NOTES

A Note about the Notes

This book draws on innumerable primary sources and a sprawling scholarly literature. I have tried both to identify my chief sources and to keep citations brief. I have favored citing primary sources over secondary literature. Full titles appear only at the initial citation. For well-known speeches and public documents that are easily available online—for example, inaugural addresses, nomination acceptance speeches, party platforms, and online editions of manuscript collections—I have generally provided a citation but not a URL. In instances where I have drawn on research I conducted for essays written for The New Yorker, I have provided citations to my original sources rather than to the essays.

Introduction: THE QUESTION STATED

     1.    New-York Packet, October 30, 1787.

     2.    September 12, 1787, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, ed. Max Farrand, 3 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1911), 2:588.

     3.    “An Old Whig IV,” [Philadelphia] Independent Gazetteer, October 27, 1787.

     4.    James Madison to William Eustis, July 6, 1819, in The Papers of James Madison, Retirement Series, ed. David B. Mattern, J. C. A. Stagg, Mary Parke Johnson, and Anne Mandeville Colony, 12 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 1:478–80.

     5.    New-York Packet, October 30, 1787.

     6.    Ibid.

     7.    Michael Holler, The Constitution Made Easy (n.p.: The Friends of Freedom, 2008).

     8.    Benjamin Franklin, “Observations on Reading History,” May 9, 1731, in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (hereafter PBF), online edition at Franklinpapers.org.

     9.    David Hume, “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding [1748],” Essays and Treatises on Various Subjects (Boston: J. P. Mendum, 1868), 54.

   10.    For example, Ross Douthat, “Who Are We?,” New York Times [hereafter NYT], February 4, 2017.

   11.    Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, Book I, ch. 1; Herodotus, The Essential Herodotus, translation, introduction, and annotations by William A. Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 2; Ibn Khaldûn, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal (1967; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 5.

   12.    Sir Walter Ralegh, The Historie of the World (London: Walter Burre, 1614), 4.

   13.    Thomas Paine, Common Sense (Philadelphia: R. Bell, 1776), 17, 12. James Madison, Federalist No. 14 (1787).

   14.    Paine, Common Sense, 18.

   15.    Carl Degler, Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), xi.

   16.    The letter was originally published as James Baldwin, “A Letter to My Nephew,” The Progressive, January 1, 1962; a revision appears in James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (1963; New York: Vintage International, 1993), 3–5.

   17.    Ibid.

One: THE NATURE OF THE PAST

     1.    Christopher Columbus, The Diario of Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage to America, 1492–1493, Abstracted by Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, transcribed and translated by Oliver Dunn and James E. Kelly Jr. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989); Las Casas, summarizing a passage by Columbus, wrote “vireon gente desnuda” (“they saw naked people”); I have changed this to “we saw naked people,” which, as is supposed, is what Columbus wrote. On the history of the diary, see Samuel E. Morison, “Texts and Translations of Columbus’s of the Journal of Columbus’s First Voyage,” Hispanic American Historical Review 19 (1939): 235–61.

     2.    Columbus, Diario, 63–69.

     3.    Columbus, “The Admiral’s Words [c. 1496],” in Ramón Pané, An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians [1498], ed. José Juan Arrom, trans. Susan C. Griswold (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), appendix.

     4.    Pané, Antiquities of the Indians, 3.

     5.    Ibid., introduction.

     6.    Ibid., 3, 11–12, 17.

     7.    Ibid., 20.

     8.    Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, Historia General y Natural de las Indias, as excerpted in 1492: Discovery, Invasion, Encounter: Sources and Interpretations, ed. Marvin Lunefeld (1529; Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company, 1991), 152–53.

     9.    Pané, Antiquities of the Indians, 31.

   10.    David A. Zinniker, Mark Pagani, and Camille Holmgren, “The Stable Isotopic Composition of Taxon-Specific Higher Plant Biomarkers in Ancient Packrat Middens: Novel Proxies for Seasonal Climate in the Southwest US,” Geological Society of America 39 (2007): 271.

   11.    Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 4th ed. (London, 1866), 375.

   12.    On the debate over population figures, see Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Knopf, 2005), 92–96, 132–33.

   13.    Useful sources include Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978, 2008); Alvin M. Josephy Jr., America in 1492: The World of the Indian Peoples before the Arrival of Columbus (New York: Vintage Books, 1991); and Daniel K. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

   14.    Irving Rouse, The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992).

   15.    Broadly, see Charles Maier, Once within Borders: Territories of Power, Wealth, and Belonging since 1550 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

   16.    George Bancroft, The Necessity, the Reality, and the Promise of the Progress of the Human Race (New York: New York Historical Society, 1854), 29.

   17.    On the native peoples of North America, see Daniel K. Richter, Before the Revolution: America’s Ancient Pasts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). On Zheng He, see, for example, Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994). On the Maya, see Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517–1570 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987). On West Africans, see John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

   18.    Samuel Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimage; Or, Relations of Man . . . from the Creation unto This Present (London, 1614).

   19.    Samuel Purchas, “A Discourse of the diversity of Letters used by the divers Nations in the World,” in Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas His Pilgrimes, 20 vols. (Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons, 1905), 1:486.

   20.    Diario, 63–69.

   21.    Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), ch. 3.

   22.    See Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Harper and Row, 1984).

   23.    Quoted in J. H. Elliott, The Old World and the New, 1492–1650 (1970; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 10.

   24.    Amerigo Vespucci, Mundus Novus: Letter to Lorenzo Pietro di Medici, trans. George Tyler Northrup (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1916), 1.

   25.    Sir Thomas More, Utopia, ed. Edward Surtz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964). On the traveler’s voyage with Vespucci, see 12–13.

   26.    Isidore of Seville, The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, translated and introduced by Stephen A. Barney et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), introduction.

   27.    John R. Hébert, “The Map That Named America,” Library of Congress Information Bulletin 62 (September 2003).

   28.    Quoted in Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, [1944] 1994), 4.

   29.    Pané, Antiquities of the Indians, 35.

   30.    All of these numbers are estimates and all are contested. On European migration, a useful introduction is Bernard Bailyn, The Peopling of British America: An Introduction (New York: Knopf, 1986). For African numbers, see David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), a study of the Voyages Database: Estimates, Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org, accessed June 2, 2017. For the continuing controversy over indigenous population, see, for example, Jeffrey Ostler, “Genocide and American Indian History,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

   31.    Quoted in Elliott, The Old World and the New, 76.

   32.    Elliott, The Old World and the New, 59–61; Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 3 vols. (1776; New York: Collier, 1902), 2:394. On the rise of capitalism, see Joyce Appleby, The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism (New York: Norton, 2010). On the long history of slavery, see David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966), and David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

   33.    Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, chs. 3 and 4.

   34.    Columbus, Diario, 75.

   35.    On the environmental consequences of 1492, see Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972), and Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). The quotation is from Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 166.

   36.    Quoted in Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 175.

   37.    Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, ch. 9.

   38.    David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 1–4.

   39.    Quoted in Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, 215, 208.

   40.    Aristotle, Politics, Book One, parts 1, 3–7. And, broadly, see Anthony Pagden, Spanish Imperialism and the Political Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), ch. 1; Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949); James Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers, and Infidels: The Church and the Non-Christian World, 1250–1550 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979); and James Muldoon, The Americas in the Spanish World Order: The Justification for Conquest in the Seventeenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994).

   41.    Antonio de Montesinos, December 21, 1511, Hispaniola, as quoted in Justo L. González and Ondina E. González, Christianity in Latin America: A History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 30. On the relationship between Christianity and human rights, see Samuel Moyn, Christian Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015). Moyn writes: “Without Christianity, our commitment to the moral equality of human beings is unlikely to have come about, but by itself this had no bearing on most forms of political equality—whether between Christians and Jews, whites and blacks, civilized and savage, or men and women” (6).

   42.    The Requerimiento, 1513, in Major Problems in American Indian History: Documents and Essays, ed. Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 58.

   43.    Miguel Léon-Portilla, The Broken Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico (1962; Boston: Beacon Press, 2006), 137.

   44.    Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, 14–17.

   45.    Bartolomé de Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, ed. and trans. Nigel Griffin (1552; New York: Penguin Books, 1992).

   46.    Lewis Hanke reconstructs the debate in All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974). For the arguments made by Las Casas and Sepúlveda, see Bartolomé de Las Casas, In Defense of the Indians, ed. and trans. Stafford Poole (1542; DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974), and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Democrates Alter: Or, On the Just Causes for War Against the Indians (1544).

   47.    Richard Hakluyt (the Younger), “Discourse of Western Planting,” 1584, in Envisioning America: English Plans for the Colonization of North America, 1580–1640, ed. Peter C. Mancall (Boston: Bedford Books, 1995), 45–61.

   48.    Constance Jordan, “Woman’s Rule in Sixteenth-Century British Political Thought,” Renaissance Quarterly 40 (1987): 421–51; Natalie Zemon Davis, “Women on Top,” in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1975), 124–51.

   49.    Ken MacMillan, Sovereignty and Possession in the English New World: The Legal Foundations of Empire, 1576–1640 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 82.

   50.    On this triangulation, see Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 9.

   51.    See Stephen Greenblatt and Peter G. Platt, eds., Shakespeare’s Montaigne: The Florio Translation of the Essays: A Selection (New York: New York Review of Books, 2014); on Ralegh reading Montaigne, see Alfred Horatio Upham, The French Influence on English Literature from the Accession of Elizabeth to the Restoration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1908), 289–93.

   52.    Michel Montaigne, The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. Donald M. Frame (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1965), 80, 152.

   53.    Quoted in Karen Kupperman, Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1984), 17. See also Kathleen Donegan, Seasons of Misery: Catastrophe and Colonial Settlement in Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), ch. 1.

Two: THE RULERS AND THE RULED

     1.    Gregory A. Waselkov, “Indian Maps of the Colonial Southeast,” in Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians of the Colonial Southeast, ed. Waselkov et al. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 453–57.

     2.    James Stuart, The True Law of Free Monarchies in The Political Works of James I, ed. Charles Howard McIlwain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, [1598] 1918), 310. And see Glenn Burgess, “The Divine Right of Kings Reconsidered,” English Historical Review 107 (1992): 837–61.

     3.    “The First Charter of Virginia, April 10, 1606,” in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, ed. Francis Newton Thorpe, 7 vols. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1909), 3:3783. On Jamestown, see James P. Horn, Adapting to a New World: English Society in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), and Karen Kupperman, The Jamestown Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).

     4.    “The First Charter of Virginia, April 10, 1606.”

     5.    Ibid.

     6.    David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1850 (London: Jonathan Cape, 2002); David Armitage and Michael J. Braddick, eds., The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).

     7.    Daniel J. Hulsebosch, “English Liberties Outside England: Floors, Doors, Windows, and Ceilings in the Legal Architecture of Empire,” in The Oxford Handbook of Law and Literature, 1500–1700, ed. Lorna Hutson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), ch. 38.

     8.    John Locke in Second Treatise of Government and a Letter Concerning Toleration, ed. Mark Goldie (1690; New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 4, 63.

     9.    Paine, Common Sense, 12.

   10.    Edward Coke, The First Part of the Institutes (1628; London, 1684), 97b. On the process of preparing charters, see Ken MacMillan, Sovereignty and Possession in the English New World: The Legal Foundations of Empire, 1576–1640 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 79–86. On Coke, see Daniel J. Hulsebosch, “The Ancient Constitution and the Expanding Empire: Sir Edward Coke’s British Jurisprudence,” Law and History Review 21 (2003): 439–82. For a dissenting view on Coke’s contribution to the 1606 charter, see Mary S. Bilder, “Charter Constitutionalism: The Myth of Edward Coke and the Virginia Charter,” North Carolina Law Review 94 (2016): 1545–98, especially 1558–60.

   11.    John Smith, Complete Works of Captain John Smith, ed. Philip L. Barbour, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 1:lviii. I discuss Smith and the Jamestown colony in The Story of America: Essays on Origins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), ch. 1.

   12.    Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 58, 64–68.

   13.    John Smith, Captain John Smith, ed. James Horn (New York: Penguin Group, 2007), 44.

   14.    Ibid., 42; Smith, Complete Works, 1:207.

   15.    Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975), chs. 3 and 4.

   16.    Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 78.

   17.    A True Declaration of the Estate of the Colonie in Virginia (London, 1610), 11.

   18.    Smith, Complete Works, 2:128–29.

   19.    Smith, Captain John Smith, 1100–1101; Smith, Complete Works, 1:xlv.

   20.    Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), 96–97. On Hobbes and the Virginia Company, see Noel Malcolm, “Hobbes, Sandys, and the Virginia Company,” in Aspects of Hobbes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 53–79.

   21.    Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 108–9, 158–59.

   22.    Martha McCartney, “Virginia’s First Africans,” Encyclopedia Virginia, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, July 5, 2017.

   23.    Sowande’ M. Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex and Sickness in the Middle Passage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2016), introduction and ch. 5 (quotation, 117). Also see Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007).

   24.    Samuel Morison, introduction to William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1620–1647 (New York: Knopf, 1952), xxvi–xxvii.

   25.    Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 3, chs. 9 and 10.

   26.    Stephen Church, King John: And the Road to Magna Carta (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 21.

   27.    Quoted in Nicholas Vincent, ed., Magna Carta: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 15–16. And on the general question, see R. C. van Caenegem, The Birth of the English Common Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 2–3.

   28.    Vincent, Magna Carta, 12.

   29.    David Carpenter, Magna Carta (New York: Penguin, 2015), 252.

   30.    Quoted in Carpenter, Magna Carta, ch. 7.

   31.    Church, King John, 148; Carpenter, Magna Carta, 81; Nicholas Vincent, ed., Magna Carta: The Foundation of Freedom, 1215–2015 (London: Third Millennium Publishing, 2015), 61–63.

   32.    Church, King John, 210.

   33.    Magna Carta, 1215, in G. R. C. Davis, Magna Carta (London: British Museum, 1963), 23–33.

   34.    Quoted in The [Cobbett’s] Parliamentary History of England, ed. William Cobbett and J. Wright, 36 vols. (London, 1806–20), 2:357.

   35.    On this transformation, see Leonard W. Levy, The Palladium of Justice: Origins of Trial by Jury (Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1999); John H. Langbein, Torture and the Law of Proof (1977; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006); Paul R. Hyams, “Trial by Ordeal: The Key to Proof in the Early Common Law,” in On the Laws and Customs of England: Essays in Honor of Samuel E. Thorne, ed. Morris S. Arnold et al. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981); Robert Bartlett, Trial by Fire and Water: The Medieval Judicial Ordeal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).

   36.    Barbara J. Shapiro, “The Concept ‘Fact’: Legal Origins and Cultural Diffusion,” Albion 26 (1994): 227–52; Barbara J. Shapiro, A Culture of Fact: England, 1550–1720 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000). See also Lorraine Daston, “Marvelous Facts and Miraculous Evidence in Early Modern Europe” Critical Inquiry 18 (1991): 93–124; Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Lorraine Daston, “Strange Facts, Plain Facts, and the Texture of Scientific Experience in the Enlightenment,” in Proof and Persuasion: Essays on Authority, Objectivity, and Evidence ([Tournai]: Brepols, 1996), 42–59.

   37.    James I, Speech in the Star Chamber, June 20, 1616, in J. R. Tanner, Constitutional Documents of the Reign of James I: 1603–1625 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 19.

   38.    Vincent, Magna Carta, 4, 90. Vincent, Magna Carta: The Foundation of Freedom, 108.

   39.    John Winthrop, A Modell of Christian Charity (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, [1630] 1838), 31–48. See also Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Dilemma: The Story of John Winthrop (Boston: Little, Brown, 1958).

   40.    Quoted in Karen Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630–1641: The Other Puritan Colony (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 18.

   41.    Winthrop, A Modell of Christian Charity; Edward Winslow, Good News from New England, ed. Kelly Wisecup (1624; Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2014), 114; John Winthrop, February 26, 1638, Winthrop’s Journal “History of New England,” 1630–1649, ed. James Kendall Hosmer (New York: Scribner, 1908), 260. On the conversion mission, see Lepore, The Name of War. On New England and slavery, see Wendy Warren, New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America (New York: Liveright, 2016).

   42.    John Harpham, “The Intellectual Origins of American Slavery,” PhD thesis, Harvard University, 2018, ch. 2.

   43.    Quoted in Harpham, “Intellectual Origins of American Slavery,” 28, 32.

   44.    Harpham, “Intellectual Origins of American Slavery,” 34.

   45.    Quoted in Vincent Brown, The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 5. For slavery, broadly, see also Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture; Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968); Peter Kolchin, American Slavery 1619–1877 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).

   46.    Quoted in Stanley Engerman, Seymour Drescher, and Robert Paquette, eds., Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 105–13.

   47.    Quoted in A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., Shades of Freedom: Racial Politics and Presumptions of the American Legal Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 18–27.

   48.    Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: Norton, 2008), 45.

   49.    “Massachusetts Body of Liberties of 1641,” in The Colonial Laws of Massachusetts, ed. W. H. Whitmore (Boston, 1890), clause 91 on 53.

   50.    Edmund S. Morgan, Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America (New York: Norton, 1988), chs. 3 and 4.

   51.    Ibid., 72–87.

   52.    John Milton, Areopagitica: A Speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicens’d Printing, to the Parliament of England (London, 1644), 30.

   53.    Roger Williams to the Town of Providence, January 15, 1655, in The Complete Writings of Roger Williams, 7 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 6:278–79.

   54.    William Penn, The Frame of the Government of the Province of Pennsilvania [sic] in America (London, 1682), 11.

   55.    Although the Second Treatise was not published until 1689–90, Locke wrote parts of it in or around 1682, including the chapter “Of Property,” at a time when he was revising The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina. David Armitage, “John Locke, Carolina, and the ‘Two Treatises of Government,’” Political Theory 32 (2004): 602–27.

   56.    “Charter of Carolina and Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina,” in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 5:2743, 2783–84.

   57.    Armitage, “John Locke, Carolina, and the ‘Two Treatises of Government.’”

   58.    Sir Thomas More, Utopia, ed. Edward Surtz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964), 76.

   59.    Armitage, “John Locke, Carolina, and the ‘Two Treatises of Government.’” And, broadly, see also John Dunn, The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), and Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations of John Locke’s Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

   60.    Great Newes from the Barbadoes, or, A True and Faithful Account of the Grand Conspiracy of the Negroes Against the English (London: Printed for L. Curtis, 1676), 9–10; Nathaniel Saltonstall, A New and Further Narrative of the State of New-England (London, 1676), 71–74; Lepore, The Name of War, 167–68. And see also Stephen Saunders Webb, 1676: The End of American Independence (New York: Knopf, 1984).

   61.    Christine Daniels, “‘Without Any Limitacon of Time’: Debt Servitude in Colonial America,” Labor History 36 (1995): 232–50.

   62.    Quoted in Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 97.

   63.    Mary Beth Norton, In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (New York: Knopf, 1998), quotations on 58–59.

   64.    “A Full and Particular Account of the Negro Plot in Antigua,” New-York Weekly Journal, March 28, April 4, April 11, April 18, April 25, 1737. And see David Barry Gaspar, Bondmen and Rebels: A Study of Master-Slave Relations in Antigua (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 3–62. I discuss some of these episodes and write, broadly, on fears of Indian wars and slave rebellions and their influence on the origins of American politics in Jill Lepore, New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery, and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan (New York: Knopf, 2005).

   65.    New-York Weekly Journal, March 28, 1737; Pennsylvania Gazette, October 19 and 20, 1738.

   66.    Quoted in Alan Taylor, American Colonies (New York: Viking, 2001), 238.

   67.    On Stono, see Peter Wood, Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Norton, 1974); Peter Charles Hoffer, Cry Liberty: The Great Stono River Slave Rebellion of 1739 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Jack Shuler, Calling Out Liberty: The Stono Slave Rebellion and the Universal Struggle for Human Rights (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2009).

   68.    “An Act for the Better Ordering and Governing Negroes,” 1740, in David J. McCord, ed., The Statutes at Large of South Carolina, 22 vols. (Columbia, SC: A. S. Johnston, 1840), 7:397.

   69.    Most usefully, see Charles E. Clark, The Public Prints: The Newspaper in Anglo-American Culture, 1665–1740 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

   70.    On Jane Franklin, and on her relationship with her brother, see Carl Van Doren, Jane Mecom, the Favorite Sister of Benjamin Franklin (New York: Viking, 1950), and Jill Lepore, Book of Ages: The Life and Opinions of Jane Franklin (New York: Knopf, 2013). Much of their correspondence is reproduced in The Letters of Benjamin Franklin and Jane Mecom, ed. Carl Van Doren (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), but here I instead cite the online PBF. Van Doren refers to Jane Franklin throughout, by her married name, Jane Mecom; but for clarity I here refer to her throughout as Jane Franklin.

   71.    Cotton Mather quoted in J. A. Leo Lemay, The Life of Benjamin Franklin, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 1:114. And see Perry Miller, introduction to The New-England Courant: A Selection of Certain Issues (Boston: Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1956), 5–9; and Thomas C. Leonard, The Power of the Press: The Birth of American Political Reporting (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), ch. 1.

   72.    John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, Cato’s Letters: Or, Essays on Liberty, 4 vols. (4th ed.; London: W. Wilkins et al., 1737), Letter No. 15, 1:96.

   73.    Benjamin Franklin, “Apology for Printers,” Pennsylvania Gazette, June 10, 1731.

   74.    Hobbes, Leviathan, 64.

   75.    Lepore, New York Burning, preface. My brief discussion here of Zenger’s trial and the 1741 slave conspiracy follows this earlier, book-length account of these same two signal events.

