3, 199–204; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 324–42, quotation at p. 326; idem, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 906–12.

35. Trans. Documents on the Later Crusades, ed. Housley, pp. 132–3 and note 2.

36. Gesta Henrici Quinti, ed. F. Taylor and J. S. Roskell (Oxford 1975), pp. 78–9, 88–9, 146–7, 150–1.

37. Housley, Religious Warfare, pp. 120–3; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 149, 360, 363; idem, God’s War, p. 908 and refs.

38. C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), pp. 41–50.

39. E.g. Pius II, Commentaria, vol. I, ed. M. Meserve and M. Simonetta (Cambridge, MA 2003), pp. 134, 136, 160, 209, 264.

40. Philippe de Mézières, Epistre lamentable et consolatoire, ed. K. de Lettenhove, Oeuvres de Froissart, vol. xvi (Brussels 1872), pp. 444–523; C. J. Tyerman, ‘New Wine in Old Skins? Crusade Literature and Crusading in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Later Middle Ages’, Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World after 1150, ed. J. Harris, C. Holmes and E. Russell (Oxford 2012), pp. 265–89.

41. On this see Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat, p. 126.

42. R. Black, Benedetto Accolti and the Florentine Renaissance (Cambridge 1985), pp. 299–315.

43. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 39–40, 59–60; J. Herold, De bello sacro (Basel 1560); R. Knolles, The Generall Historie of the Turks (London 1603).

44. Quoted Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 349 and 350, and generally, pp. 346–54.

45. Foxe, ‘The History of the Turks’, Acts and Monuments, vol. IV, 62; generally, pp. 18–122, esp. p. 41 (Belgrade 1456), 55–62 (Vienna 1529), and prayer, pp. 121–2. See now L. Mannion, Narrating the Crusades (Cambridge 2014), esp. pp. 151, 203–11; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 348.

46. F. Bacon, Advertisement Touching an Holy Warre, Works, ed. J. Spedding et al. (London 1859), vol. VII, p. 18 and generally, pp. 17–36.

47. Bacon, Advertisement, p. 24.

13 CRUSADING: OUR CONTEMPORARY?

1. D. Hume, History of Great Britain (London 1761), vol. I, 209.

2. C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), p. 222 and n. 12, p. 242, and for what follows, chaps 2–4.

3. See Seven Myths of the Crusades, ed. A. J. Andrea and A. Holt (Indianapolis 2015), although this inadvertently demonstrates the de haut en bas solipsism of professional academics as much as the ignorance of popular opinion.

4. T. Fuller, The Historie of the Holy Warre (Cambridge 1639), commendatory verse in Preface.

5. C. Fleury, Discours au l’histoire ecclésiastique (Paris 1691, 1763 edn), p. 267.

6. Quoted, with refs, Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, p. 84 and generally, pp. 77–91.

7. Quoted, with refs, Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, p. 90.

8. Heinrich von Sybel, The History and Literature of the Crusades, trans. Lady Duff Gordon (London 1861), p. 1.

9. Trans. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, p. 142 and generally, pp. 141–50.

10. History and Literature of the Crusades, trans. Lady Duff Gordon, p. 312.

11. E. Siberry, ‘Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, Oxford History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1999), pp. 366–7.

12. Eg N. L. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca, NY 2012), pp. 6–8.

13. J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, Christianity and Islam (New York 2008).

14. B. Z. Kedar, ‘Joshua Prawer (1917–90)’, Mediterranean Historical Review, 5 (1990), pp. 107–16; Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 170–6, 180, n. 30.

15. J. L. La Monte review of P. Rousset, Les origines et les caractères de la première croisade, Speculum, 23 (1948), 329–30.

16. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 182–92.

17. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 192–9; cf. M. Dinshaw, Outlandish Knight: The Byzantine Life of Steven Runciman (London 2016).

18. C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades:Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), pp. 589–616; E. Sivan, ‘Modern Arabic Historiography of the Crusades’, Asian and African Studies, 8 (1972), 109–49; A. Mallett, ‘Muslim Memories of the Crusades’, Remembering the Crusades and Crusading, ed. M. Cassidy-Welch (London 2017), p. 230; M. Determann, ‘The Crusades in Arab School Textbooks’, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 19 (2008), pp. 199–214; Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 235–42; P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise (Oxford 2014); The Crusades: An Arab perspective, TV documentary, Al-Jazeera English, December 2016 (available on YouTube). On Israelis and the crusade, R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge 2007), pp. 57–61; M. Benvenisti, Scared Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948 (London 2000), esp. pp. 192–3, 299–303, 309–10; Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 170–6 and refs nn. 26, 30, 36, 37, pp. 180–1.

19. C. S. Jensen, ‘Appropriating History: Remembering the Crusades in Latvia and Estonia’, Remembering the Crusades and Crusading, ed. M. Cassidy-Welch (London 2017), pp. 231–46.

POSTSCRIPT

1. F. M. Powicke, The Thirteenth Century (Oxford 1962), p. 80.

2. D. Hume, History of Great Britain (London 1761), vol. I, p. 209.