   76.    Ibid., xii–xvii.

   77.    Ibid., ch. 4.

   78.    Ibid., xii–xvi.

   79.    Ibid., xi–xii, 89–90.

   80.    Benjamin Franklin to Richard Partridge, May 9, 1754, and The Albany Plan of Union, 1754, PBF. See also Taylor, American Colonies, 424–28.

   81.    Benjamin Franklin, “A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge,” May 14, 1743, PBF.

   82.    Alexander Hamilton, Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1948), 199.

   83.    Quoted in Albert David Belden, George Whitefield, the Awakener (New York: Macmillan, 1953), 4–5.

   84.    Gilbert Tennent, A Solemn Warning to the Secure World, from the God of Terrible Majesty (Boston, 1735), 102.

   85.    Benjamin Franklin, “Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, &c.,” 1751, PBF.

   86.    Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, PBF.

Three: OF WARS AND REVOLUTIONS

     1.    Benjamin Lay, All Slave-Keepers (Philadelphia: B. Franklin, 1738), 16, 61, 271.

     2.    “To be SOLD, by Benjamin Lay,” advertisement, American Weekly Mercury, October 19, 1732. And on Lay’s reading practices, see Marcus Rediker, The Fearless Benjamin Lay: The Quaker Dwarf Who Became the First Revolutionary Abolitionist (Boston: Beacon Press, 2017), ch. 5.

     3.    Lay, All Slave-Keepers, 21.

     4.    Roberts Vaux, Memoirs of the Lives of Benjamin Lay and Ralph Sandiford: Two of the Earliest Public Advocates for the Emancipation of the Enslaved Africans (Philadelphia, 1815), 1–55. Rediker, Fearless Benjamin Lay, 2.

     5.    Advertisement for All Slave-Keepers [“Sold by B. Franklin”], American Weekly Mercury, September 7, 1738.

     6.    New York Gazette, January 29, 1750. Boston Gazette, November 13, 1753. Pennsylvania Gazette, July 8, 1754. Maryland Gazette, February 6, 1755. Virginia Gazette, August 27, 1756.

     7.    Franklin, Autobiography.

     8.    Benjamin Franklin, Last Will and Testament, April 28, 1757, PBF. On Franklin and slavery, see David Waldstreicher, Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), and Gary B. Nash, “Franklin and Slavery,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 150 (2006): 618–35. Benjamin Franklin to Deborah Franklin, June 10, 1758, PBF. Rediker, Fearless Benjamin Lay, 121–23.

     9.    [Benjamin Rush], “An Account of Benjamin Lay,” Columbian Magazine, March 1790, reprinted in Pennsylvania Mercury, April 29, 1790, and later published in Dr. Rush’s Literary, Moral, and Philosophical Essays (1798).

   10.    Vaux, Memoirs, 51.

   11.    Anthony Benezet, Observations on the Inslaving, Importing and Purchasing of Negroes (Germantown, PA: Christopher Sower, 1759), 7.

   12.    Quoted in John Mack Faragher et al., Out of Many: A History of the American People, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 1:90.

   13.    Quoted in Jane Kamensky, A Revolution in Color: The World of John Singleton Copley (New York: Norton, 2016), 52.

   14.    Quoted in Kamensky, Revolution in Color, 65; emphasis in original.

   15.    Franklin, Autobiography.

   16.    Ibid.

   17.    Fred Anderson, A People’s Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years’ War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 111–20.

   18.    Quoted in James T. Kloppenberg, Toward Democracy: The Struggle for Self-Rule in European and American Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 295.

   19.    The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, ed. Jonathan Elliot, 5 vols. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1901), 1:443. Pinckney’s human property is listed on an inventory from 1787: https://www.nps.gov/chpi/planyourvisit/upload/African_Americans_at_Snee_Farm.pdf.

   20.    King George quoted in Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 14. See also Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Knopf, 2000). For more on the empire-wide context, see David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, c. 1760–1840 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Eliga H. Gould, Among the Powers of the Earth: The American Revolution and the Making of a New World Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); P. J. Marshall, The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America c. 1750–1783 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

   21.    Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard’s Almanack (Philadelphia: B. Franklin, 1737).

   22.    James Otis to the Boston Town Meeting, 1763, quoted in James Grahame, The History of the Rise and Progress of the United States, 4 vols. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1836), 4:447.

   23.    Delaware prophet Neolin, in James Kenny journal entry, December 12, 1762, in “Journal of James Kenny, 1761–1763,” ed. John W. Jordan, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 37 (1913): 175.

   24.    Broadly, see Carolyn Webber and Aaron Wildavsky, A History of Taxation and Expenditure in the Western World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986).

   25.    Samuel Adams, “Instructions of the Town of Boston to its Representatives in the General Court, May 1764,” in The Writings of Samuel Adams, ed. Harry Alonzo Cushing, 4 vols. (New York: Putnam, 1904), 1:5.

   26.    Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richard’s Almanack for 1757, PBF.

   27.    Richard Ford, “Imprisonment for Debt,” Michigan Law Review 25 (1926): 24–25. Bruce Mann, Republic of Debtors: Bankruptcy in the Age of American Independence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 286n8. See also Margot Finn, The Character of Credit: Personal Debt in English Culture, 1740–1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 110.

   28.    Edwin T. Randall, “Imprisonment for Debt in America: Fact and Fiction,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 39 (June 1952): 89–102; George Philip Bauer, “The Movement Against Imprisonment for Debt in the United States,” PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1935.

   29.    Quoted in Kamensky, Revolution in Color, 99.

   30.    T. H. Breen, Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. chs. 4 and 5.

   31.    Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 3:322–23. See also Trevor Burnard, Planters, Merchants, and Slaves: Plantation Societies in British America, 1650–1820 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).

   32.    Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 3:245.

   33.    Boston Gazette, October 14, 1765.

   34.    Benjamin Franklin to David Hall, February 14, 1765, PBF.

   35.    Journal of the First Congress of the American Colonies, in Opposition to the Tyrannical Acts of the British Parliament. Held at New York, October 7, 1765 (New York, 1845), 28.

   36.    Bauer, “The Movement Against Imprisonment for Debt,” 77.

   37.    The Examination of Doctor Benjamin Franklin, before an August Assembly, relating to the Repeal of the Stamp Act, &c. (Philadelphia, 1766).

   38.    Donna Spindel, “The Stamp Act Crisis in the British West Indies,” Journal of American Studies 11 (1977): 214–15. And, broadly, see Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), and Selwyn H. H. Carrington, The British West Indies during the American Revolution (Providence, RI: Foris, 1988).

   39.    Quoted in O’Shaughnessy, Empire Divided, 153.

   40.    John Adams diary, January 2, 1766, Adams Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (hereafter AFP); O’Shaughnessy, Empire Divided, 99.

   41.    Kender Mason to the Treasury, December 22, 1765, T 1/452/291–294, National Archives (Kew), London, England. With thanks to Peter Pellizzari.

   42.    Quoted in T. R. Clayton, “Sophistry, Security, and Socio-Political Structures in the American Revolution; or Why Jamaica Did Not Rebel,” Historical Journal 29 (1986): 328.

   43.    James Otis, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (Boston: Edes and Gill, 1764), 43–44.

   44.    Benjamin Franklin to John Waring, December 17, 1763, PBF; George Mason to George Washington, December 23, 1765, in The Papers of George Washington, ed. Philander D. Chase, 24 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1987), 7:424–25. And see Philip D. Morgan, “‘To Get Quit of Negroes’: George Washington and Slavery,” Journal of American Studies 39 (2005): 414.

   45.    Lay, All Slave-Keepers, 146. Otis, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, 4.

   46.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, April 2, 1789, PBF.

   47.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, December 1, 1767, PBF.

   48.    John Adams diary, November 11, 1766, AFP.

   49.    Benjamin Franklin to Jane Franklin, March 1, 1766, PBF.

   50.    Journals of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts, 50 vols. (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1974), 43:xii.

   51.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, November 7, 1768, PBF; “Boston Town Meeting Instructions to its Representatives in the General Court,” May 15, 1770, in Record Commissioners of the City of Boston, Boston Town Records, 1770–1777 (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1887), 26; O’Shaughnessy, Empire Divided, 51.

   52.    Samuel Cooke, A Sermon Preached at Cambridge (Boston, 1770), 42; James Warren to John Adams, June 22, 1777, in The Papers of John Adams, ed. Robert J. Taylor, 18 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 5:231.

   53.    “Peter Bestes and Other Slaves Petition for Freedom, April 20, 1773,” in Howard Zinn, Voices of a People’s History of the United States (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2004), 55; Virginia Gazette, September 30, 1773.

   54.    Noah Feldman, The Three Lives of James Madison: Genius, Partisan, President (New York: Random House, 2017), 9–12, 18.

   55.    Morgan, “‘To Get Quit of Negroes,’” 410.

   56.    George Washington to Robert Mackenzie, October 10, 1774, in The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick, 39 vols. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1931–44), 3:246.

   57.    Feldman, Three Lives of James Madison, 19.

   58.    Patrick Henry quoted in John Adams Diary 22A, “Notes of Debates in the Continental Congress,” September 6, 1774, AFP.

   59.    The Petition of Jamaica to the King, London Gazette, December 1775.

   60.    Address to the Assembly of Jamaica, July 25, 1775, Journals of the Continental Congress; Samuel Johnson, Taxation No Tyranny: An Answer to the Resolutions and Address of the American Colonies (London, 1775), 89; Johnson’s toast is quoted in Kamensky, Revolution in Color, 323; Rush is quoted in Peter A. Dorsey, Common Bondage: Slavery as Metaphor in Revolutionary America (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 105.

   61.    Peter Edes, A Diary of Peter Edes (Bangor, ME: Samuel Smith, 1837).

   62.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, May 14, 1775, PBF.

   63.    Benjamin Franklin to Jane Franklin, June 17, 1775, PBF.

   64.    James Madison to William Bradford, June 19, 1775, quoted in Feldman, Three Lives of James Madison, 24.

   65.    Douglas B. Chambers, Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2005), 9–10.

   66.    Morgan, “‘To Get Quit of Negroes,’” 411.

   67.    Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006), 218.

   68.    Lund Washington to George Washington, December 3, 1775, in The Papers of George Washington, 2:477–82; Pybus, Epic Journeys, 11.

   69.    Pybus, Epic Journeys, 212.

   70.    Edward Rutledge to Ralph Izard, December 8, 1775, in Correspondence of Mr. Ralph Izard (New York, 1884), 165.

   71.    Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Knopf, 2011), 8.

   72.    Paine, Common Sense, ii, 17, 12.

   73.    Thomas Paine, “The Forester’s Letters, III: ‘To Cato’” in The Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Moncure Daniel Conway, 4 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894), 1:151; Paine, Common Sense, 31–32.

   74.    Paine, Common Sense, 2–3.

   75.    Feldman, Three Lives of James Madison, 26–7.

   76.    The first draft: The Papers of George Mason, 3 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970), 1:277. The final draft: Papers of George Mason, 1:287; “Have the effect of abolishing”: quoted in Gary B. Nash, The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 11.

   77.    Abigail Adams to John Adams, March 31, 1776, and John Adams to Abigail Adams, April 14, 1776, AFP.

   78.    John Dickinson, Draft of the Articles of Confederation, June 1776, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

   79.    Jeremy Bentham, “Short Review of the Declaration,” in David Armitage, The Declaration of Independence: A Global History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 173. And see David Armitage, Foundations of Modern International Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), ch. 10.

   80.    On the Declaration, see Carl Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (New York, 1922); Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Knopf, 1997); Armitage, The Declaration of Independence.

   81.    Gary B. Nash, The Forgotten Fifth: African Americans in the Age of Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 28.

   82.    Quoted in David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom: A Visual History of America’s Founding Ideas (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 87.

   83.    Pybus, Epic Journeys, 8.

   84.    O’Shaughnessy, Empire Divided, 197–98.

   85.    Holger Hoock, Scars of Independence: America’s Violent Birth (New York: Crown, 2017), 111.

   86.    Quoted in Kamensky, Revolution in Color, 323.

   87.    Christopher Gadsden to Samuel Adams, July 6, 1779, in The Writings of Christopher Gadsden, 1746–1805, ed. Richard Walsh (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1966), 166.

   88.    Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 5–6, 8, 91–93.

   89.    “Inspection Roll of Negroes Book No. 2,” The Miscellaneous Papers of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789, National Archives, Washington, DC.

   90.    Joseph Plumb Martin, A Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier: The Narrative of Joseph Plumb Martin (New York: Dover Publications, [1830] 2006), 136; Comte Jean-François-Louis de Clermont-Crèvecoeur, “Journal of the War in America,” in American Campaigns of Rochambeau’s Army 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783, trans. and ed. Howard C. Rice Jr. and Anne S. K. Brown, 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), 1:64; Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York: Ecco, 2006), 155; Nash, Forgotten Fifth, 39–43.

   91.    Henry Wiencek, An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003), 259; Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 88; Nash, Forgotten Fifth, 45–47.

   92.    Marquis de Lafayette to George Washington, February 5, 1783; and Washington to Lafayette, April 5, 1783, in Writings of George Washington, 26:300.

   93.    Quoted in Shane White, Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 1770–1810 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 56.

   94.    Quoted in Eva Sheppard Wolf, Race and Liberty in the New Nation: Emancipation in Virginia from the Revolution to Nat Turner’s Rebellion (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 54.

   95.    James Madison to James Madison Sr., March 30, 1782, in The Papers of James Madison, 4:127. And see Edwin Wolf, “The Dispersal of the Library of William Byrd of Westover,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 68 (1958): 19–106, and Eric Slauter, The State as a Work of Art: The Cultural Origins of the Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 48, fig. 6.

   96.    Feldman, Three Lives of James Madison, 50–52. On Henrietta Gardener, see James A. Bear and Lucia C. Stanton, eds., Jefferson’s Memorandum Books, Volume 2: Accounts, with Legal Records and Miscellany, 1767–1826 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 808.

   97.    “Memoirs of the Life of Boston King,” Methodist Magazine, May 1798, 209; Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 172–75.

   98.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, April 29, 1783, PBF.

   99.    See Christopher Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).

 100.    Independent New-York Gazette, November 29, 1783.

Four: THE CONSTITUTION OF A NATION

     1.    David O. Stewart, The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), ch. 4.

     2.    James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, May 15, 1787, Republic of Letters: The Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, ed. James Morton Smith, 3 vols. (New York: Norton, 1995), 1:477.

     3.    James Madison, “Origin of the Constitutional Convention,” in The Writings of James Madison, ed Gaillard Hunt, 9 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1900), 2:410–11.

     4.    Jean Jacques Rousseau, A Treatise on the Social Compact; or The Principles of Politic Law (London, 1764), 151.

     5.    The Craftsmen 395 (January 26, 1733): 100.

     6.    “Letter CCXXI,” March 29, 1750, in The Letters of the Earl of Chesterfield to His Son, ed. Charles Strachey (London, 1901), 42.

     7.    Thomas Paine, Rights of Man: Part the First, Being an Answer to Mr. Burke’s Attack on the French Revolution (London, 1791), 27.

     8.    Thomas Paine, Rights of Man: Part the Second, Combining Principle and Practice (London, 1792), 28.

     9.    “Constitution of New Hampshire,” January 5, 1776, in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws of the United States, 4:2452.

   10.    Thomas Jefferson to Thomas Nelson, May 16, 1776, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd et al., 60 vols. projected (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 1:292–93. And see Francis Cogliano, “‘The Whole Object of the Present Controversy’: The Early Constitutionalism of Paine and Jefferson,” in Simon P. Newman and Peter S. Onuf, eds., Paine and Jefferson in the Age of Revolutions (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 26–48.

   11.    John Adams diary entry, June 2, 1775, in The Diary of John Adams, ed. L. H. Butterfield, 4 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), 3:352; John Adams, “Thoughts on Government,” April 1776, in The Papers of John Adams, 4:92. See also Pauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–88 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010); Linda Colley, “Empires of Writing: Britain, America and Constitutions, 1776–1848,” Law and History Review 32 (2014): 237–66.

   12.    The Constitution of Pennsylvania—1776, in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 5:3082; “Constitution or Form of Government for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts—1780,” in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 3:1888–89.

   13.    Fisher Ames quoted in Ralph Waldo Emerson, Essays and Poems (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1921), 254.

   14.    John Adams to James Sullivan, May 26, 1776, in The Papers of John Adams, 4:210.

   15.    “Constitution or Form of Government for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts—1780,” in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 3:1893–1906; The Constitution of Pennsylvania—1776, in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 5:3084–90.

   16.    Emilie Piper and David Levinson, One Minute a Free Woman: Elizabeth Freeman and the Struggle for Freedom (Salisbury, CT: Upper Housatonic Valley National Heritage Area, 2010).

   17.    Nash, The Unknown American Revolution, 282.

   18.    Samuel Chase in “Notes of Proceedings in the Continental Congress,” July 12, 1776, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 1:320–21; Thomas Lynch in “Notes of Debates on the Articles of Confederation, Continued,” July 30, 1776, in The Diary of John Adams, 2:246; Benjamin Franklin in The Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, ed. Worthington Chauncey Ford et al., 34 vols. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1906), July 30, 1776, 6:1080.

   19.    Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1:86; The Journals of the Continental Congress, June 28, 1787, 25:948–49; The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:444.

   20.    For the prehistory of the convention and origins of the Constitution, see Sean Condon, Shays’s Rebellion: Authority and Distress in Post-Revolutionary America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015).

   21.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, October 12, 1786, PBF.

   22.    Quoted in Feldman, Three Lives of James Madison, 82–83, 94.

   23.    James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 18, 1786, in Republic of Letters, 1:413. Madison, “Ancient & Modern Confederacies [April–May 1786],” in The Writings of James Madison, 2:369–90.

   24.    James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, August 12, 1786, in Republic of Letters, 1:432.

   25.    “Proceedings of Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government,” September 11, 1786, in Documents Illustrative of the Formation of the Union of the American States, ed. Charles C. Tansill (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1927), 43.

   26.    See Jack Rakove, The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress (New York: Knopf, 1979).

   27.    James Madison, “Vices of the Political System of the United States,” April 1787, in The Papers of James Madison, 9:355.

   28.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, May 22, 1787, PBF.

   29.    Benjamin Franklin to Jane Franklin, May 30, 1787, PBF.

   30.    Ibid.

   31.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, May 22 1787, PBF; Lepore, Book of Ages, 221, 246.

   32.    Wiencak, Imperfect God, 112–13.

   33.    On Washington’s apotheosis, see Paul K. Longman, The Invention of George Washington (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), and François Furstenberg, In the Name of the Father: Washington’s Legacy, Slavery, and the Making of a Nation (New York: Penguin Press, 2006).

   34.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:18, 19, 30.

   35.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:26; The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, 5:138; The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:48.

   36.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:133.

   37.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:201; James Madison, Federalist No. 57 (1788).

   38.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:177, 182, 199.

   39.    Ibid., 1:486.

   40.    Ibid., 1:134–35.

   41.    Ibid., 1:183.

   42.    Benjamin Franklin to Granville Sharp, and to Richard Price, June 9, 1787, PBF.

   43.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:596, 587. And see Margo J. Anderson, The American Census: A Social History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015).

   44.    Akhil Reed Amar, America’s Constitution: A Biography (New York: Random House, 2005), 89–98.

   45.    Feldman, Three Lives of James Madison, 156–57.

   46.    Henry Adams, The History of the United States of America during the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1891), 2:231–32, and Carl Van Doren, The Great Rehearsal (New York: Viking, 1948), 88.

   47.    Nash, Forgotten Fifth, 76–77.

   48.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:364, 371, 415, 222–23.

   49.    John Dickinson, “Notes for a Speech by John Dickinson (II),” in Supplement to Max Farrand’s The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, ed. James H. Hutson (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 158–59. And see David Waldstreicher, Slavery’s Constitution: From Revolution to Ratification (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009); John P. Kaminski, ed., A Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate over the Constitution (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1995); and François Furstenberg, “Beyond Freedom and Slavery: Autonomy, Virtue, and Resistance in Early American Political Discourse,” Journal of American History [hereafter JAH] 89 (2003): 295–1330.

   50.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:641–43.

   51.    Ibid., 2:648.

   52.    James Madison, Federalist No. 40 (1788).

   53.    The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, 2:200.

   54.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:588; Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, December 20, 1787, in The Papers of James Madison, 10:337.

   55.    The Papers of John Adams, 4:87; “Address by Denatus,” in Herbert J. Storing, ed., The Complete Anti-Federalist, 7 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 5:262. Patrick Henry is in Herbert J. Storing, What the Anti-Federalists Were For (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 54. See also Christopher M. Duncan, The Anti-Federalists and Early American Political Thought (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995); Albert Furtwangler, The Authority of Publius: A Reading of the Federalist Papers (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Saul Cornell, The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788–1828 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).

   56.    Luther Martin, Genuine Information, delivered to the Maryland legislature on November 29, 1787, printed in The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 3:197. And see Nash, Forgotten Fifth, 77.

   57.    James Madison, Federalist No. 54 (1788).

   58.    Jane Franklin to Benjamin Franklin, November 9, 1787, PBF.

   59.    “A Plebeian: An Address to the People of the State of New York,” April 17, 1788, in The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, Commentaries on the Constitution, ed. John P. Kaminski, Gaspare J. Saladino, et al., 29 vols. (Madison: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1995), 17:149; The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, 3:44.

   60.    James Wilson in Pennsylvania Gazette, July 9, 1788. North Carolina rejected the Constitution in 1788 but ratified it at a second convention in November 1789, and Rhode Island eventually gave its consent to the nation’s new frame of government in May of 1790, by which time the government was already in place.

   61.    Independent Gazetteer [Philadelphia], August 7, 1788; New-Jersey Journal, August 13, 1788; Essex Journal [Newburyport, Massachusetts], August 6, 1788.

   62.    Louis Torres, “Federal Hall Revisited,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 29 (1970): 327–38.

   63.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:653; The Constitution of Pennsylvania, September 28, 1776, in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 5:3085. And see Michael Schudson, The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency, 1945–1975 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 5. By the mid-1790s, the doors of the Senate were open, too.

   64.    U.S. Senate Journal, 1st Cong., 1st Session, April 30, 1789, 18–19.

   65.    Robert Darnton, George Washington’s False Teeth (New York: Norton, 2003), ch. 1; and Morgan, “‘To Get Quit of Negroes,’” 421–22.

   66.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:659; Amendments to the Constitution, in The Papers of James Madison, 12:209. And, broadly, see Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).

   67.    Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 78 (1788).

   68.    I. N. Phelps Stokes, The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909, 6 vols. (New York, 1915), 1:368, 377, 380.

   69.    U.S. Senate Journal, 1st Cong., 1st Session, February 12, 1790, 157; U.S. House Journal, 1st Cong., 1st Session, March 23, 1790, 180.

   70.    Vincent Carretta, Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005), 231; Schama, Rough Crossings, 322.

   71.    Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom, 150, 182; Schama, Rough Crossings, 310–11, 328, 390, 394–95; Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 300–3.

   72.    U.S. House Journal, 1st Cong., 1st Session, March 23, 1790, 180.

   73.    Benjamin Franklin to Jane Franklin, July 1, 1789, PBF.

   74.    Benjamin Franklin, “To the Editor of the Federal Gazette,” March 23, 1790, in Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin (London, 1818), 406.

   75.    Thomas Jefferson, “A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom” in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 2:545–46; James Madison, “A Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religions Assessments,” ca. June 20, 1785, in The Papers of James Madison, 8:299.

   76.    “The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1638–39,” in The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws, 1:519. And, broadly, see Frank Lambert, The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).

   77.    Bauer, “The Movement Against Imprisonment for Debt,” 90–91.

   78.    Alexander Hamilton to John Jay, November 13, 1790, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, ed. Harold C. Syrett, 27 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 7:149.

   79.    Thomas Jefferson to Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours, April 15, 1811, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, ed. J. Jefferson Looney, 14 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 3:560.

   80.    James Grant Wilson, John Pintard, Founder of the New York Historical Society (New York: Printed for the Society, 1902), 17; David L. Sterling, “William Duer, John Pintard, and the Panic of 1792,” in Joseph R. Frese and Jacob Judd, eds., Business Enterprise in Early New York (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1979), 99–132; Robert Sobel, Panic on Wall Street: A Classic History of America’s Financial Disasters with a New Exploration of the Crash of 1987 (New York: Truman Talley Books/Dutton, 1988), 17–19, 28; James Ciment, “In the Light of Failure: Bankruptcy, Insolvency and Financial Failure in New York City, 1790–1860,” PhD dissertation, City University of New York, 1992, 42, 160.

   81.    Page Smith, James Wilson, Founding Father, 1742–1798 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), ch. 15.

   82.    George W. Johnston, “John Pintard,” typescript biographical essay dated January 16, 1900, Pintard Papers, New-York Historical Society, Box 3, in a folder titled “Notes on John Pintard and Governor Clinton.”

   83.    The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Philip S. Foner, 2 vols. (New York: Citadel Press, 1969), 1:286, 344, 404–5; Paine, Rights of Man: Part the First, 76; John Keane, Tom Paine: A Political Life (Boston: Little Brown, 1995), xiii.

   84.    Donald R. Hickey, “America’s Response to the Slave Revolt in Haiti, 1791–1806,” Journal of the Early Republic 2 (1982): 361–79.

   85.    Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789, Article 1.

   86.    The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine, 1:464, 599.

   87.    Hickey, “America’s Response to the Slave Revolt in Haiti, 1791–1806,” 361–79; Tim Matthewson, “Abraham Bishop, ‘the Rights of Black Men,’ and the American Reaction to the Haitian Revolution,” Journal of Negro History 67 (1982): 148–54. And see C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Dial Press, 1938); Robin Blackburn, “Haiti, Slavery, and the Age of the Democratic Revolution,” William and Mary Quarterly 63 (2006): 643–74; Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

   88.    Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, February 12, 1799, in Republic of Letters, 2:1095.

   89.    James Madison, Federalist No. 10 (1787).

   90.    James Madison, “Public Opinion,” National Gazette, December 19, 1791.

   91.    Jeffrey L. Pasley, “The Tyranny of Printers”: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2001), 33 and Appendix 2.

   92.    Marcus Daniel, Scandal and Civility: Journalism and the Birth of American Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 8.

   93.    Connecticut Bee, October 1, 1800. And see Eric Burns, Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 14.

   94.    Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, February 5, 1799, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 31:10.

   95.    Washington’s Farewell Address, 1796. And see Matthew Spalding, “George Washington’s Farewell Address,” Wilson Quarterly 20 (1996): 65–71.

   96.    Nash, Forgotten Fifth, 62–65.

   97.    Morgan, “‘To Get Quit of Negroes,’” 403–5; Nash, Forgotten Fifth, 66.

   98.    Schama, Rough Crossings, 390–95; Pybus, Epic Journeys, 202; Cassandra Pybus, “Mary Perth, Harry Washington, and Moses Wilkinson: Black Methodists Who Escaped from Slavery and Founded a Nation,” in Alfred F. Young, Gary B. Nash, and Ray Raphael, eds., Revolutionary Founders: Rebels, Radicals, and Reformers in the Making of the Nation (New York: Knopf, 2011), 168; Janet Polasky, Revolutions without Borders: The Call to Liberty in the Atlantic World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 109; Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 305.

   99.    Slauter, The State as a Work of Art, 297–99.

Five: A DEMOCRACY OF NUMBERS

     1.    John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, December 6, 1787, The Adams-Jefferson Letters, ed. Lester J. Cappon, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 1:213–14.

     2.    Ibid., 213.

     3.    Quotations from James E. Lewis Jr., “‘What Is to Become of Our Government?’: The Revolutionary Potential of the Election of 1800,” in James J. Horn, Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter S. Onuf, eds., The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2002), 10–11, 19, 13–14.

     4.    John Adams, A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America, 3 vols. (London, 1787), 3:299.

     5.    Thomas Jefferson, “II. The Response,” February 12, 1790, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 16:179.

     6.    Adams, A Defense of the Constitutions, 1:iii.

     7.    Benjamin Franklin, “Advice to a Young Tradesman,” 1748, PBF.

     8.    Adams, A Defense of the Constitutions, 1:preface.

     9.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 3:166.

   10.    The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 2:57, 29.

   11.    On numbers and the census, see Margo J. Anderson, The American Census: A Social History, 2nd ed. (1988; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016); Hyman Alterman, Counting People: The Census in History (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1969); Patricia Cline Cohen, A Calculating People: The Spread of Numeracy in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). On the rise of quantification more broadly, see Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); I. Bernard Cohen, The Triumph of Numbers: How Counting Shaped Modern Life (New York: Norton, 2005); and Alfred W. Crosby, The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250–1600 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

   12.    Gazette of the United States, December 15, 1796.

   13.    John Adams to Elbridge Gerry, December 6, 1777, in The Papers of John Adams, 5:346.

   14.    “Resolutions Adopted by the Kentucky General Assembly,” November 10, 1798, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:554.

   15.    Thomas Pickering to Rufus King, March 12, 1799, in The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, ed. Charles R. King, 6 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1895), 2:557; Timothy Dwight, “Triumph of Democracy,” January 1, 1801, in James G. Basker, ed., Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems About Slavery, 1660–1810 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 488.

   16.    “Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq., President of the United States,” October 24, 1800, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 25:186, 190.

   17.    Carolina Gazette, August 14, 1800.

   18.    Edward J. Larson, A Magnificent Catastrophe: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (New York: Free Press, 2007), 185, 171–72; Federal Observer [Portsmouth, New Hampshire], May 1, 1800; Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (London, 1787), 265. And see also Susan Dunn, Jefferson’s Second Revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), and John Ferling, Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

   19.    Aurora, October 14, 1800.

   20.    Larson, A Magnificent Catastrophe, 134–35.

   21.    Spencer Albright, The American Ballot (Washington, DC: American Council on Public Affairs, 1942), 16; Charles Gross, “The Early History of the Ballot in England,” American Historical Review 3 (April 1898): 456–63. And see Robert J. Dinkin, Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689–1776 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1977), ch. 6.

   22.    Andrew Robertson and Phil Lampi, “The Election of 1800 Revisited,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association, Chicago, Illinois, January 9, 2000.

   23.    Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 24 and Tables A.1 and A.2.

   24.    Alexander Hamilton to James A. Bayard, January 16, 1801, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 25:319.

   25.    Quoted in Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., ed., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, 4 vols. (New York: Chelsea House, 1971), 1:111.

   26.    Schlesinger, History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, 129–30.

   27.    Garry Wills, “‘Negro President’: Jefferson and the Slave Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 1 (John Quincy Adams is quoted).

   28.    John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, February 20, 1801, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 33:23.

   29.    The Mercury and New-England Palladium [Boston, Massachusetts], January 20, 1801.

   30.    Quoted in Larson, A Magnificent Catastrophe, 274.

   31.    “Causes of the American Discontents before 1768,” London Chronicle, January 5–7, 1768, PBF.

   32.    John Adams, Thoughts on Government: Applicable to the Present State of the American Colonies. In a Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend (Philadelphia, 1776), in The Papers of John Adams, 4:91.

   33.    Jed Handelsman Shugerman, The People’s Courts: Pursuing Judicial Independence in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), chs. 1 and 2.

   34.    “Brutus, Essay 11,” New York Journal, January 31, 1788. And see Shugerman, The People’s Court, 25–26.

   35.    Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 78 (1788).

   36.    Quoted in Suzy Maroon and Fred J. Maroon, The Supreme Court of the United States (New York: Thomasson-Grant and Lickle, 1996), 110.

   37.    Quoted in Clare Cushman, Courtwatchers: Eyewitness Accounts in Supreme Court History (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2011), 2, 5–6.

   38.    Quoted in Cushman, Courtwatchers, 10.

   39.    Maroon, Supreme Court, 173, 20; Cushman, Courtwatchers, 16.

   40.    Quoted in Alexandra K. Wigdor, The Personal Papers of Supreme Court Justices (New York: Garland Publishing, 1986), 9.

   41.    Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803).

   42.    Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 274. Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (London, 1798), 346. On Jefferson and Jeffersonianism, see Drew R. McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jacksonian America (New York: Norton, 1980); Gordon Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); and Annette Gordon-Reed and Peter S. Onuf, “‘Most Blessed of the Patriarchs’: Thomas Jefferson and the Empire of the Imagination (New York: Liveright, 2016).

   43.    Joyce Appleby, The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), ch. 5.

   44.    Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas, September 7, 1803, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 41:347. And, broadly, see Steven Hahn, A Nation Without Borders: The United States and Its World in an Age of Civil Wars, 1830–1910 (New York: Viking, 2016).

   45.    Thomas Jefferson to Thomas Cooper, February 24, 1804, and to Benjamin Chambers, December 28, 1805, quoted in Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 194, 203.

   46.    Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, January 21, 1812, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 4:428; Thomas Jefferson to James Jay, April 7, 1809, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, 1:110–11.

   47.    Thomas Jefferson to James Maury, June 16, 1815, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, 8:544. On cotton, see Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Knopf, 2014).

   48.    The Constitution of the United States together with An Account of Its Travels Since September 17, 1787, compiled by David C. Mearns and Verner W. Clapp (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1958), 1–17.

   49.    [Sereno Edwards Dwight], Slave Representation by Boreas, Awake! O Spirit of the North (New Haven, CT: 1812), 1.

   50.    Slave Representation, 1. Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (New York: Knopf, 2010); Matthew Mason, “‘Nothing Is Better Calculated to Excite Divisions’: Federalist Agitation against Slave Representation during the War of 1812,” New England Quarterly 75 (2002): 531–61.

   51.    Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 270–71. And see Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello.

   52.    Thomas Jefferson to John Norvell, June 11, 1807, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 11:222.

   53.    Thomas Jefferson to Elbridge Gerry, March 29, 1801, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 33:491.

   54.    James Thomas Callender, “The President, Again,” Richmond Recorder, September 1, 1802.

   55.    Thomas Jefferson to Francis C. Gray, March 4, 1815, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, 8:311. Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello, 599–600.

   56.    American Colonization Society, The Tenth Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, DC, 1827), 79.

   57.    Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1859), 115.

   58.    15 Annals of Cong. 1204 (February 16, 1819).

   59.    James Madison to Robert Walsh, November 27, 1819, in The Papers of James Madison, Retirement Series, 557.

   60.    16 Annals of Cong. 228 (January 20, 1820).

   61.    Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, 246. See also Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello, 557–60.

   62.    Daniel Raymond, Thoughts on Political Economy (Baltimore, 1820), 456. Daniel Raymond, The Missouri Question (Baltimore, 1819), 6–7.

   63.    16 Annals of Cong. 428 (February 1, 1820); Raymond, The Missouri Question, 10.

   64.    John Quincy Adams diary entry, January 10, 1810, in The Diaries of John Quincy Adams: A Digital Collection, 51 vols., Massachusetts Historical Society, 31:245.

   65.    John Adams to John Quincy Adams, April 23, 1794, in The Adams Family Correspondence, ed. Margaret A. Hogan et. al., 13 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 10:151.

   66.    The National Journal [Washington, DC], April 28, 1824.

   67.    As the constitutional scholar Alexander Bickel once explained, “The populist idea, identified in the American political tradition with Andrew Jackson and in some measure with everyone else ever since, is that the ills of society and its government will be cured by giving a stronger and more certain direction of affairs to a popular majority” (Bickel, “Is Electoral Reform the Answer?,” Commentary, December 1968, 41). On populism, broadly, see Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion: An American History (New York: Basic Books, 1995), and Charles Postel, The Populist Vision (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

   68.    John Quincy Adams diary entry, June 18, 1833, in The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, 39:98.

   69.    Thomas Jefferson as quoted by Daniel Webster, December 1824, in The Private Correspondence of Daniel Webster, ed. Fletcher Webster (Boston: Little, Brown, 1857), 371.

   70.    Robert L. Brunhouse, ed., “David Ramsay, 1749–1815: Selections from His Writings,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 55 (1965), 27; Frank L. Owsley Jr., “Editor’s Introduction” to John Reid and John Henry Eaton, The Life of Andrew Jackson (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, [1974] 2007), v–vii; John Eaton, The Life of Andrew Jackson: Major General in the Service of the United States (Philadelphia: M. Carey and Son, 1817); Margaret Bayard Smith, 1828, as quoted in Catherine Allgor, Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 200.

   71.    John Eaton, The Life of Andrew Jackson (Philadelphia: S. F. Bradford, 1824); Owsley, “Editor’s Introduction,” The Life of Andrew Jackson, x (Owsley’s annotated edition marks out the changes between the 1817 and 1824 editions). On campaign buttons: M. J. Heale, The Presidential Quest: Candidates and Images in American Political Culture, 1787–1852 (London: Longman, 1982), 50. On campaigning, broadly: Robert J. Dinkin, Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices (New York: Greenwood, 1989), 42. I also discuss Jackson’s campaign biography and its influence in The Story of America, ch. 10.

   72.    Benjamin Austin, Constitutional Republicanism, in Opposition to Fallacious Federalism (Boston, 1803), 87.

   73.    On the rise of the nominating convention: James S. Chase, Emergence of the Presidential Nominating Convention, 1789–1832 (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1973); National Party Conventions, 1831–1984, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 1987); Stan M. Haynes, The First American Political Conventions: Transforming Presidential Nominations, 1832–1872 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012).

   74.    James Kent quoted in Reports of the Proceedings and Debates of the Convention of 1821, Assembled for the Purpose of Amending the Constitution of the State of New-York (Albany, 1821), 221.

   75.    Quoted in David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 639–40.

   76.    Quoted in The Proceedings and Debates of the Virginia State Convention of 1829–30 (Richmond, 1830), 316. And see Daniel Rodgers, Contested Truths: Keywords in American Politics Since Independence (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 80–111.

   77.    George Bancroft, “The Office of the People in Art, Government, and Religion,” An Oration Delivered before the Adelphi Society of Williamstown College in August 1835, in Thomas Breed et al., eds., Modern Eloquence, 15 vols. (Philadelphia: John D. Morris and Company, 1900), 7:79; George Bancroft, Oration Delivered on the Fourth of July, 1826, at Northampton, Massachusetts (Northampton, 1826), 20.

   78.    Connecticut Herald, July 11, 1826.

   79.    Gordon-Reed, Hemingses of Monticello, 655–56, 661–62.

   80.    Joseph Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Knopf, 1997), 287–90; McCullough, John Adams, 644–47.

   81.    John Randolph to John Brockenbrough, January 12, 1829, in The Collected Letters of John Randolph of Roanoke to Dr. John Brockenbrough, ed. Kenneth Shorey (1988; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 2015), 317.

   82.    Alexandria Gazette, March 4, 1829.

   83.    Margaret Bayard Smith to Jane Bayard Kirkpatrick, March 11, 1829, in The First Forty Years of Washington Society Portrayed by the Family Letters of Mrs. Samuel Harrison Smith (Margaret Bayard), ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1906), 290–94; Andrew Jackson, “First Annual Message,” December 8, 1829, The American Presidency Project (online), comp. John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters; Joseph Story to Mrs. Joseph Story (Sarah Waldo Wetmore), March 7, 1829, in The Life and Letters of Joseph Story, ed. William M. Story, 2 vols. (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), 1:563.

   84.    Bayard Smith to Bayard Kirkpatrick, March 11, 1829.

Six: THE SOUL AND THE MACHINE

     1.    Maria W. Stewart, “Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, The Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build,” October 1831, in Maria W. Stewart: America’s First Black Woman Political Writer, ed. Marilyn Richardson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 40.

     2.    Richardson, Maria W. Stewart, 29, 38. Garrison’s impressions of Stewart are recorded in a letter he later wrote in support of her widow’s pension application: William Lloyd Garrison to Maria W. Stewart, April 4, 1879, ibid., 89–90.

     3.    On the Second Great Awakening, see especially Mary P. Ryan, The Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), and Daniel Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

     4.    Quoted in Paul Johnson, A Shopkeeper’s Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815–1837, 1st rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), 5.

     5.    Ibid., 3.

     6.    Maria W. Stewart, “Mrs. Stewart’s Farewell Address to Her Friends in the City of Boston,” in Richardson, Maria W. Stewart, 70.

     7.    Thomas Jefferson to William Ludlow, September 6, 1824, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Andrew A. Lipscomb and Albert Ellery Bergh, 20. vols. (Washington, DC: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, 1903–7), 16:74–76.

     8.    Jacob Bigelow, The Useful Arts, 3 vols. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1855), 1:18–19.

     9.    Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). See also Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).

   10.    George B. Ellenberg, Mule South to Tractor South: Mules, Machines, and the Transformation of the Cotton South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007), 146.

   11.    Walter Isaacson, The Innovators: How a Group of Inventors, Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014), ch. 1.

   12.    On the business history, see Robert Dalzell, Enterprising Elite: The Boston Associates and the World They Made (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987).

   13.    Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 216–17.

   14.    Johnson, A Shopkeeper’s Millennium, 18, 42.

   15.    Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class, 146–47, 155–58.

   16.    See Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973).

   17.    Charles Grandison Finney, Memoirs of Rev. Charles G. Finney (New York: A. S. Barnes & Company, 1876), 20; Johnson, A Shopkeeper’s Millennium, 108, 122.

   18.    Ruth Cowan, A Social History of American Technology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 138, 210. And on technological determinism in American politics and culture, broadly, see David Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994); Robert Friedel, A Culture of Improvement: Technology and the Western Millennium (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008); Robert L. Heilbroner, “Do Machines Make History?,” Technology and Culture 8 (1967): 335–45; Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964).

   19.    Jacob Bigelow, Elements of Technology (Boston, 1829); Jacob Bigelow, An Address on the Limits of Education Read before the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Boston: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1865), 4. See also Thomas Misa, Leonardo to the Internet: Technology and Culture from the Renaissance to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 204; Marx, “The Idea of Technology”; Howard P. Segal, Technological Utopianism in American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 180–81.

   20.    Thomas Carlyle, “Signs of the Times,” Edinburgh Review 49 (June 1829): 457.

   21.    Timothy Walker, “A Defense of Mechanical Philosophy,” North American Review 33 (July 1831): 122–27.

   22.    Quoted in Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: Norton, 2005), 425.

   23.    Bancroft quoted in Russel Nye, George Bancroft: Brahmin Rebel (New York: Knopf, 1944), 100; Sullivan quoted in New York Morning News, February 27, 1845.

   24.    Stewart, “Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality,” October 1831, in Richardson, Maria W. Stewart, 39.

   25.    Quoted in Valerie C. Cooper, Word, Like Fire: Maria Stewart, the Bible, and the Rights of African Americans (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012), 4.

   26.    Quoted in Richardson, introduction to Maria W. Stewart, 14.

   27.    Benjamin Rush to John Adams, June 15, 1789, in The Letters of Benjamin Rush, ed. L. H. Butterfield, 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), 1:516.

   28.    James Madison to the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia, “A Memorial and Remonstrance,” ca. June 20, 1785, in The Papers of James Madison, Congressional Series, ed. J. C. A. Stagg et al., 17 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 8:301.

   29.    Article 11, Treaty of Peace and Friendship, signed at Tripoli, November 4, 1796, in Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, ed. Hunter Miller, 8 vols. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1931–48), 2:365.

   30.    Stewart, “Cause for Encouragement” in Richardson, Maria W. Stewart, 43.

   31.    Lyman Beecher, “Lecture VII: The Republican Elements of the Old Testament,” in Lectures on Political Atheism and Kindred Subjects (Boston, 1852), 189.

   32.    Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 4.

   33.    Thomas Jefferson to Samuel Kercheval, July 12, 1816, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, 10:226.

   34.    William Lloyd Garrison, “Address to the Colonization Society,” July 4, 1829, in Selections from the Writings and Speeches of William Lloyd Garrison (Boston: R. F. Wallcut, 1852), 53.

   35.    Richardson, Maria W. Stewart, introduction.

   36.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 221; Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 41–42, 152–54; Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Knopf, 2014), ch. 5.

   37.    Douglas R. Egerton and Robert L. Paquette, eds., The Denmark Vesey Affair: A Documentary History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2017). See also Michael P. Johnson, “Denmark Vesey and His Co-Conspirators,” William and Mary Quarterly 58 (2001): 915–76.

   38.    Henry Highland Garnet, Walker’s Appeal (New York: J. H. Tobitt, 1848), vi.

   39.    Freedom’s Journal, March 16, 1827.

   40.    David Walker, Walker’s Appeal in Four Articles; Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America, September 28, 1829 (Boston, 1829), 73–74, 18, 66, 55, 47, 28, 21, and 27. See also David Walker’s Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, ed. Peter P. Hinks (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), introduction. And, on the idea of the “colored citizen,” see Stephen Kantrowitz, More Than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829–1889 (New York: Penguin Press, 2012), 28–40.

   41.    David Walker’s Appeal, ed. Hinks, xiv–xxv.

   42.    Ibid., xxxix–xl; The Liberator [Boston, Massachusetts], January 1, 1831.

   43.    The Confessions of Nat Turner with Related Documents, 2nd ed., ed. Kenneth S. Greenberg (1831; Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2017), 44; James M’Dowell Jr., Speech of James M’Dowell Jr. (of Rockbridge) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Slave Question (Richmond: Thomas W. White, 1832), 29.

   44.    Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1956), 2:256.

   45.    Quoted in Stefan M. Wheelock, Barbaric Culture and Black Critique: Black Antislavery Writers, Religion, and the Slaveholding Atlantic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2015), ch. 4.

   46.    William Lloyd Garrison, “Declaration of Sentiments of the American Anti-Slavery Convention, December 6, 1833,” in Selections from the Writings of William Lloyd Garrison, 70.

   47.    Catherine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism, with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia: Henry Perkins, 1837), 121.

   48.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 356–57, 419–20; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 539–40.

   49.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 283; Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 238.

   50.    Quoted in Carl N. Degler, Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Row, [1959] 1970), 275–76.

   51.    Quoted in Carl Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780–1860 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011), 80.

   52.    Quoted in Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York: Random House, 1973), 257.

   53.    Samuel F. B. Morse, Imminent Dangers to the Free Institutions of the United States through Foreign Immigration (New York, 1835), 28. And on Morse, see Jill Lepore, A is for American: Letters and Other Characters in the Newly United States (New York: Knopf, 2002), ch. 6.

   54.    Quoted in Daniel J. Czitrom, Media and the American Mind: From Morse to McLuhan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 11–12.

   55.    Barnet Schecter, The Devil’s Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (New York: Walker & Company, 2005), 78.

   56.    On the common school movement, see Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic; Ira Katznelson and Margaret Weir, Schooling for All: Class, Race, and the Decline of the Democratic Ideal (New York: Basic Books, 1983).

   57.    Quoted in Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic, 163, 139.

   58.    Ibid., 176, 179.

   59.    Christopher B. Daly, Covering America: A Narrative History of a Nation’s Journalism (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2012), 59–63; Michael Schudson, Origins of the Ideal of Objectivity in the Professions: Studies in the History of American Journalism and American Law, 1830–1940 (PhD dissertation, 1976; New York: Garland, 1990), 36–40.

   60.    Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2:42.

   61.    Joseph Story to Judge Fay, February, 18, 1834, in The Life and Letters of Joseph Story, 2:154. Asher Robbins quoted in Michael G. Kammen, A Machine That Would Go of Itself: The Constitution in American Culture (1986; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2006), 50.

   62.    Joseph Story, A Discourse Pronounced at the Request of the Essex Historical Society on the 18th of September, 1828, in Commemoration of the First Settlement of Salem (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little, and Wilkins, 1828), 74–75. On Indian removal see Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975); Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Theda Perdue, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears (New York: Viking, 2007).

   63.    “Instructions to a Deputation of Our Warriors . . . to Proceed On and Visit Our Father the President of the United States,” Fortville, Cherokee Nation, September 19, 1817, in Walter Lowrie and Walter S. Franklin, eds., American State Papers, Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States (Washington, DC: Gale and Seaton, 1834), 145.

   64.    Quoted in Althea Bass, Cherokee Messenger (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 31.

   65.    On the Cherokees in this era, see William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986). On Sequoyah, see Lepore, A is for American, ch. 3.

   66.    Response of the Cherokee Council to U.S. Commissioners Duncan G. Campbell and James Meriwether, October 20, 1823, in American State Papers, Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States, Indian Affairs, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1834), 2:469; U.S. Commissioners to the Cherokee Chiefs, December 9, 1824, in American State Papers, Indian Affairs, 2:570; and Cherokee Council to U.S. Commissioners, February 11, 1824, in American State Papers, Indian Affairs, 2:474.

   67.    John Howard Payne, “The Cherokee Cause [1835],” reprinted in the Journal of Cherokee Studies 1 (1976): 19.

   68.    Speech of Senator Theodore Frelinghuysen, April 7–9, 1830, in Speeches of the Passage of the Bill for the Removal of the Indians, Delivered in the Congress of the United States, April and May, 1830 (Boston: Perkins and Marvin, 1830), 8.

   69.    Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831), and Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515 (1832).

   70.    An Indian’s Appeal to the White Men of Massachusetts is reprinted in William Apess, On Our Own Ground: The Writings of William Apess, a Pequot, ed. by Barry O’Connell (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 205. And see my discussion of the broader cultural and political context for the Mashpee and Penobscot claims in The Name of War, ch. 7.

   71.    Edward Everett, An address delivered at Bloody Brook, in South Deerfield, September 30, 1835 (Boston: Russell, Shattuck, & Williams, 1835), 8, 10–11. And see Edward Everett, “The Cherokee Case,” North American Review 33 (1831): 136–53.

   72.    Andrew Jackson, First Annual Message, December 8, 1829.

   73.    Jon Meacham, American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House (New York: Random House, 2008), 204.

   74.    Perdue, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears, 139–40. General Winfield Scott, “Extracts from General Orders, or the Address to the Troops,” May 17, 1838, in Memoirs of Lieut.-General Winfield Scott, ed. Timothy D. Johnson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2015), 166.

   75.    Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, 3 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), 1:147.

   76.    Quoted in Kerry S. Walters, Explosion on the Potomac: The 1844 Calamity Aboard the USS Princeton (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2013), 85.

   77.    Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, ch. 10.

   78.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 319–22.

   79.    Memoirs of General Andrew Jackson Seventh President of the United States (Auburn, NY: James C. Derby & Co., 1845), 202, 208.

   80.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 387, 430.

   81.    James S. Chase, Emergence of the Presidential Nominating Convention, 1789–1832 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973), 27–34.

   82.    Stan M. Haynes, The First American Political Conventions: Transforming Presidential Nominations, 1832–1872 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012), 29.

   83.    On the Panic of 1837 and the Bank War, see Reginald Charles McGrane, The Panic of 1837: Some Financial Problems of the Jacksonian Era (New York: Russell and Russel, Inc., 1924, 1965); Marc Shell, Money, Language and Thought: Literary and Philosophic Economies from the Medieval to the Modern Era (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Alasdair Roberts, America’s First Great Depression: Economic Crisis and Political Disorder after the Panic of 1837 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012).

   84.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 365.

   85.    The Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, ed. Reginald C. McGrane (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919), 93; Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 361.

   86.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 368, 372.

   87.    U.S. Senate Journal, 22d Cong., 1st Sess., July 10, 1832.

   88.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 398.

   89.    Robert Sobel, Panic on Wall Street: A Classic History of America’s Financial Disasters (Washington, DC: Beard Books, [1968, Macmillan], 1999), 38–40, 47.

   90.    Andrew Jackson, “Fourth Annual Message,” December 4, 1832.

   91.    Speech of Mr. Kennedy, of Indiana, on the Oregon Question Delivered in the House of Representatives, January 10, 1846 (Washington, 1846), 7. Also quoted in Donald William Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, vol. 2: Continental America, 1800–1867, 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), 2:222.

   92.    Meinig, The Shaping of America, 2:135; Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, 12. On the War with Mexico, see, Rachel St. John, Line in the Sand: A History of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). And see Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 2006), ch. 7.

   93.    Quoted in Walter R. Borneman, Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America (New York: Random House, 2008), 73.

   94.    Donald J. Ratcliffe, “Thomas Morris,” American National Biography Online; Thomas Morris, Speech in Reply to the Speech of Henry Clay, February 9, 1839 (New York, 1839).

   95.    Haynes, The First American Political Conventions, 1; Chase, Emergence of the Presidential Nominating Convention, 40.

   96.    Frank E. Hagen and Elmo Scott Watson, “The Origin of Ruckerize,” Cambridge [MA] Sentinel, September 12, 1936.

   97.    Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 51, 67.

   98.    Bauer, “The Movement Against Imprisonment for Debt.” See also Charles Warren, Bankruptcy in United States History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935); James Ciment, “In the Light of Failure: Bankruptcy, Insolvency and Financial Failure in New York City, 1790–1860”; Edward J. Balleisen, Navigating Failure: Bankruptcy and Commercial Society in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).

   99.    Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 492–93.

 100.    [Richard Hildreth], The People’s Presidential Candidate; or The Life of William Henry Harrison, of Ohio (Boston, 1839), 14–16, 194. Robert Gray Gunderson, The Log Cabin Campaign (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1957), 73–79; 129–33.

 101.    Quoted in Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 547. And see Milton C. Sernett, North Star Country: Upstate New York and the Crusade for African American Freedom (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2002), 115.

 102.    Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825–1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 134; and see Jo Freeman, A Room at a Time: How Women Entered Party Politics (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000).

 103.    Dinkin, Campaigning in America, 33.

 104.    Ralph Waldo Emerson, The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. A. W. Plumstead, Harrison Hayford, et al., 16 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), 7:482.

 105.    “The Telegraph,” New York Sun, November 6, 1847, in Morse’s scrapbook, Samuel Morse Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

 106.    Daly, Covering America, 77; Daniel Webster, “Opening of the Northern Railroad to Lebanon, N.H. [1847],” in Works of Daniel Webster, 11th ed., 6 vols. (Boston: Little Brown, 1858), 2:419.

 107.    Karl Marx, “Estranged Labour,” in Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, ed. Martin Milligan (1961; New York: Dover Publications, 2007), 69.

 108.    Ralph Waldo Emerson: Updated Edition, ed. Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea House, 2007), 127.

 109.    Quoted in James D. Hart, “They All Were Born in Log Cabins,” American Heritage 7 (1956): 32.

 110.    Henry David Thoreau, Walden; or, Life in the Woods (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1854), 118, 54, 118, 57, 102, 107, 58–59.

 111.    Thoreau, Walden, 175, 352; Review of Walden, The New York Churchman, September 2, 1854.

 112.    Thoreau, Walden, 57.

Seven: OF SHIPS AND SHIPWRECKS

     1.    Walters, Explosion on the Potomac, 9–10.

     2.    Quoted in Dan Monroe, The Republican Vision of John Tyler (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2003), 63.

     3.    Charles Dickens, American Notes for General Circulation, edited and with an introduction by Patricia Ingham (1842; New York: Penguin, 2000), 138.

     4.    Daniel Webster, “Letter to the Citizens of Worcester County, Massachusetts,” January 23, 1844, in The Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster, ed. Edward Everett, National Edition, 18 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1903), 16:423.

     5.    Quoted in Walters, Explosion on the Potomac, 31, 32.

     6.    Quoted in Jay Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2011), 62.

     7.    “Speech of Mr. McDuffie, July 6, 1844,” in Niles’ National Register, ed. William Ogden Niles, 75 vols. (Baltimore, 1839–48), 66:303. On Greeley, see Daly, Covering America, 66–72. And on American expansion in this era, see Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, and John Robert Van Atta, Securing the West: Politics, Public Lands, and the Fate of the Old Republic: 1785–1850 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014).

     8.    John Quincy Adams diary entry, April 22, 1844, in The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, 44:303.

     9.    Henry Clay to Stephen F. Miller, July 1, 1844, in The Private Correspondence of Henry Clay, ed. Calvin Colton (Boston: Frederick Parker, 1856), 491.

   10.    John Quincy Adams diary entry, February 19, 1845, in The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, 45:50.

   11.    “Nuptials of the President of the United States,” New York Herald, June 27, 1844; Walters, Explosion on the Potomac, 105–6.

   12.    Quoted in Haynes, The First American Political Conventions, 70.

   13.    Haynes, First American Political Conventions, 89. And see Charles Sellers, “Election of 1844,” in Schlesinger, History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, 1:761–66.

   14.    Speech by Daniel Webster, “On Mr. Foot’s Resolution,” January 26–27, 1830, Register of Debates, Senate, 21st Cong., 1st Sess. (1830).

   15.    Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States . . . Abridged by the Author for the Use of Colleges and High Schools (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, and Company, 1833), 595. And see Arnold Bennett, The Constitution in School and College (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1935).

   16.    Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 1:251–52. And, broadly, see Kammen, A Machine That Would Go of Itself; Larry D. Kramer, The People Themselves: Popular Constitutionalism and Judicial Review (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Daniel Levin, Representing Popular Sovereignty: The Constitution in American Political Culture (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999).

   17.    William Grimes, Life of William Grimes, the Runaway Slave [1825], ed. William L. Andrews and Regina E. Mason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 103.

   18.    Colley, “Empires of Writing,” 237–38.

   19.    “The Sage of Montpelier Is No More!,” Charleston Courier, July 7, 1836.

   20.    David W. Houpt, “Securing a Legacy: The Publication of James Madison’s Notes from the Constitutional Convention,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 118 (2010): 4–39.

   21.    Quoted in Kammen, A Machine That Would Go of Itself, 97–100.

   22.    Quoted in ibid., 103, 83.

   23.    Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, introduction.

   24.    Webster, “Letter to Citizens of Worcester County, Massachusetts,” in The Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster, 16:423.

   25.    Quoted in Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 322.

   26.    Eugene McCormac, James K. Polk: A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1922), 705. In 1845, a Florida senator had asked Congress to negotiate with Spain for Cuba; while the War with Mexico continued, Congress set this request aside. But by 1848 Polk was writing in his diary, “I am decidedly in favour of purchasing Cuba & making it one of the States of the Union”: James K. Polk diary entry, May 10, 1848, in The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845–1849, ed. Milo Milton Quaife, Chicago Historical Society Collection, 4 vols. (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co, 1910), 3:446. And on southern imperial ambitions, see especially Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

   27.    Quoted in Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, 122. And see Bernard DeVoto, The Year of Decision, 1846 (Boston: Little Brown, 1943), and William Ghent, The Road to Oregon: A Chronicle of the Great Emigrant Trail (New York: Longmans and Green and Co., 1929).

   28.    John O’Sullivan, “Annexation,” United States Magazine and Democratic Review 17 (July–August 1845): 5–10.

   29.    James K. Polk, “Special Message to Congress on Mexican Relations,” May 11, 1846.

   30.    Daly, Covering America, 78–79.

   31.    Dickens, American Notes, 134.

   32.    Joanne Freeman, “The Field of Blood: Violence in Congress,” paper delivered at the Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition, Yale University, November 4, 2017.

   33.    Speech by John C. Calhoun, “Conquest of Mexico,” 30 Cong. Globe 51 (January 4, 1848).

   34.    Charles Sumner to Salmon P. Chase, February 7, 1848, Chase Papers, Library of Congress—quoted in James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 60; Speech of B. R. Wood, “The Wilmot Proviso,” 29 Cong. Globe 345 (February 10, 1847), appendix.

   35.    Quoted in Meinig, Shaping of America, 2:300–301.

   36.    Theodore Parker, A Sermon of Mexican War, Preached at the Melodeon, on Sunday, June 7, 1846 (Boston: I. R. Butts, 1846), 32, 30.

   37.    Henry David Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” in The Writings of Henry David Thoreau, ed. Horace Elisha Scudder et al., 11 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, [1863] 1893), 10:141, 149.

   38.    Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Ode, Inscribed to William H. Channing,” in The Oxford Book of American Poetry, ed. David Lehman (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 35.

   39.    Maurice S. Lee, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Frederick Douglass (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 15.

   40.    John Stauffer, Zoe Trodd, and Celeste-Marie Bernier, Picturing Frederick Douglass: An Illustrated Biography of the Nineteenth Century’s Most Photographed American (New York: Liveright, 2015).

   41.    Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, ed. David W. Blight (New York: St. Martin’s/Bedford Books in American History, 1993), 16.

   42.    Daly, Covering America, 93.

   43.    Frederick Douglass, “The War with Mexico,” The North Star, January 21, 1848.

   44.    Frederick Douglass, Editorial, The North Star, April 28, 1848.

   45.    Quoted in Czitrom, Media and the American Mind, 12.

   46.    Daly, Covering America, 81.

   47.    Speech by Lewis Cass, 29 Cong. Globe 369 (February 10, 1847).

   48.    David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), ch. 1.

   49.    Rachel St. John, Line in the Sand: A History of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 21–22.

   50.    James DeBow, The Seventh Census of the United States: 1850 (Washington, DC: Robert Armstrong, 1853), xxix.

   51.    Ralph Waldo Emerson, Selected Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. William H. Gilman (New York: Signet Classics, 1965), 116.

   52.    Lynn Hudson Parsons, “The ‘Splendid Pageant’: Observations on the Death of John Quincy Adams,” New England Quarterly 53 (December 1980), 464–82.

   53.    Ralph Waldo Emerson, Emerson in His Journals, selected and edited by Joel Porte (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 303.

   54.    “Letter XII: Human Rights Not Founded on Sex,” in Angelina Grimké, Letters to Catherine Beecher, in Reply to an Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism Addressed to A. E. Grimké (Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1838), 114.

   55.    Sarah Grimké, Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, and the Condition of Woman (Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1838), 11, 45. And see Ellen Carol DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women’s Movement in America, 1848–1869 (1979; Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999).

   56.    Margaret Fuller, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Greeley & McElrath, 1845), 26.

   57.    On Fuller, see especially Charles Capper, Margaret Fuller: An American Romantic Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), and Megan Marshall, Margaret Fuller: A New American Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013).

   58.    Zachary Taylor to Capt. J. S. Allison, April 22, 1848, in The Papers of Henry Clay, ed. Melba Porter Hay, 11 vols. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 10:343. See also Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (1970; New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).

   59.    Quoted in Haynes, First American Political Conventions, 101.

   60.    Quoted in ibid., 105.

   61.    Quoted in Kloppenberg, Toward Democracy, 655.

   62.    Lincoln, Address before the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, September 30, 1859.

   63.    Quoted in Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 14–16.

   64.    Quoted in ibid., 72, 45, 41, 46.

   65.    Frederick Douglass, The Claims of the Negro, Ethnologically Considered (Rochester, NY: 1854), 13. And see Randall Fuller, The Book That Changed America: How Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Ignited a Nation (New York: Viking, 2017), ch. 9.

   66.    George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society (Richmond, VA: A. Morris, 1854), 177, 179, 183, 158.

   67.    George Fitzhugh, Cannibals All! or, Slaves Without Masters (Richmond, VA: A. Morris, 1857), 31, 29. See also Larry E. Tise, Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987).

   68.    Salmon P. Chase to Charles Sumner, March 24, 1850, in “The Diary and Correspondence of Salmon P. Chase,” Annual Report, American Historical Association (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1903), 205.

   69.    Report of the Woman’s Rights Convention, Held at Seneca Falls, N.Y., July 19th and 20th, 1848 (Rochester, NY: John Dick, 1848), 7–9.

   70.    “Bolting Among the Ladies,” Oneida Whig, August 1, 1848. And see DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage, and Melanie Susan Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 1854–1924 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001).

   71.    Capper, Margaret Fuller, 505–14.

   72.    Longfellow to John Greenleaf Whittier, September 6, 1844, in The Letters of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, ed. Andrew Hilen, 6 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 19), 3:44.

   73.    Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Dana, “‘Sail On, O Ship of State!’: How Longfellow Came to Write These Lines 100 Years Ago,” Colby Library Quarterly 2 (1950): 209–214. On the relationship between Sumner and Longfellow, see Frederick J. Blue, “The Poet and the Reformer: Longfellow, Sumner, and the Bonds of Male Friendship, 1837–1874,” Journal of the Early Republic 15 (1995): 273–297, and Jill Lepore, “Longfellow’s Ride,” in The Story of America: Essays on Origins, ch. 15.

   74.    John Marshall to Joseph Story, September 22, 1832, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Second Series, 14 (1950): 352; Debates and Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the State of California, vol. 3 (Sacramento: J. D. Young, 1881), 1191.

   75.    Stephen Douglas, Chicago, July 9, 1858, in Political Debates Between Hon. Abraham Lincoln and Hon. Stephen A. Douglas (Columbus, OH: Follett, Foster, 1860), 6.

   76.    Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (Boston, 1861), 286.

   77.    The Letters of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 4:3.

   78.    Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016); Tubman quoted in Eric Foner, Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden Story of the Underground Railroad (New York: Norton, 2015), 191.

   79.    Lee, Cambridge Companion to Frederick Douglass, 23.

   80.    Frederick Douglass, “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?,” July 5, 1852.

   81.    The Letters of Stephen A. Douglas, ed. Robert W. Johannsen (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 399.

   82.    King quoted in Michael S. Green, Politics and America in Crisis: The Coming of the Civil War (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010), 77. Hamlin quoted in Mark Scroggins, Hannibal: The Life of Abraham Lincoln’s First Vice President (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994), 107.

   83.    Samuel F. B. Morse, The Present Attempt to Dissolve the American Union, a British Aristocratic Plot (New York, 1862), 38.

   84.    Samuel F. B. Morse to Sidney Morse, December 29, 1857, in Samuel F. B. Morse: His Letters and Journals, ed. Edward Lind Morse, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 2:331.

   85.    Abraham Lincoln, “Fragment on Slavery,” [April 1, 1854], in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:222–23; Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: Norton, 2010); John Stauffer, Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln (New York: Twelve, 2009); Robert Levine, The Lives of Frederick Douglass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

   86.    Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 1, 24–30.

   87.    Abraham Lincoln, Peoria Speech, October 16, 1854, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:266, 255, 275, 276.

   88.    Lincoln, “Fragment on Slavery,” [July 1, 1854], in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:222–23.

   89.    Abraham Lincoln to Joshua Speed, August 24, 1855, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:323.

   90.    Charles Sumner, The Crime Against Kansas (Boston, 1856); Longfellow to Sumner, May 28, 1856, The Letters of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 3:540; Excerpts from Long-fellow’s Account Books, transcribed from the original account books at the Houghton Library, Harvard University by James M. Shea, Director/Museum Curator, Longfellow National Historic Site, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

   91.    Quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 150.

   92.    Quoted in Haynes, The First American Political Conventions, 138, 173.

   93.    Quoted in Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 20.

   94.    “President Polk’s Diary,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1895, 237.

   95.    James Buchanan, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1857.

   96.    New York Herald, March 5, 1857.

   97.    Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).

   98.    New York Evening Journal [Albany, New York], March 7, 1857; The Liberator, March 13, 1857; The National Era [Washington, DC], March 19, 1857; The Independent [New York], March 19, 1857.

   99.    Philadelphia Inquirer, March 5, 1857.

 100.    Longfellow to Sumner, February 24, 1858, The Letters of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 4:65.

 101.    Abraham Lincoln, Speech at Springfield, Illinois, June 26, 1857.

 102.    Frederick Douglass, “The Dred Scott Decision,” Speech delivered before the American Anti-Slavery Society, New York, May 14, 1857, in Frederick Douglass: Selected Speeches and Writings, ed. Philip S. Foner; abridged and adapted by Yuval Taylor (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1999), 347–48, 351, 350.

Eight: THE FACE OF BATTLE

     1.    Samuel F. B. Morse to Sidney Morse, March 9, 1839, in Samuel F. B. Morse: His Letters and Journals, 2:129; and see Stauffer et al., Picturing Frederick Douglass.

     2.    “New Discovery—Engraving, and Burnet’s Cartoons,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine (London, 1839), 384.

     3.    Quoted in Alan Trachtenberg, Lincoln’s Smile and Other Enigmas (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 27.

     4.    Horace Traubel, With Walt Whitman in Camden, 2 vols. (New York: Mitchell Kennerley, 1915), Wednesday, August 8, 1888, 2:107.

     5.    Douglass’s essays on photography are reprinted in Stauffer et al., Picturing Frederick Douglass (quotations, xv, 127, 140–41).

     6.    Quoted in Trachtenberg, Lincoln’s Smile and Other Enigmas, 26.

     7.    The Liberator, September 10, 1858; Reverend Dr. Bellows, Speech, in Charles T. McClenachan, Detailed Report of the Proceedings Had in Commemoration of the Successful Laying of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable, by Order of the Common Council of the City of New York (New York: Edmund Jones & Co., Corporation Printers, 1863), 244.

     8.    Samuel F. B. Morse to Norvin Green, July 1855, in Samuel F. B. Morse: His Letters and Journals, 2:345.

     9.    The statistics are from J. Cutler Andrews, “The Southern Telegraph Company, 1861–65: A Chapter in the History of Wartime Communication,” Journal of Southern History 30 (1964): 319.

   10.    Rens Bod, A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 34.

   11.    Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Presidential Debates: The Challenge of Creating an Informed Electorate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 40, 21, 78.

   12.    Caleb Bingham, The Columbian Orator (1797; Troy, NY: 1803), 240–42.

   13.    Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (New York, 1855), 89.

   14.    Dan Monroe and Bruce Tap, Shapers of the Great Debate on the Civil War: A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005), 106–7.

   15.    The correspondence is reprinted in David Henry Leroy, ed., Mr. Lincoln’s Book: Publishing the Lincoln-Douglas Debates (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 2009).

   16.    Lincoln during the seventh debate, Alton, Illinois, October 15, 1858.

   17.    Leroy, Mr. Lincoln’s Book, ch. 1.

   18.    Quoted in Tony Horwitz, Midnight Rising: John Brown and the Raid That Sparked the Civil War (New York: Henry Holt, 2011), 81.

   19.    Baltimore Sun, October 31, 1857, and July 31, 1858.

   20.    Oregon State Constitution, Article II, Section 6, in The Constitution of the State of Oregon and Official Register of State, District, and County Officers, compiled and issued by Frank W. Benson (Salem, OR: Willis S. Duniway, State Printer, 1908), 14.

   21.    Leonidas W. Spratt, “Report on the Slave Trade, Made to the Southern Convention at Montgomery by L. W. Spratt,” DeBow’s Review 24 (June 1858): 477, 585; Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, ch. 14 (quotations, 398, 399).

   22.    George Fitzhugh, “The Conservative Principle; or, Social Evils and Their Remedies, Part II: The Slave Trade,” DeBow’s Review 22 (1857): 449, 455. See also Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 413.

   23.    Quoted in Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 291.

   24.    Freeman, “The Field of Blood.”

   25.    William H. Seward, Speech delivered at Rochester, October 25, 1858. And see Horwitz, Midnight Rising, 273.

   26.    Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, Written by Himself (Hartford, CT: Park Publishing Co., 1881), 389.

   27.    Horwitz, Midnight Rising, 142–43, 192, 153.

   28.    Robert L. Tsai, “John Brown’s Constitution,” Boston College Law Review 51 (2010): Appendix C, 205.

   29.    Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, 315. Henry David Thoreau, “A Plea for Captain John Brown,” Read to the Citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, October 30, 1859, in Henry David Thoreau, A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1866), 178, 167.

   30.    Fuller, The Book That Changed America, especially ch. 14.

   31.    Quoted in Horwitz, Midnight Rising, 213–15.

   32.    Samuel Longfellow, Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, with Extracts from his Journals and Correspondence, 2 vols. (Boston, 1886), 2:341–42.

   33.    On “Paul Revere’s Ride” as a fugitive slave narrative, see Lepore, “Longfellow’s Ride,” in The Story of America, ch. 15.

   34.    Quoted in Horwitz, Midnight Rising, 256.

   35.    Reuben Davis, Speech of the Honorable Reuben Davis on the State of the Union … [December 8, 1859] (Washington, DC: 1859), 5–6.

   36.    Abraham Lincoln, Speech delivered at Cooper Institute, New York City, February 27, 1860, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 3:544.

   37.    Leroy, Mr. Lincoln’s Book, 76.

   38.    Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 257.

   39.    Haynes, The First American Political Conventions, 173.

   40.    William Dean Howells, Life of Abraham Lincoln (summer 1860; reprint edition, Springfield: Illinois, 1938), v.

   41.    Howells, Life of Abraham Lincoln, 17–18.

   42.    Ibid., 47.

   43.    Quoted in Haynes, President-Making in the Gilded Age: The Nominating Conventions of 1876–1900 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2016), 151–57.

   44.    Official Proceedings of the Democratic National Convention, Held in 1860, at Charleston and Baltimore, prepared and published under the direction of John G. Parkhurst (Cleveland, 1860), 155.

   45.    Longfellow, Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 2:358.

   46.    Frederick Douglass, “A Plea for Freedom of Speech in Boston,” December 9, 1860, in Frederick Douglass Papers, Series One, Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, ed. John W. Blassingame et al., 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979–92), 3:420–24.

   47.    William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, Volume II: Secessionists Triumphant (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 340, 345.

   48.    Journal of the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, first of 7 vols. of Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1904–5), 1:7.

   49.    “The Last Years of Sam Houston,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, December 1865–May 1866 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1866), 634.

   50.    Longfellow, Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 2:361.

   51.    Jefferson Davis, Speech in Montgomery, Alabama, February 18, 1861, in Jefferson Davis: The Essential Writings, ed. William J. Cooper Jr. (New York: Random House, [2003] 2004), 202.

   52.    Alexander H. Stephens, “Cornerstone Address,” Savannah, Georgia, March 21, 1861, Macon Telegraph [Macon, Georgia], March 25, 1861.

   53.    Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 4:268–69, 272.

   54.    Douglass, “A Plea for Freedom of Speech in Boston.”

   55.    Stephanie McCurry, Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 1.

   56.    Quoted in McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 40.

   57.    James DeBow, The Interest in Slavery of the Southern Non-Slaveholder (Charleston: Evans & Cogswell, 1860), 9. See also McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 45.

   58.    Freehling, The Road to Disunion, Volume II, 533.

   59.    Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address; “May the Union be Perpetuated,” quoted in Lepore, A Is for American, 154.

   60.    Jefferson Davis, 36 Cong. Globe 917 (1860).

   61.    Quoted in Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2008), 62.

   62.    Faust, This Republic of Suffering, 125, 323; NYT, October 20, 1862. And see Jeff L. Rosenheim, Photography and the American Civil War (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013); J. Matthew Gallman and Gary W. Gallagher, eds., Lens of War: Exploring Iconic Photographs of the Civil War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015); George Sullivan, In the Wake of Battle: The Civil War Images of Mathew Brady (New York: Prestel, 2004).

   63.    Daly, Covering America, 106.

   64.    Alexander Gardner, Gardner’s Photographic Sketch Book of the War (Washington, DC: Philp & Solomons, 1866), 4.

   65.    Garry Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992, 2012), prologue.

   66.    Abraham Lincoln, “Address Delivered at the Dedication of the Cemetery at Gettysburg,” November 19, 1863, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 7:24.

   67.    Quoted in Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2007), 3.

   68.    W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Freedman’s Bureau,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1901, 354.

   69.    “The Slaves of Jefferson Davis Coming on to the Camp at Vicksburg,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, August 8, 1863; and see Harold Holzer, The Civil War in 50 Objects (New York: Penguin), ch. 29. And, more broadly, see Ira Berlin, Barbara Fields, et al., eds., Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

   70.    Quoted in John Hope Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation (1963; Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1995), xiv.

   71.    New York Tribune, September 24, 1862; Abraham Lincoln to Hannibal Hamlin, September 28, 1862, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 5:443. Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation, 48.

   72.    Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation, 101, 67–68; Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Medford, and Frank J. Williams, eds., The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 17.

   73.    Frederick Douglass, “January First 1863,” Douglass’ Monthly (January 1863); Abraham Lincoln, Annual Message to Congress, December 1, 1862, in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 5:538; Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation, 92, 97.

   74.    Lincoln quoted in Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation, 80.

   75.    Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation, 94–95. And see Mitch Kachun, Festivals of Freedom: Meaning and Memory in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1808–1915 (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), 103; Edna Greene Medford, “Imagined Promises, Bitter Realities: African Americans and the Meaning of the Emancipation Proclamation,” in The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views, 21, 22.

   76.    Medford, “Imagined Promises,” 23; Douglass’ Monthly, March 21, 1863.

   77.    McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 152, 154.

   78.    Quoted in Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 208–9.

   79.    Schuyler Colfax, 37 Cong. Globe 306 (1861). And see McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 155–56 and 206–7.

   80.    Quoted in McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 143, 150, 171, 175, 183.

   81.    McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 207–9; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), ch. 2, especially 139–43.

   82.    Lincoln to Horace Greeley, August 1862, The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 5:388.

   83.    DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage, 53.

   84.    A collection of Lincoln’s 1864 campaign buttons is held in the Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress.

   85.    Haynes, The First American Political Conventions, 194.

   86.    Quoted in Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 183–86.

   87.    James S. Rollins, 38 Cong. Globe 260 (1865); Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 190.

   88.    Benn Pitman, ed., The Assassination of President Lincoln and the Trial of the Conspirators (1865; Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 2005), 45.

   89.    Quoted in Richard Wightman Fox, Lincoln’s Body: A Cultural History (New York: Norton, 2015), 67.

   90.    Ibid., 64, 65.

   91.    Quotes are in ibid., 88, and Martha Hodes, Mourning Lincoln (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 78, 186.

   92.    Hodes, Mourning Lincoln, 186.

   93.    Quoted in Foner, The Fiery Trial, 317.

Nine: OF CITIZENS, PERSONS, AND PEOPLE

     1.    Edward Bates, Opinion of Attorney General Bates on Citizenship (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1862), 3. And, broadly, see Rogers M. Smith, Civil Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997).

     2.    Quoted in William J. Novak, “The Legal Transformation of Citizenship in Nineteenth-Century America,” in Meg Jacobs et al., eds., The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 85–119.

     3.    William Jay, The Life of John Jay: With Selections from His Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), 194.

     4.    James Madison, Federalist No. 52 (1788).

     5.    Levi Morton, Speech in the House, 46 Cong. Rec. 2664 (April 22, 1880).

     6.    Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 80 (1788).

     7.    Charles Sumner, “Equality before the Law,” in Charles Sumner: His Complete Works, 20 vols. (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1900) 3:65–66.

     8.    Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 22.

     9.    Gaillard Hunt, The American Passport: Its History (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1898), 131–32.

   10.    Hunt, The American Passport, 15. The term “free persons of color” entered the American lexicon by way of French Louisiana, where it generally referred to people of mixed ancestry. In 1810, the first U.S. Census conducted after the Louisiana Purchase counted free persons of color in the new territory. The term really only entered U.S. legal discourse in the 1810s, when, in slave states, free persons of color were required to register with the local government. “In the early nineteenth century, the term ‘persons of color’ included free blacks, persons suspected of having African ancestry, or, in a state that was still very rural and sometimes suspicious of strangers, any non-white person whose antecedents were locally unknown. The legal terms ‘free black’ and ‘free person of color’ referred to the civil status of a black who was either born free or legally manumitted after birth” (Mary R. Bullard, “Deconstructing a Manumission Document: Mary Stafford’s Free Paper,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 89 [2005]: 287). By the 1830s, the designation “free person of color” had become commonplace in state laws—see, for example, McCord, The Statutes at Large of South Carolina, 7:468 (citing a law from 1834); Laws of the Republic of Texas Passed at the Session of the Fourth Congress (Houston: Telegraph Power Press), 151 (citing a law from 1840).

   11.    Hunt, American Passport, 50; Craig Robertson, The Passport in America: The History of a Document (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 131; The United States Passport: Past, Present, Future (Washington, DC: Passport Office, Department of State, 1976).

   12.    Rules Governing Applications for Passports (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, 1896).

   13.    Steven Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 79, 106, 129.

   14.    The Selected Papers of Thaddeus Stevens, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer and Holly Byers Ochoa, 2 vols. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998), 2:16.

   15.    “The Colored People of Virginia,” The Anti-Slavery Reporter, October 2, 1865, 250.

   16.    Eric Foner, Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy, with a foreword by Steven Hahn (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press/Walter Lynwood Fleming Lectures in Southern History, 2007), 50; Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 22. And see W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1935).

   17.    Quoted in Wade, Fiery Cross, 35. And see Michael Newton, White Robes and Burning Crosses: A History of the Ku Klux Klan from 1866 (Jefferson, NC: Macfarland, 2014); Jacqueline Goldsby, A Spectacular Secret: Lynching in American Life and Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006).

   18.    The Papers of Andrew Johnson, ed. Paul H. Bergeron, 16 vols. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1967–2000), 10:42–48.

   19.    On the rise of state power, see Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859–1877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Liberty and Coercion: The Paradox of American Government (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016); Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919 (New York: Norton, 1987); Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890–1916 (1988).

   20.    U.S. Const. amend. 14.

   21.    Quoted in DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage, 60–63. And, broadly, see also Melanie Gustafson, Kristie Miller, and Elisabeth I. Perry, eds., We Have Come to Stay: American Women and Political Parties 1880–1960 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999); Jo Freeman, We Will be Heard: Women’s Struggles for Political Power in the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield, 2008); and Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party.

   22.    Quoted in Martin Gruberg, Women in American Politics: An Assessment and Sourcebook (Oshkosh, WI: Academia Press, 1968), 3–4. DuBois, Feminism and Suffrage, 60–63.

   23.    U.S. Const. amend 14.

   24.    39 Cong. Globe 2767 (1866).

   25.    Quoted in Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet, 205.

   26.    Ibid., 215; Richard Goldstein, Mine Eyes Have Seen: A First-Person History of the Events That Shaped America. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 126.

   27.    On the history and force of impeachment, see Lawrence Tribe and Joshua Matz, To End a Presidency: The Power of Impeachment (New York: Basic Books, 2018).

   28.    On Chinese immigration and exclusion, see Earl M. Maltz, “The Federal Government and the Problem of Chinese Rights in the Era of the Fourteenth Amendment,” Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 17 (1994): 223–52; John Hayakawa Torok, “Reconstruction and Racial Nativism: Chinese Immigrants and the Debates on the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments and Civil Rights Laws,” Asian Law Journal 3 (1996): 55–103; Najia Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848–1882 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Bill Ong Hing, Making and Remaking Asian America through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993).

   29.    People v. Hall, 4 Cal. 399 (1854).

   30.    United States Supreme Court, United States Reports: Cases Adjudged in the Supreme Court (Banks & Bros., Law Publishers, 1898), 697.

   31.    39 Cong. Globe 1026 (1866). And see Garrett Epps, Democracy Reborn: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Fight for Equal Rights in Post-Civil War America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 172.

   32.    Stephen K. Williams, ed., United States Supreme Court Reports: Cases Argued and Decided in the Supreme Court of the United States (Newark, NJ: Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company, 1854), 1071.

   33.    40 Cong. Globe 287 (1869), appendix.

   34.    Edward McPherson, A Political Manual for 1869 (Washington, DC: Philp & Solomons, 1869), 401.

   35.    40 Cong. Globe 1009 (1869).

   36.    Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:13. And, broadly, see Edlie L. Wong, Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Fictions of Citizenship (New York: New York University Press, 2015).

   37.    U.S. Const. amend. 15.

   38.    Ellen Fitzpatrick, The Highest Glass Ceiling: Women’s Quest for the American Presidency (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 9, 42. Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 52.

   39.    The quotations are from National Party Conventions, 1831–1984, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, Inc., 1987), 48–49; Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 49; Haynes, President-Making in the Gilded Age, 17–18.

   40.    Haynes, President-Making in the Gilded Age, 10, 65, 29.

   41.    Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010), 45.

   42.    William A. White, The Autobiography of William Allen White (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 218–19; Brooke Speer Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease: Nineteenth-Century Populist and Twentieth-Century Progressive,” PhD dissertation, George Washington University, 2002, 145, 155–56; Mary E. Lease, speech to the National Council of Women of the United States, Washington, DC, February 24, 1891, in Rachel Avery Foster, ed., Transactions of the National Council of Women of the United States: Assembled in Washington, D.C., February 22 to 25, 1891 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1891), 157.

   43.    Quoted in Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 18.

   44.    Mary E. Lease, speech to the National Council of Women of the United States, Washington, DC, February 24, 1891.

   45.    See Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920,” American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620–47; and Michael McGerr, “Political Style and Women’s Power, 1830–1930,” JAH 77 (1990): 864–85.

   46.    Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, 334–36.

   47.    Gerstle, Liberty and Coercion, 111. And, on the sweep of this era, see Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987), especially chs. 2, 3, and 4; Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, especially chs. 7, 8, and 9; and William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: Norton, 1992), especially chs. 2, 3, and 5.

   48.    Quoted in Judith Freeman Clark, The Gilded Age (New York: Facts On File, 2006), 101.

   49.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 22–23.

   50.    Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, 318–24.

   51.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 30.

   52.    “Farmers’ Declaration of Independence,” Pacific Rural Press [San Francisco], August 30, 1873.

   53.    Quoted in Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 25.

   54.    Quoted in Jefferson Cowie, The Great Exception: The New Deal & the Limits of American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press/Politics and Society in Twentieth-Century America, 2016), 42.

   55.    Quoted in Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest, 264.

   56.    Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 60.

   57.    Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, 377–87.

   58.    United States, Department of the Interior, Annual Reports of the Department of the Interior (Washington, DC, 1883), 732.

   59.    Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, 357–58; Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 72.

   60.    Conkling’s chicanery is fully recounted in Adam Winkler, We the Corporations: How American Businesses Won Their Civil Rights (New York: Liveright, 2017).

   61.    Ibid.

   62.    Ibid.

   63.    Quoted in Cowie, The Great Exception, 37.

   64.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 165. Orr’s language was both commonplace and consequential: as I argue in The Secret History of Wonder Woman (New York: Knopf, 2014), the nineteenth-century notion of female superiority served as an inspiration for the comic book superhero Wonder Woman, created in 1941.

   65.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 31–32.

   66.    Freeman, A Room at a Time, 34–35; Frances Willard, My Happy Half-Century: The Autobiography of an American Woman (London: Ward, Lock, and Bowden, 1894), 312.

   67.    Sarah E. V. Emery, Seven Financial Conspiracies Which Have Enslaved the American People (Lansing, MI: Robert Smith and Co., 1888), 8. And see Russell B. Nye, “Sarah Elizabeth Van de Vort Emery,” in Notable American Women, 1607–1950, ed. Edward T. James et al., 3 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), 3:582–83.

   68.    Quoted in Haynes, President-Making in the Gilded Age, 78.

   69.    Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 59; Freeman, We Will be Heard, 86–87; Gustafson et al., We Have Come to Stay, 6–7.

   70.    On George’s life, see Edward J. Rose, Henry George (New York: Twayne, 1968), and David Montgomery, “Henry George,” American National Biography Online.

   71.    Henry George, “What the Railroad Will Bring Us,” in Henry George: Collected Journalistic Writings, ed. Kenneth C. Wenzer, 4 vols. (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharp, 2003), 1:15–26; Rose, Henry George, 54.

   72.    Rose, Henry George, 40.

   73.    Henry George, “Money in Elections,” North American Review 136 (March 1883): 211.

   74.    Roy G. Saltman, The History and Politics of Voting Technology: In Quest of Integrity and Public Confidence (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 84, 91–92.

   75.    Henry George, “Bribery in Elections,” Overland Monthly 7 (December 1871): 497–504.

   76.    Rose, Henry George, 121; Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 53.

   77.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 62, 60, 201.

   78.    Mary E. Lease, The Problem of Civilization Solved (Chicago: Laird and Lee, 1895). And see Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 131–33.

   79.    Quoted in John Henry Wigmore, The Australian Ballot System (Boston: C. C. Soule, 1889), 23–24; Lionel E. Fredman, The Australian Ballot: The Story of an American Reform (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1968), ix.

   80.    Fredman, The Australian Ballot, 42–43.

   81.    Herbert J. Bass, ‘I Am a Democrat’: The Political Career of David Bennett Hill (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1961), 149; New York Herald, January 17, February 9, 1890 and NYT, March 4, 29, 1890.

   82.    Fredman, The Australian Ballot, 53–55; Mia Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009), 79; John Crowley, “Uses and Abuses of the Secret Ballot in the American Age of Reform,” in Romain Bertrand, Jean-Louis Briquet, and Peter Pels, eds., Cultures of Voting: The Hidden History of the Secret Ballot (London: C. Hurst & Co., 2007), 59.

   83.    Quoted in Jack Beatty, Age of Betrayal: The Triumph of Money in America, 1865–1900 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 200.

   84.    Michael Kazin, A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan (New York: Knopf, 2006), 7–20.

   85.    Quoted in Kazin, A Godly Hero, 48–49.

   86.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 76–77.

   87.    Russell B. Nye, “Sarah Elizabeth Van de Vort Emery,” in Notable American Women, 1607–1950, edited by Edward T. James et al., 3 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), 3:582–83.

   88.    Quoted in Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 81.

   89.    Donnelly’s speech appears in Scott J. Hammond et al., Classics of American Political and Constitutional Thought (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub., 2007), 229.

   90.    National People’s Party Platform, Omaha, Nebraska, July 4, 1892.

   91.    Quoted in Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 93, 115.

   92.    Quoted in Robert C. McMath Jr., American Populism: A Social History, 1877–1898 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 181.

   93.    Quoted in Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 121.

   94.    William Jennings Bryan, “An Income Tax,” 1894, in Speeches of William Jennings Bryan, 2 vols. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1909), 2:178.

   95.    Kazin, A Godly Hero, 51; Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan and Trust Company, 57 U.S. 429 (1895).

   96.    Broadly, see Julie A. Reuben, The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press/Ideas in Context, 1991); Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

   97.    A. Scott Berg, Wilson (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2013), 107. Cooper writes: “He really had only one subject, which he studied with quiet obsessiveness: How does power really work?” See John Milton Cooper Jr., ed., Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson: Progressivism, Internationalism, War and Peace (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 17.

   98.    Quoted in Daly, Covering America, 155.

   99.    Ibid., 112–16, 125–27.

 100.    Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 110.

 101.    Julius Chambers, News Hunting on Three Continents (New York: Mitchell Kennerley, 1921), 7. Schudson, Origins of the Ideal of Objectivity, 170–80.

 102.    “Expressions of Regret,” NYT, October 30, 1897.

 103.    1896 Democratic Party Platform.

 104.    William Jennings Bryan and Robert W. Cherny, The Cross of Gold: Speech Delivered before the National Democratic Convention at Chicago, July 9, 1896 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997).

 105.    “Repudiation Has Won,” NYT, July 10, 1896.

 106.    Quoted in Kazin, A Godly Hero, 63–65.

 107.    Quoted in Richard Franklin Bensel, Passion and Preferences: William Jennings Byran and the 1896 Democratic National Convention (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 304; Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 178–79.

 108.    Kazin, A Godly Hero, 66–77.

 109.    Orr, “Mary Elizabeth Lease,” 198, 190, 200–2.

 110.    “Brief History of the AHA,” https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/brief-history-of-the-aha, accessed June 24, 2017.

 111.    Max Weber and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Routledge, 2009), 51.

 112.    Quoted in Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate over Science and Religion (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 34.

 113.    Frances FitzGerald, The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017), 115.

 114.    Frederick Jackson Turner, The Significance of the Frontier in American History (Wisconsin, 1893).

 115.    Isaacson, The Innovators, 35–36. And see Geoffrey D. Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982).

 116.    Turner, The Significance of the Frontier.

 117.    Anna R. Paddon and Sally Turner, “African Americans and the World’s Columbian Exposition,” Illinois Historical Journal 88 (1995): 19–36.

 118.    Frederick Douglass, The Reason Why the Colored Man Is Not in the Columbian Exposition (Chicago: Privately printed, 1893), introduction.

 119.    Darlene Clark Hine, Black Women in American History: From Colonial Times through the Nineteenth Century, 4 vols. (Brooklyn, NY: Carlson Pub., 1990), 3:336.

 120.    On Wells’s life, see Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely. For her writings, see Ida B. Wells-Barnett, The Light of Truth: Writings of an Anti-lynching Crusader, ed. Mia Bay and Henry Louis Gates Jr. (New York: Penguin Books, 2014). Frederick Douglass, Letter, in Ida B. Wells, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases (New York: The New Age, 1891), 51.

 121.    Douglass, The Reason Why the Colored Man Is Not in the Columbian Exposition, introduction.

 122.    Paddon and Turner, “African Americans and the World’s Columbian Exposition.”

 123.    Quoted in William S. McFeely, Frederick Douglass (New York: Norton, 1991), 371.

 124.    Frederick Douglass, “The Blessings of Liberty and Education,” Manassas, Virginia, September 3, 1894, in Frederick Douglass Papers, 5:629.

 125.    “Death of Fred Douglass,” NYT, February 21, 1895.

 126.    “Tributes of Two Races,” NYT, February 26, 1895.

 127.    “The Duty of the Bar to Uphold the Constitutional Guarantees of Contracts and Private Property,” American Law Review 26 (1892): 674.

 128.    Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 57 (1896).

 129.    W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A. McClurg, 1903), 3.

Ten: EFFICIENCY AND THE MASSES

     1.    Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1999), 282, xv, 280, 175; on the House of Truth, see 120–23 and Brad Snyder, The House of Truth: A Washington Political Salon and the Foundations of American Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), especially ch. 5.

     2.    Snyder, House of Truth, 3. On the Progressive urge, see Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967).

     3.    See the OED. The quotation is from “Merchants Hold a Radio Luncheon,” NYT, March 18, 1927.

     4.    Quoted in Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion: An American History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 27; “Candidate Watson’s Book,” Indianapolis News, July 27, 1896.

     5.    Quoted in George McKenna, The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 242.

     6.    For discussions of distinctions among these groups, see Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage, 1955); Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870–1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and Glenda Gilmore, ed., Who Were the Progressives? (New York: Palgrave, 2002).

     7.    Elizabeth Sanders, Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 154; Robert Post, Citizens Divided: Campaign Finance Reform and the Constitution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 30; Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 270.

     8.    Martin E. Marty, Modern American Religion: The Irony of It All, 1893–1919, 3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 1:286, 362n10; Henry George, Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions, and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth, the Remedy (London: W. Reeves, 1884), 426; Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932), 52.

     9.    Gladden is quoted in Gary J. Dorrien, Social Ethics in the Making: Interpreting an American Tradition (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 65.

   10.    Degler, Out of Our Past, 346; FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 65–69.

   11.    Kazin, A Godly Hero, 124.

   12.    Daly, Covering America, 132–38.

   13.    Emilio Aguinaldo to the Philippine People, February 5, 1899, in Daniel B. Schirmer and Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, eds., The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance (Boston: South End Press, 1987), 20–21; Bryan, “Will It Pay?,” New York Journal, January 15, 1899; Kazin, A Godly Hero, 91.

   14.    Albert J. Beveridge, “In Support of an American Empire,” 56 Cong. Rec. 704–12 (January 9, 1900); Ben Tillman, 56 Cong. Rec. 836–37 (January 20, 1899).

   15.    [Unsigned] black soldier to the Wisconsin Weekly Advocate, May 17, 1900; and Rienzi B. Lemus to the Richmond Planet, November 4, 1899, in Willard B. Gatewood Jr., ed., “Smoked Yankees” and the Struggle for Empire: Letters from Negro Soldiers, 1898–1902 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1987), 279–81, 246–47.

   16.    C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955), 82; Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 26, 29, 31, 26–27, 37, 45–46, 40; Twain quoted in Kathleen Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (New York: Knopf, 2002), 203; Richard Rothstein, The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America (New York: Liveright, 2017), 41–45.

   17.    W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Study of the Negro Problems,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 11 (1898): 1. On the early history of surveys, see Robert Wuthnow, Inventing American Religion: Polls, Surveys, and the Tenuous Quest for a Nation’s Faith (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 8–9, and especially 15–43. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Henry Holt, 1993), 226.

   18.    Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely, 95; Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 10; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 411.

   19.    Theodore Roosevelt, “Address of President Roosevelt at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the Office Building of the House of Representatives” (“The Man with the Muck-Rake”), April 14, 1906; Roosevelt, “The Man with the Muck-Rake,” The Outlook, April 21, 1906.

   20.    Ida M. Tarbell, All in the Day’s Work: An Autobiography (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 241; Weinberg, Taking on the Trust, 227; Daly, Covering America, 148.

   21.    Tarbell, All in the Day’s Work, 6; Ida M. Tarbell, The History of the Standard Oil Company, 2 vols. (1902; New York: Macmillan, 1925), 1:vii, 37.

   22.    Quoted in Kazin, A Godly Hero, 125.

   23.    Berg, Wilson, 44, 49, 73, 78, 81, 103–5; Mark Benbow, “Wilson the Man,” in Ross A. Kennedy, ed., A Companion to Woodrow Wilson (Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2013), 9–37.

   24.    Woodrow Wilson, Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1885), 110–11; Woodrow Wilson, Constitutional Government in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1911), 56, 60, 69.

   25.    Quoted in Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt, 203; Kazin, A Godly Hero, 105–6.

   26.    Nikil Saval, Cubed: A Secret History of the Workplace (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 41, 13, 36, 42, 266; Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (London: Picador, 1995), 4; Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 11; Kazin, A Godly Hero, 114.

   27.    Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt, 125, 207, 213–14; Kazin, A Godly Hero, 114.

   28.    Quoted in Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt, 225.

   29.    Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order: Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861–1913 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 180, table 5-1. Bryan’s speech is reproduced in Paolo E. Coletta, “The Election of 1908,” in Schlesinger, History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, 3:2115. On his reception, see Kazin, A Godly Hero, 145–46.

   30.    Quoted in Steven R. Weisman, The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln, Teddy Roosevelt, Wilson: How the Income Tax Transformed America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 227.

   31.    Stanley, Dimensions of Law, 211–12, table 5-5; “History of the 1040,” Chicago Tribune, March 27, 1994.

   32.    Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 65, 156, 375.

   33.    Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).

   34.    Shugerman, The People’s Courts, 173; 62 Cong. Rec. 472 (1912), appendix.

   35.    On this point, especially, see Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, ch. 5.

   36.    Irving Fisher, “The Need for Health Insurance,” American Labor Legislation Review 7 (1917): 9–23.

   37.    Arthur J. Viseltear, “Compulsory Health Insurance in California, 1915–1918,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (1969): 170–71; Odin W. Anderson, “Health Insurance in the United States, 1910–1920,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 5 (1950): 370–71; Ronald Numbers, “The Specter of Socialized Medicine: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance,” in Numbers, ed. Compulsory Health Insurance: The Continuing American Debate (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 3–24.

   38.    Nancy Woloch, Muller v. Oregon: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1996), 5.

   39.    Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 333–40 (quotation, 337).

   40.    Quoted in Woloch, Muller v. Oregon, 17.

   41.    Woloch, Muller v. Oregon, 8.

   42.    Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 394–95.

   43.    “The Brandeis Brief,” Louis D. Brandeis School of Law Library, https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-brandeis-brief-in-its-entirety, accessed July 9, 2017.

   44.    This element of Brandeis’s argument is quoted and discussed in Sally J. Kenney, For Whose Protection? Reproductive Hazards and Exclusionary Politics in the United States and Britain (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 45–46.

   45.    Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 10, and see also ch. 8.

   46.    Louis Brandeis, “Efficiency and Social Ideas,” 1914, in Philippa Strum, ed., Brandeis on Democracy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995), 33.

   47.    Frederick W. Taylor, “The Gospel of Efficiency,” American Magazine 71 (1911): 479–80, 570–81. And see Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper & Bros., 1911).

   48.    Matthew Stewart, The Management Myth: Debunking Modern Business Philosophy (New York: Norton, 2009), 48–50.

   49.    On immigration in this era, see John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955), and John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985).

   50.    Painter, Standing at Armageddon, xix.

   51.    Stephen P. Meyer, The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908–1921 (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1981), 2, 5, 12. Chrysler is quoted in Maury Klein, Rainbow’s End: The Crash of 1929 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 29.

   52.    Quoted in Janet F. Davidson et al., On the Move: Transportation and the American Story (New York: National Geographic, 2003), 165.

   53.    Jill Lepore, The Mansion of Happiness: A History of Life and Death (New York: Knopf, 2012), ch. 6.

   54.    Meyer, The Five Dollar Day, 6, 99, 156.

   55.    Philippa Strum, Louis D. Brandeis: Justice for the People (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 160.

   56.    Edna Yost, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Partners for Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1949), 185–88; “Roads Could Save $1,000,000 a Day,” NYT, November 22, 1910; Strum, Louis D. Brandeis: Justice for the People, 166–67.

   57.    Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking, 2007), 3–4, 474–77.

   58.    Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 265, 257.

   59.    Woodrow Wilson, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1913; Theodore Roosevelt, “New Nationalism,” Speech, Osawatomie, Kansas, 1910; Berg, Wilson, 294.

   60.    “Women Leap Suddenly Into Political Favor, Now Courted by All Parties” New York Herald, August 11, 1912.

   61.    McGerr, “Political Style and Women’s Power.”

   62.    Quoted in Geoffrey Cowan, Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary (New York: Norton, 2016), 99.

   63.    Quotations from Cowan, Let the People Rule, 208, 259.

   64.    Roosevelt’s senior thesis at Harvard in 1880 was titled “Practicability of Equalizing Men and Women before the Law”; Freeman, We Will be Heard, 23, 30, 37, 52, 55.

   65.    Quotations from Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 123, 173.

   66.    Sidney Milkis, Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the Transformation of American Democracy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009).

   67.    Wilson, Inaugural Address.

   68.    Louis Brandeis, Other People’s Money: and How the Bankers Use It (New York: F. A. Stokes, 1913), 33, 99; Strum, Brandeis on Democracy, 15.

   69.    David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 9–11, 384–390.

   70.    James Weldon Johnson, “President Wilson’s ‘New Freedom’ and the Negro,” in The Selected Writings of James Weldon Johnson, ed. Sondra Kathryn Wilson, 2 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 1 (The New York Age Editorials, 1914–1923):182.

   71.    Eric Rauchway, Blessed Among Nations: How the World Made America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006), 7.

   72.    Henry James to Rhoda Broughton, August 10, 1914, in The Letters of Henry James, selected and edited by Percy Lubbock, 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 2:389.

   73.    See, for example, the reckoning in Eric Hobsbawn, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914–1991 (New York: Pantheon, 1994), 6–7.

   74.    Quoted in Darren Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sun Belt: Plain-Folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservatism (New York: Norton, 2011), 30.

   75.    Quotations from FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 71–79, 97, 113.

   76.    Quotations from ibid., 113; Kazin, A Godly Hero, 263–64; Larson, Summer for the Gods, 39.

   77.    Quoted in Jon Butler et al., Religion in American Life: A Short History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 329.

   78.    Charles Benedict Davenport, Eugenics, the Science of Human Improvement by Better Breeding (New York: Henry Holt, 1910); Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 42–43.

   79.    Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race; Or, the Racial Basis of European History (New York: Scribner, 1916), 10. And see Mark A. Largent, Breeding Contempt: The History of Coerced Sterilization in the United States (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008).

   80.    Quotations from FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 102–14.

   81.    Quoted in Kazin, A Godly Hero, 215.

   82.    Quoted in Berg, Wilson, 417.

   83.    Ibid., 384, 412, 404–5.

   84.    Charlotte Perkins Gilman, “A Woman’s Party,” The Suffragist 8 (1920): 8–9; Campaign in Colorado Donkey with National Woman’s Party sign advocating opposition to Democratic Party, Colorado, United States, 1916, Library of Congress; “Last Minute Activities of the Woman’s Party,” The Suffragist 4 (1916): 4–5; Berg, Wilson, 417; Cooper, Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson, 126.

   85.    Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman, 93–95; Mary Chapman and Angela Mills, Treacherous Texts: U.S. Suffrage Literature, 1846–1946 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011), 294.

   86.    Mary Alexander and Marilyn Childress, “The Zimmerman Telegram,” Social Education 45, 4 (April 1981): 266.

   87.    Wilson, War Message to Congress, April 2, 1917; Kenneth Whyte, Hoover: An Extraordinary Life in Extraordinary Times (New York: Knopf, 2017), 181.

   88.    Robert Lansing, Address before the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps . . . July 29, 1917 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1917), 5.

   89.    John Dewey, “Conscription of Thought,” The New Republic [hereafter TNR], September 1, 1917, 128–29; Ronald Schaffer, America in the Great War: The Rise of the War Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 4. And see Jonathan Auerbach, Weapons of Democracy: Propaganda, Progressivism, and American Public Opinion (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015).

   90.    Quoted in Schaffer, America in the Great War, 15.

   91.    W. E. B. Du Bois, “The African Roots of War,” Atlantic Monthly, May 1915; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 554–56; Schaffer, America in the Great War, 75.

   92.    Billie Holiday, “Strange Fruit,” 1939. The poem was published as “Bitter Fruit” (1937).

   93.    On Lippmann’s role in the Inquiry, see Steel, Walter Lippmann, ch. 11.

   94.    W. Elliot Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America: A Short History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 62–63; Weisman, Great Tax Wars, 333, 337; Webber and Wildavsky, History of Taxation and Expenditure in the Western World, 421; “War Savings Societies—A Home Defense,” Medical Times 46 (1918): 24. The war advanced what the historian Julia C. Ott has called the ideology of an “investors’ democracy”: Ott, When Wall Street Met Main Street: The Quest for an Investors’ Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). And see also Meg Jacobs, “Pocketbook Politics: Democracy and the Market in Twentieth-Century America,” in Meg Jacobs et al., eds., The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).

   95.    Rauchway, Blessed Among Nations, 148; Schaffer, America in the Great War, 58, 66.

   96.    Schaffer, America in the Great War, 101, 97; Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in America Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), especially ch. 2; Lisa McGirr, The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State (New York: Norton, 2016), xviii–xxi. And Darrow as quoted in John A. Farrell, Clarence Darrow: Attorney for the Damned (New York: Doubleday, 2011), 327.

   97.    Quoted in Steel, Walter Lippmann, 143, 147, 148.

   98.    Hobsbawn, The Age of Extremes, 13, 97.

   99.    Theodore Roosevelt, Roosevelt in the Kansas City Star; War-time Editorials (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1921), 274.

 100.    Steel, Walter Lippmann, 152; Fredrik Logevall, Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam (New York: Random House, 2012), 3–4; Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 141–58.

 101.    Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 367, 561–78; Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 365.

 102.    Berg, Wilson, 568–70.

 103.    H. G. Wells, Outline of History (London, 1920), 1066–67.

 104.    Steel, Walter Lippmann, 158; John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920), 41, 228.

 105.    Berg, Wilson, 605–7.

 106.    Ibid., 613–14.

 107.    Ibid., 619, 633–38, 664; Cooper, Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson, 16.

 108.    Walter Lippmann, “The Basic Problem of Democracy,” Atlantic Monthly, November 1919, 616.

 109.    Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1922), 364.

 110.    Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, with a new foreword by Ronald Steel (1922; New York: Free Press, 1997), 356; intelligence bureaus: 242–51.

 111.    Quoted in McGerr, “Political Style and Women’s Power,” 833.

 112.    Woloch, Muller v. Oregon, 58–59; Kenney, For Whose Protection?, 46–47.

 113.    Warren G. Harding, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1921; David C. Mearns and Verner W. Clapp, comp., The Constitution of the United States together with An Account of Its Travels Since September 17, 1787 (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1958), 1–17; Kammen, A Machine That Would Go of Itself, 252.

 114.    James M. Beck, The Constitution of the United States: A Brief Study of the Genesis, Formulation and Political Philosophy of the Constitution of the United States (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1922), 110; Thomas Reed Powell, “Constitutional Metaphors, a Review of James M. Beck’s The Constitution of the United States, Originally Published in TNR on February 11, 1925. And see the typescript, “Constitutional Metaphors,” and the poem, “The Constitution Is a Dock,” in Thomas Reed Powell Papers, Special Collections, Harvard Law School, Box F, Folder 11.

 115.    Elmer Rice, The Adding Machine: A Play in Seven Scenes (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1923), 9.

 116.    “Thomas Watson,” IBM Archives: Transcript of Thomas Watson comments on “THINK,” https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/multimedia/think_trans.html, accessed July 5, 2017.

 117.    Harding, Inaugural Address.

 118.    Klein, Rainbow’s End, 28.

 119.    Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America, 73n13; Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation: The People’s Business (New York: Macmillan, 1924), 18, 137; “Taxpayers’ League Target of Attack before Committee,” Atlanta Constitution, November 10, 1927; “Clashes Electrify Estate Tax Hearing,” NYT, November 9, 1927. On the Mellon family as funders of the League, see “W. L. Mellon Listed as Tax Lobby Donor,” NYT, November 6, 1929. Holmes on taxation: Compañía General de Tabacos de Filipinas v. Collector of Internal Revenue, 275 U.S. 87 (1927). Webber and Wildavsky, History of Taxation and Expenditure in the Western World, 423.

 120.    Whyte, Hoover, 226, 206, 233–37.

 121.    Ibid., 206, 257–58; Ellis W. Hawley, “Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an ‘Associative State,’ 1921–1928,” JAH 61 (1974): 116–40 (quotation, 121); Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 36–38.

 122.    Samuel Strauss, “Things Are in the Saddle,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1924, 579.

 123.    League of Nations, Industrialization and Foreign Trade (Geneva: League of Nations, 1945), 13.

 124.    Eric Rauchway, The Great Depression and the New Deal: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 8–9, 28–32.

 125.    Rauchway, The Great Depression and the New Deal, 11.

 126.    Quoted in Steel, Walter Lippmann, 285.

 127.    Daniel Levin, “Federalists in the Attic: Original Intent, the Heritage Movement, and Democratic Theory,” Law and Social Inquiry 29 (2004): 308.

 128.    Ott, When Wall Street Met Main Street, 36–54, and see also Morrison H. Heckscher, “The American Wing Rooms in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,” Winterthur Portfolio 46 (2012): 161–78; and Wendy Kaplan, “R. T. H. Halsey: An Ideology of Collecting American Decorative Arts,” Winterthur Portfolio 17 (1982): 43–53.

 129.    Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001, 2017), 105, 118.

 130.    David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 39–55.

 131.    Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Prince ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), introduction and chs. 1 and 2; Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, 52–53, 55.

 132.    Linda Gordon, The Second Coming of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and the American Political Tradition (New York: Liveright, 2017); Robert K. Murray, The 103rd Ballot: Democrats and the Disaster in Madison Square Garden (New York: Harper & Row, 1976).

 133.    Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, 13.

 134.    Alain LeRoy Locke and Winold Reiss, The New Negro: An Interpretation (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1925), 5; the author of “The Negro Digs Up His Past” was the historian and writer Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, whose collection became an important part of the New York Public Library’s Schomburg Center (originally the Division of Negro Literature, History and Prints); Douglas, Terrible Honesty, 93.

 135.    W. E. B. Du Bois and Lothrop Stoddard, Report of Debate Conducted by the Chicago Forum: “Shall the Negro be encouraged to seek cultural equality?” (Chicago: Chicago Forum Council, 1929).

 136.    George Lloyd Bird and Frederic Eaton Merwin, The Newspaper and Society: A Book of Readings (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1942), 30; Daly, Covering America, 148–49; Schudson, Origins of the Ideal of Objectivity, 249, citing Ivy Ledbetter Lee, Publicity: Some of the Things It Is and Is Not (New York: Industries Publishing Co., 1925), 21.

 137.    Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 5 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), 5 (1905–1930):294–95; Isaiah Wilner, The Man Time Forgot: A Tale of Genius, Betrayal, and the Creation of Time Magazine (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 83–86; Alan Brinkley, The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century (New York: Knopf, 2010), 99; Daly, Covering America, 195.

 138.    Mott, A History of American Magazines, 5:230, 319–21; Sarah Smith, “Lessons Learned: Fact-Checking Disasters of the Past,” https://netzwerkrecherche.org/files/nr-werkstatt-16-fact-checking.pdf#page=24.

 139.    Douglas, Terrible Honesty, 35; Ben Yagoda, About Town: The New Yorker and the World It Made (New York: Scribner, 2000), 202–3. And see especially Sarah Cain, “‘We Stand Corrected’: New Yorker Fact-Checking and the Business of American Accuracy,” in Writing for the New Yorker: Critical Essays on an American Periodical, ed. Fiona Green (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 36–57.

 140.    Larry Tye, The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations (New York: Crown, 1998), 78–79; Ernest Gruening, “The Higher Hokum,” The Nation, April 16, 1924, 450; Edward L. Bernays, “Putting Politics on the Market,” The Independent, May 19, 1928, 470–72; Edward L. Bernays, “This Business of Propaganda,” The Independent, September 1, 1928, 198–99.

 141.    Edward Bernays, “Propaganda and Impropaganda,” June 1928, Edward L. Bernays Papers, Library of Congress, Container 422: 1919–1934, Folder: Speech and Article File, 1919–1962.

 142.    Edward L. Bernays, Propaganda (New York: Horace Liveright, 1928), 9.

 143.    Quoted in Larson, Summer for the Gods, 32.

 144.    Quoted in ibid., 7, 32; Elizabeth Sanders, Roots of Reform, 55; FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 125–27.

 145.    Richard J. Jensen, Clarence Darrow: The Creation of an American Myth (New York: Greenwood, 1992), 3; Farrell, Clarence Darrow: Attorney for the Damned, 13; Darrow, The Story of My Life, 244.

 146.    Quoted in Farrell, Clarence Darrow: Attorney for the Damned, 341.

 147.    Farrell, Clarence Darrow: Attorney for the Damned, 362; Lawrence W. Levine, Defender of the Faith (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), vii–viii.

 148.    Darrow, The Story of My Life, 249.

 149.    Marquis James, “Dayton, Tennessee,” The New Yorker [hereafter TNY], July 4, 1926. Mencken is quoted in FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 135.

 150.    For the trial, see Jeffrey P. Moran, The Scopes Trial: A Brief History with Documents (New York: Palgrave, 2002).

 151.    Kazin, A Godly Hero, 287–95; John Nimick, “Great Commoner Bryan Dies in Sleep,” UPI, July 27, 1925.

 152.    Nimick, “Great Commoner Bryan Dies in Sleep”; H. L. Mencken, Editorial, American Mercury, October 1925, 158–60. Mencken is quoted in Kazin, A Godly Hero, 298.

 153.    Irving Stone, Clarence Darrow for the Defense (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1941), 493.

 154.    Walter Lippmann, American Inquisitors: A Commentary on Dayton and Chicago (New York: Macmillan, 1928), 11–12, 14.

 155.    Ibid., 39.

 156.    Ibid., 105.

 157.    Clarence Darrow, The Woodworkers’ Conspiracy Case (Chicago, 1898), 79.

Eleven: A CONSTITUTION OF THE AIR

     1.    Dumenil, The Modern Temper, 38.

     2.    David Halberstam, The Powers That Be (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 14–15; Joan Hoff Wilson, Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975), 140.

     3.    Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, 3 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1951–52), 2:144. And see also Hoff Wilson, Herbert Hoover, 112–13; Mark Goodman and Mark Gring, “The Radio Act of 1927: Progressive Ideology, Epistemology, and Praxis,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 3 (2000): 397–418.

     4.    Hoover, Memoirs, 2:146; J. G. Harbord, “Radio and Democracy,” Forum 81 (April 1929): 214.

     5.    Hoover, Memoirs, 2:184; Klein, Rainbow’s End, 4, 5, 11.

     6.    Quoted in Whyte, Hoover, 371.

     7.    Whyte, Hoover, 377–82, 405–6.

     8.    Tye, The Father of Spin, 63–69.

     9.    Phillip G. Payne, Crash!: How the Economic Boom and Bust of the 1920s Worked (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015); David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 41; Michael A. Bernstein, “Why the Great Depression Was Great: Toward a New Understanding of the Interwar Economic Crisis in the United States,” in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 32–54.

   10.    Quoted in Rauchway, The Great Depression and the New Deal, 32.

   11.    Quoted in ibid., 28–33; John E. Moser, The Global Great Depression and the Coming of World War II (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2015), 50; Cass R. Sunstein, The Second Bill of Rights: FDR’s Unfinished Revolution and Why We Need It More Than Ever (New York: Perseus, 2004), 36–37.

   12.    “The Press vs. The Public,” TNR 90 (March 17, 1937), 178–91; Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2013), 105.

   13.    Frankfurter: Schudson, Discovering the News, 125; Toynbee: Kiran Klaus Patel, The New Deal: A Global History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 43; Laski: Schudson, Discovering the News, 125.

   14.    Moser, The Global Great Depression, 77; Mussolini quoted in Katznelson, Fear Itself, 5.

   15.    Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow,” San Bernardino Sun, March 24, 1933.

   16.    Charles A. Beard, “The Historical Approach to the New Deal,” American Political Science Review [hereafter APSR] 28 (1934): 11–15; Katznelson, Fear Itself, 114, quoting Reinhold Niebuhr, Reflections on the End of an Era (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934).

   17.    Hoff Wilson, Herbert Hoover, 139–41; Herbert Hoover, Radio Address to the Nation on Unemployment Relief, October 18, 1931.

   18.    Alonzo L. Hamby, Man of Destiny: FDR and the Making of the American Century (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 160; Robert J. Brown, Manipulating the Ether: The Power of Broadcast Radio in Thirties America (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1988), 28–29.

   19.    Alan Brinkley, “Roosevelt, Franklin Delano,” American National Biography Online.

   20.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt quoted in Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 373.

   21.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago, July 2, 1932.

   22.    Republican: Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 27; Hoover: Kazin, A Godly Hero, xix; Roosevelt: Degler, Out of Our Past, 349.

   23.    Audio from Stephen Drury Smith, “The First Family of Radio: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt’s Historic Broadcasts,” American Radio Works, November 2014, http://www.americanradioworks.org/documentaries/roosevelts/.

   24.    Charlotte Perkins Gilman, “A Woman’s Party,” The Suffragist 8 (1920): 8–9.

   25.    Freeman, A Room at a Time, 125; Susan Ware, Partner and I: Molly Dewson, Feminism, and New Deal Politics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 148.

   26.    Stephen Drury Smith, ed., First Lady of Radio: Eleanor Roosevelt’s Historic Broadcasts (New York: The New Press, 2014), 33.

   27.    Gustafson et al., We Have Come to Stay, 179.

   28.    “Mrs. Roosevelt Going to Write Book Now,” Boston Globe, January 4, 1933.

   29.    Eleanor Roosevelt, It’s Up to the Women (1933; New York: The Nation Press, 2017), 173. More about the publication of the book, and its reception, can be found in my introduction to this edition.

   30.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933.

   31.    Quoted in Steel, Walter Lippmann, 300.

   32.    Gabriel over the White House (MGM, 1933).

   33.    Quoted in Katznelson, Fear Itself, 118–19.

   34.    Dorothy Thompson, I Saw Hitler! (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1932), 14; Peter Kurth, American Cassandra: The Life of Dorothy Thompson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990), 163. And see Daly, Covering America, 227–31. By 1939, Thompson’s columns appeared in 196 newspapers. She also spoke every week on NBC Radio.

   35.    Horst J. P. Bergmeier and Rainer E. Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves: The Inside Story of Nazi Radio Broadcasting and Propaganda Swing (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 3–6; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 383–84, 412–13.

   36.    Quoted in Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Vintage, 1995), 65.

   37.    Leila A. Sussmann, Dear FDR: A Study of Political Letter-Writing (Totowa, NJ: The Bedminster Press, 1963), 10; Brandon Rottinghaus, “‘Dear Mr. President’: The Institutionalization and Politicization of Public Opinion Mail in the White House,” Political Science Quarterly 121 (2006): 456–58.

   38.    Hoover’s mail had been “tremendously big,” people said at the time; FDR’s mail was, even on a quiet day, an order of magnitude bigger. Leila A. Sussmann, “FDR and the White House Mail,” Public Opinion Quarterly 20 (1956): 5.

   39.    Lowell Thomas, Fan Mail (New York: Dodge, 1935), x; Jeanette Sayre, “Progress in Radio Fan-Mail Analysis,” Public Opinion Quarterly 3 (1939): 272–78; Leila A. Sussmann, “Mass Political Letter Writing in America: The Growth of an Institution,” Public Opinion Quarterly 23 (1959): 203–12.

   40.    Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Viking, 1946), 113.

   41.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt, First Fireside Chat (“The Banking Crisis”), March 12, 1933.

   42.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 5, 11, 16, 18–19.

   43.    Perkins quoted in Steve Fraser, “The ‘Labor Question,’” in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 68–69.

   44.    Sarah T. Phillips, This Land, This Nation: Conservation, Rural America, and the New Deal (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 61; FDR quoted in Bruce J. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the American South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 3.

   45.    Beard, “The Historical Approach to the New Deal,” 11–12; George McJimsey, Harry Hopkins: Ally of the Poor and Defender of Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 77; Ronald L. Numbers, “The Third Party: Health Insurance in America,” in Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 273; Morris Fishbein, Editorial, Journal of the American Medical Association 99 (1932).

   46.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Own Story: Told in His Own Words from His Private and Public Papers, selected by Donald Day (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), 202; Molly C. Michelmore, Tax and Spend: The Welfare State, Tax Politics, and the Limits of American Liberalism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 5, 6, 10.

   47.    William Downs Jr., comp., Stories of Survival: Arkansas Farmers during the Great Depression (Fayetteville, AK: University of Arkansas Press, 2015), 183, 218–19, 226–27.

   48.    Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Viking, 2011), 23–36; Gordon, The Second Coming of the KKK, 93–94; The Portable Malcolm X Reader, ed. Manning Marable and Garrett Felber (New York: Penguin, 2013), 3–33; Erik S. McDuffie, “The Diasporic Journeys of Louise Little: Grassroots Garveyism, the Midwest, and Community Feminism,” Women, Gender, and Families of Color 4 (2016): 146–70.

   49.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 2–3.

   50.    David A. Taylor, Soul of a People: the WPA Writers’ Project Uncovers Depression America (New York: Wiley, 2009), 12. And see Monty Noam Penkower, The Federal Writers’ Project: A Study in Government Patronage of the Arts (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977); Jerre Mangione, The Dream and the Deal: The Federal Writers’ Project, 1935–1943 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983); Jerrold Hirsch, Portrait of America: A Cultural History of the Federal Writers’ Project (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).

   51.    James Truslow Adams, The Epic of America, with an introduction by Howard Schneiderman (1931; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2012), xx; Jim Cullen, The American Dream: A Short History of an Idea That Shaped a Nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 3–4, 191–92; Allan Nevins, James Truslow Adams: Historian of the American Dream (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1968), 66–72. For the radio play, see WPA Radio Scripts, 1936–1940, New York Public Library, Billy Rose Theatre Division, Series XXV: The Epic of America; and Federal Theatre Project Collection, Library of Congress, Music Division, Containers 873–74.

   52.    “Introduction: American Life Histories: Manuscripts from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936–1940,” Library of Congress. And see Federal Writers’ Project, These Are Our Lives, as Told by the People and Written by Members of the Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration in North Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939). Linda Gordon, Dorothea Lange: A Life Beyond Limits (New York: Norton, 2010), 201.

   53.    Bruce J. Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism: A Brief Biography with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1995), 5–18; Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 37.

   54.    Phillips, This Land, This Nation, 151–69.

   55.    Lidia Ceriani and Paolo Verme, “The Origins of the Gini Index: Extracts from Variabilità e Mutabilità (1912) by Corrado Gini,” Journal of Economic Inequality 10 (2012): 421–43. And see Anthony B. Atkinson and Andrea Brandolini, “Unveiling the Ethics behind Inequality Measurement,” The Economic Journal 125 (2015): 1–12.

   56.    Thomas Piketty and Emmanuel Saez, “Income Inequality in the United States, 1913–1998,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 118 (2003): 1–39; see table 2.

   57.    Jean-Guy Prévost, A Total Science: Statistics in Liberal and Fascist Italy (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2009), 204–7, 224–25, 250–51.

   58.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 14; Kurth, American Cassandra, 285; Richard Wright, “The FB eye blues” (1949), Harris Broadsides, Brown Digital Repository, Brown University Library, https://repository.library.brown.edu/studio/item/bdr:294360/. And see William J. Maxwell, F. B. Eyes: How J. Edgar Hoover’s Ghostreaders Framed African American Literature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).

   59.    Joshua Polster, Stages of Engagement: U.S. Theatre and Performance, 1898–1949 (New York: Routledge, 2015) 220–21.

   60.    Historians have long debated whether the New Deal order marked a continuation of the American experiment or a temporary departure from it. Arguments that it was an exception include Cowie, The Great Exception. For an excellent introduction to the debate, see Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order. The terms of this debate derive from the idea that American politics cycles between eras of liberalism and eras of conservatism, a view that many scholars have lately disregarded, insisting, instead, that “the liberal and the conservative are always and essentially intertwined” (Bruce J. Schulman, ed., Making the American Century: Essays on the Political Culture of Twentieth-Century America [New York: Oxford University Press, 2014], 5).

   61.    Alan Brinkley, Liberalism and Its Discontents (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), especially the introduction and “The Problem of American Conservatism.”

   62.    Adam Winkler, Gunfight: The Battle over the Right to Bear Arms in America (New York: Norton, 2011), 165–73.

   63.    Winkler, Gunfight, 63–65, 215–16; U.S. v. Miller, 307 U.S. 174 (1939).

   64.    James Ledbetter, Unwarranted Influence: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Military-Industrial Complex (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 22–24; Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: Norton, 2009), 5.

   65.    Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 14; Wendy Wall, Inventing the “American Way”: The Politics of Consensus from the New Deal to the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 55.

   66.    Sharon Beder, Free Market Missionaries: The Corporate Manipulation of Community Values (London: Routledge, 2006), 20; Richard S. Tedlow, “The National Association of Manufacturers and Public Relations during the New Deal,” Business History Review 50 (1976): 25–45.

   67.    Beder, Free Market Missionaries, 20.

   68.    Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 13–22.

   69.    Donald T. Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy: How the GOP Right Made Political History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 9–10.

   70.    Stanley Kelley Jr., Professional Public Relations and Political Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956), 44, 12–13.

   71.    Ben Proctor, William Randolph Hearst, Final Edition, 1911–1951 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), vii., 5, 195; Howard K. Beale, ed., Charles A. Beard: An Appraisal (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1954), 245–46.

   72.    Orson Welles, Deposition taken in Casablanca, May 4, 1949, Ferdinand Lundberg v. Orson Welles, Herman J Mankiewicz, and R.K.O. Radio Pictures, Inc., U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, Civil Case Files-Docket No. Civ. 44-62, Boxes: 700780A and 700781A, National Archives, New York. In an essay published in TNY in 1971, Pauline Kael argued that Welles’s contributions to the screenplay were minimal: Pauline Kael, “Raising Kane,” TNY, February 20 and 27, 1971. But the film scholar Robert L. Carringer, working with the RKO archives, demonstrated, in The Making of Citizen Kane (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 21–22, 153n12, that Welles really did deserve the writing credit. See also Robert L. Carringer, “The Scripts of ‘Citizen Kane,’” Critical Inquiry 5 (1978): 369–400.

   73.    The two best sources on the early history of the firm are the Whitaker & Baxter Campaigns, Inc., Records, California State Archives, Sacramento, California; and Carey McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” The Nation, April 14 and 21 and May 5, 1951, 346–48, 366–69, 419–21.

   74.    Upton Sinclair, “I, Governor of California: And How I Ended Poverty—A True Story of the Future,” 4, https://depts.washington.edu/epic34/docs/I_governor_1934.pdf.

   75.    Possibly out of loyalty to Robert Whitaker (Clem Whitaker’s uncle and a friend of Upton Sinclair’s), Sinclair never named Whitaker and Baxter as the authors of his political doom; he leaves the name of the firm out of all of his accounts of the race. See, for example, Upton Sinclair, The Autobiography of Upton Sinclair (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1962), 272.

   76.    The fullest accounts of this campaign can be found in Sinclair’s writing, but for Whitaker and Baxter’s end of it, see Irwin Ross, “The Supersalesmen of California Politics: Whitaker and Baxter,” Harper’s, 1959, 56–57; Kelley, Professional Public Relations and Political Power, ch. 4; and especially Greg Mitchell, The Campaign of the Century: Upton Sinclair’s Race for Governor of California and the Birth of Media Politics (New York: Random House, 1992).

   77.    Mitchell, The Campaign of the Century, 128; Sinclair, “I, Candidate,” 145–46.

   78.    Upton Sinclair, Love’s Pilgrimage: A Novel (New York: Mitchell Kennerley, 1911), 650.

   79.    Sinclair, I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1934), 144; on the serialization: James N. Gregory, introduction to a 1994 reprint edition of the book (Berkeley: University of California Press), x–xi. Sinclair actually also explained how he was losing while he was losing, in Upton Sinclair, The Lie Factory Starts (Los Angeles: End Poverty League, 1934).

   80.    Sinclair, I, Candidate for Governor, 144; Sinclair, Autobiography, 272.

   81.    Ross, “Supersalesmen,” 56–57; Carey McWilliams, “The Politics of Utopia [1946],” in Fool’s Paradise: A Carey McWilliams Reader, ed. Dean Stewart and Jeannine Gendar (Santa Clara and Berkeley: Santa Clara University and Heyday Books, 2001), 65.

   82.    James Harding, Alpha Dogs: The Americans Who Turned Political Spin into a Global Business (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008), 64.

   83.    “The Partners,” Time, December 26, 1955: “In nearly 25 years, the firm of Whitaker & Baxter has managed 75 political campaigns (all but two confined to California) and has lost only five.” And see Dan Nimmo, The Political Persuaders: The Techniques of the Modern Election Campaign (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970), 36.

   84.    McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” May 5, 1951, 419; Ross, “Super-salesmen,” 57; Clem Whitaker and Leone Baxter, “What Will We Do with the Doctor’s $25.00?,” Dallas Medical Journal, April 1949, 57.

   85.    Kelley, Professional Public Relations and Political Power, 51; Ross, “Supersalesmen,” 58; McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” May 5, 1951, 419; Whitaker, speech before the Los Angeles Area Chapter of the Public Relations Society of America, July 13, 1948, quoted in Kelley, Professional Public Relations and Political Power, 50.

   86.    Transcripts of separate oral histories of Clem Whitaker Jr. and Leone Baxter (hers is entitled “Mother of Political Public Relations”), conducted in 1988 and 1972, respectively, by Gabrielle Morris, Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 57, 15; Kelley, Professional Public Relations and Political Power, 48–49; Whitaker, speech before the Los Angeles Area Chapter of the Public Relations Society of America, July 13, 1948; Leone Baxter, “Public Relations Precocious Baby,” Public Relations Journal 6 (1950): 22.

   87.    Clem Whitaker, “Professional Political Campaign Management,” Public Relations Journal 6 (1950): 19; Whitaker, speech before the Los Angeles Area Chapter of the Public Relations Society of America, July 13, 1948.

   88.    Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, 3, 8–9.

   89.    Claude E. Robinson, Straw Votes: A Study of Political Prediction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), 46–51. See also John M. Fenton, In Your Opinion: The Managing Editor of the Gallup Poll Looks at Polls, Politics and the People from 1945 to 1960, with a foreword by Dr. George Gallup (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1960), ch. 1; George Gallup and Saul Forbes Rae, The Pulse of Democracy: The Public-Opinion Poll and How It Works (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940), ch. 3.

   90.    Melvin G. Holli, The Wizard of Washington: Emil Hurja, Franklin Roosevelt, and the Birth of Public Opinion Polling (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 41–47.

   91.    Holli, Wizard of Washington, 47–48.

   92.    Reminiscences of George Gallup (1962–63), Columbia University Oral History Research Office Collection, 17–22; George Horace Gallup, “An Objective Method for Determining Reader Interest in the Content of a Newspaper,” PhD dissertation, University of Iowa, 1928, 1–17, 55, 56; Wuthnow, Inventing American Religion, 54, 5–6.

   93.    Reminiscences of George Gallup, 101–15.

   94.    Gallup and Rae, The Pulse of Democracy; E. B. White, Talk of the Town, TNY, November 13, 1948; David W. Moore, The Opinion Makers: An Insider Exposes the Truth Behind the Polls (Boston: Beacon Press, 2008), 39.

   95.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 13; Michael Zalampas, Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American Magazines, 1923–1939 (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1989), 43–44; Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, ch. 3.

   96.    Some representative usages: “Britain Demands Russian Apology for Fake News,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 8, 1932; “Press Parley Acts to Bar Fake News,” NYT, November 12, 1933; “Fake News,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 3, 1942 (this last is an indictment of the OWI).

   97.    Quoted in Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 11, 14.

   98.    Frankfurter to FDR, in Roosevelt and Frankfurter: Their Correspondence, 1928–1945, annotated by Max Freedman (Boston: Little Brown, 1968), 214.

   99.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Acceptance Speech for the Renomination for the Presidency, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, June 27, 1936.

 100.    Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 19; Kataznelson, Fear Itself, 142.

 101.    Sarah E. Igo, The Averaged American: Surveys, Citizens, and the Making of a Mass Public (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 138–39.

 102.    Kataznelson, Fear Itself, 166–68.

 103.    Quoted in Brinkley, The End of Reform, 166–67.

 104.    Reminiscences of George Gallup, 117–18; “Polls on Trial,” Time, November 18, 1940.

 105.    Reminiscences of George Gallup, 120, 70–80; George Gallup, Public Opinion in a Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1939), 5, 15. Roper as cited in Igo, The Averaged American, 121.

 106.    “Hurja Poll,” Time, May 25, 1939; Gallup, Public Opinion, 1, 10.

 107.    Igo, The Averaged American, 169; Amy Fried, Pathways to Polling: Crisis, Cooperation and the Making of Public Opinion Professions (New York: Routledge, 2012), 68, 71, 73, 76–77, 146n7.

 108.    For example, “America’s Town Meeting of the Air: Personal Liberty and the Modern State,” YouTube video, 59:27, from a radio broadcast on December 12, 1935, posted by “A Room with a View” on November 9, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= jE6zSfGbzLE; “America’s Town Meeting of the Air—Does America Need Compulsory Health Insurance?,” YouTube video, 59:50, from a radio broadcast on January 15, 1940, posted by “YSPH1” on February 27, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gKa2dY gqd68; Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 149; Jamieson, Presidential Debates, 88.

 109.    Joel L. Swerdlow, Beyond Debate: A Paper on Televised Presidential Debates (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1984), 27; Jamieson, Presidential Debates, 99.

 110.    Hadley Cantril and Gordon W. Allport, The Psychology of Radio (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1935), 20.

 111.    Joel A. Carpenter, Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 21–24, 126–27.

 112.    Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), 135.

 113.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 84–86.

 114.    “Prof. J. H. Holmes of Swarthmore Declares That Laws Should Be ‘Altered More Easily,’” NYT, December 28, 1931, 12; Kammen, A Machine That Would Go of Itself, 276.

 115.    “Hoover Lays Supreme Court Cornerstone,” NYT, October 14, 1932.

 116.    James F. Simon, FDR and Chief Justice Hughes: The President, the Supreme Court, and the Epic Battle over the New Deal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 40.

 117.    Ibid., 225, 235, 243, 246.

 118.    Ibid., 254–56.

 119.    Ibid., 258–64.

 120.    Cushman, Courtwatchers, 108–9, 130; James MacGregor Burns, Packing the Court: The Rise of Judicial Power and the Coming Crisis of the Supreme Court (New York: Penguin Press, 2009), 143, 143; James Mussatti, New Deal Decisions of the United States Supreme Court (Los Angeles: California Publications, 1936), v.

 121.    Burns, Packing the Court, 144; Simon, FDR and Chief Justice Hughes, 307.

 122.    Simon, FDR and Chief Justice Hughes, 301.

 123.    Quoted in Brinkley, The End of Reform, 19–20.

 124.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Fireside Chat, March 9, 1937; Simon, FDR and Chief Justice Hughes, 317, 324.

 125.    Alan Brinkley, “Introduction,” American Historical Review 110 (2005): 1047; Simon, FDR and Chief Justice Hughes, 327.

 126.    H. L. Mencken, “A Constitution for the New Deal,” American Mercury, June 1937, 129–36. And see Robert G. McCloskey, The American Supreme Court (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 149–50; Laura Kalman, “The Constitution, the Supreme Court, and the New Deal,” American Historical Review 110 (2005): 1052–80.

 127.    Quoted in Brinkley, End of Reform, 65, 66, 22.

 128.    Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, 23.

 129.    Dan D. Nimmo and Cheville Newsome, Political Commentators in the United States: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997), 135–39.

 130.    Audio excerpts can be found at “The Munich Crisis,” Old Time Radio, http://www.otr.com/munich.html

 131.    Quoted in David Clay Large, Between Two Fires: Europe’s Path in the 1930s (New York: Norton, 1990), 355.

 132.    Benjamin Naddaff-Hafrey, “Telling ‘the Electrified Fable’: Experimental Radio Drama, Interwar Social Psychology, and Imagining Invasion in The War of the Worlds,” senior thesis, Harvard College, 2013.

 133.    Quoted in Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 247.

 134.    “23-Year-Old Author Aghast at Hysteria His Skit Created,” Atlanta Constitution, November 1, 1938.

 135.    Quoted in Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 226–27.

 136.    Dorothy Thompson, “On the Record,” November 14, 1938, as quoted in Kurth, American Cassandra, 283. And see Martin Gilbert, Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction (New York: HarperCollins, 2006).

 137.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Excerpts from the Press Conference, November 5, 1938.

Twelve: THE BRUTALITY OF MODERNITY

     1.    “World of Tomorrow, 1939 World’s Fair,” YouTube video, 9:27, from a newsreel from 1939, posted by “PeriscopeFilm,” May 12, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H cfgvzwaDHc.

     2.    James Mauro, Twilight at the World of Tomorrow: Genius, Madness, Murder, and the 1939 World’s Fair on the Brink of War (New York: Ballantine, 2010), xx; “Metro, The Westinghouse Moto-Man,” YouTube video, 3:47, posted by “RobynDexterNSteve,” April 2, 2008, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soO9CR1NiZk.

     3.    Mauro, Twilight at the World of Tomorrow, xxi, 142–54; E. B. White, “The World of Tomorrow,” in One Man’s Meat (Gardiner, ME: Tilbury House, 1997), 58–64 (quotation, 58).

     4.    Mauro, Twilight at the World of Tomorrow, xxiii–xxiv.

     5.    Ibid., xx; The Book of Record of the Time Capsule of Cupaloy (New York: Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, 1938).

     6.    Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1995), 18.

     7.    Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America During World War II (New York: Atheneum, 1967), 29, 41, 32.

     8.    Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 398–99.

     9.    Quotations from Meacham, Franklin and Winston, 134, and Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 392–93.

   10.    Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 429; Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Message to Congress on Appropriations for National Defense,” January 12, 1939; Albert Einstein to FDR, August 2, 1939, reprinted in William Lanouette with Bela Silard, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb (New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2013), 211–13; Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson Jr., The New World, 1939–1946 (A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, in 2 vols.) (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962), 1:20.

   11.    Quoted in Daly, Covering America, 243.

   12.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 282, 286.

   13.    Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Vintage, 1983), especially Appendix I: “The Question of Anti-Semitism and the Problem of Fascism.”

   14.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 56–57; Kurth, American Cassandra, 285–88.

   15.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 87.

   16.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 276–77; “The War of 1939,” Fortune, October 1939.

   17.    “The War of 1939,” and “The Fortune Survey: Supplement on War,” Fortune, October 1939. And see also Sister Mary Gertina Feffer, “American Attitude toward World War II during the Period from September 1939 to December 1941,” master’s thesis, Loyola University, 1951, 35–64.

   18.    Lindbergh quoted in Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 433.

   19.    Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 448; Vandenberg quoted in Patel, The New Deal, 50.

   20.    Meacham, Franklin and Winston, x–xv, 44–46, 246 (quotation).

   21.    Churchill quoted in Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 441.

   22.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Address at University of Virginia, June 10, 1940.

   23.    Willkie-McNary Speakers Manual, Campaigns Inc. Records, Box 1, Folder 53; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 459.

   24.    Dorothy Thompson, “On the Record,” New York Herald Tribune, October 9, 1940.

   25.    U.S. Department of State, Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1943), 571–72; Statement by the Secretary of State on the Tripartite Pact, September 27, 1940.

   26.    Pendleton Herring, Presidential Leadership (New York: Rinehart and Company, 1940), as quoted in Katznelson, Fear Itself, 8.

   27.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Fireside Chat, December 29, 1940.

   28.    The FBI’s RACON: Racial Conditions in the United States During World War II, ed. Robert A. Hill (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1995), 2.

   29.    FDR to Winston Churchill, January 20, 1941, Churchill Additional Papers, Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge, UK; Churchill as quoted in Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time: Franklin & Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 213.

   30.    Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 214.

   31.    Henry Luce, “The American Century,” Life, February 1941.

   32.    Quoted in Max Wallace, The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich (New York: St. Martin’s, 2003), 259.

   33.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 108–9; Wallace, The American Axis, 279.

   34.    Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 214; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 474–75, citing NYT, March 12, 1941.

   35.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 313–14; Wallace, The American Axis, 274–75, 277, 289, 291; Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 12.

   36.    Quoted in Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 14–15.

   37.    Jon Meacham, Franklin and Winston: An Intimate Portrait of an Epic Friendship (New York: Random House, 2003), 105.

   38.    Ibid., 107–20; FDR and Churchill, Atlantic Charter, August 14, 1941; Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 4–6.

   39.    Meacham, Franklin and Winston, 130.

   40.    Ibid., 131.

   41.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Pearl Harbor Address to the Nation, December 8, 1941; Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Fireside Chat, December 9, 1941.

   42.    Elaine Tyler May, “Rosie the Riveter Gets Married,” in The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness during World War II, ed. Lewis A. Erenberg and Susan E. Hirsch (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 130; Patel, The New Deal, 261.

   43.    Patel, The New Deal, 262.

   44.    John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II (New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1976), 91–94; Alan Brinkley, “World War II and American Liberalism,” in Erenberg and Hirsch, The War in American Culture, 315; Patel, The New Deal, 262; John P. Broderick, “Business Dropping Off as Wage Scales Rise,” Wall Street Journal, October 1, 1942.

   45.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 337–39; Stone quoted in Alan Brinkley, “The New Deal and the Idea of the State,” in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal, 103.

   46.    Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America, 124–48; Michelmore, Tax and Spend, 11–12; Thomas L. Hungerford, “Taxes and the Economy: An Economic Analysis of the Top Tax Rates Since 1945,” Congressional Research Service, September 14, 2012.

   47.    Patel, The New Deal, 262–66; Katznelson, Fear Itself, 346–47.

   48.    Jytte Klausen, “Did World War II End the New Deal? A Comparative Perspective on Postwar Planning Initiatives,” in The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), 197.

   49.    Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942–1945 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978), 2–3.

   50.    Blum, V Was for Victory, 21–24.

   51.    Edmond Taylor, The Strategy of Terror: Europe’s Inner Front (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1940), 9, 211.

   52.    Blum, V Was for Victory, 30; Archibald MacLeish, Collected Poems, 1917–1952 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), 13.

   53.    Quoted in Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 11–12.

   54.    Office of Facts and Figures, Divide and Conquer (Washington, DC: Office of Facts and Figures, 1942), 3.

   55.    Kurth, American Cassandra, 159; Dorothy Thompson, “Problems of Journalism,” 1935, quoted in Michael J. Kirkhorn, “Dorothy Thompson: Withstanding the Storm,” [Syracuse University Library] Courier 22 (1988):16.

   56.    Quoted in Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 23.

   57.    Archibald MacLeish, A Time to Act: Selected Addresses (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943), 23–31.

   58.    Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 42; Blum, V Was for Victory, 27, 22–23.

   59.    Gerd Horten, Radio Goes to War: The Cultural Politics of Propaganda During World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 2, 43–48.

   60.    Quotations from Blum, V Was for Victory, 31–45.

   61.    Divine, Second Chance, 48; Meacham, Franklin and Winston, xviii.

   62.    Divine, Second Chance, 49–51, 63, 72, 104, 119.

   63.    Quotations from Daly, Covering America, 272–74.

   64.    Quoted in Blum, V Was for Victory, 67.

   65.    Katznelson, Fear Itself, 327–28.

   66.    Ibid., 339.

   67.    Richard Cahan and Michael Williams, Un-American: The Incarceration of Japanese Americans During World War II: Images by Dorothea Lange, Ansel Adams, and Other Government Photographers (Chicago: Cityfiles Press, 2016)—quotations, 24–25; Jasmine Alinder, Moving Images: Photography and the Japanese American Incarceration (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), ch. 1; Linda Gordon, “Dorothea Lange Photographs the Japanese American Internment,” in Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of the Japanese American Internment, ed. Linda Gordon and Gary Y. Okihiro (New York: Norton, 2008), 5–45.

   68.    Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943); Mitchell T. Maki, Harry H. L. Kitano, and S. Megan Berthold, Achieving the Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 35.

   69.    Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944); Maki et al., Achieving the Impossible Dream, 35–38.

   70.    Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 554–56. The letter to Roosevelt is reprinted in Hill, The FBI’s RACON, 1–2.

   71.    Blum, V Was for Victory, 184–185. Baldwin quoted in Hill, The FBI’s RACON, 30.

   72.    Pauli Murray, The Negro Woman in the Quest for Equality (New York, 1964); Rosalind Rosenberg, Jane Crow: The Life of Pauli Murray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 157–61; Mark V. Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court, 1936–1961 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 123.

   73.    Bayard Rustin, interviewed by Ed Edwin, January 24, 1985, New York, New York, published as The Reminiscences of Bayard Rustin (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street Press, 2003), 2: 43–6.

   74.    William H. Hastie and Thurgood Marshall, “Negro Discrimination and the Need for Federal Action [1942],” in Thurgood Marshall: His Speeches, Writings, Arguments, Opinions, and Reminiscences, ed. Mark V. Tushnet (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2001), 80.

   75.    77 Cong. Rec. 7457 (1942).

   76.    Declassified in 1980, the report was published in full in 1997 as The FBI’s RACON. Hoover’s June 22, 1942, memo to field agents is reprinted in an addendum, 622–24.

   77.    Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 63, 66–69.

   78.    Pauli Murray, “Mr. Roosevelt Regrets (Detroit Riot, 1943),” in Dark Testament and Other Poems (Norwalk, CT: Silvermine, 1970), 34.

   79.    Rosenberg, Jane Crow, 157–61.

   80.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, “State of the Union Message to Congress,” January 11, 1944; Katznelson, Fear Itself, 196, 221–22.

   81.    Brinkley, The End of Reform, 169; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 997.

   82.    Reed Ueda, “The Changing Path to Citizenship: Ethnicity and Naturalization during World War II,” in Erenberg and Hirsch, The War in American Culture, 202–3; Lary May, “Making the American Consensus: The Narrative of Conversion and Subversion in World War II Films,” in Erenberg and Hirsch, The War in American Culture, 71–72, 76.

   83.    Quoted in Brinkley, The End of Reform, 167.

   84.    Divine, Second Chance, 157–59; Meacham, Franklin and Winston, 248–66.

   85.    Franklin Delano Roosevelt, “State of the Union Message to Congress, January 11, 1944”; Rauchway, The Great Depression and the New Deal, 127.

   86.    Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World, 50; Patel, The New Deal, 268; Brinkley, The End of Reform, 129–35.

   87.    Brinkley, The End of Reform, 141; Gerstle, American Crucible, 158.

   88.    “States Moving to Limit U.S. Taxing Power,” Chicago Tribune, March 12, 1939.

   89.    Godfrey N. Nelson, “Ceiling Is Sought for Federal Taxes,” NYT, October 3, 1943.

   90.    Michelmore, Tax and Spend, 34.

   91.    Expenditures by Corporations to Influence Legislation. A Report of the House Select Committee on Lobbying Activities, House of Representatives, Eighty-First Congress, Second Session. Created Pursuant to H. Res. 298. October 13, 1950, 50; Martin, “Redistributing Toward the Rich,” 15–16; Michelmore, Tax and Spend, 33–34.

   92.    “D-Day: ‘The Great Crusade,’” multimedia program, https://www.army.mil/d-day/his tory.html#.

   93.    Quoted in Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World, 95.

   94.    Moser, The Global Great Depression, 2.

   95.    Hoover quoted in Katznelson, Fear Itself, 235–36.

   96.    Quoted in Brinkley, The End of Reform, 158–59.

   97.    Quoted in Crichtlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 15–16.

   98.    Alan Brinkley, “World War II and American Liberalism,” in Erenberg and Hirsch, The War in American Culture, 321; Brinkley, The End of Reform, 164–65.

   99.    Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984, 2009), 5–6.

 100.    S. M. Plokhy, Yalta: The Price of Peace (New York: Viking, 2010), 4–6, 18–19.

 101.    Whittaker Chambers, Ghosts on the Roof: Selected Journalism, edited and with an introduction by Terry Teachout (Washington, DC: National Book Network, 1989), xxxiv–xxxv, 111–15.

 102.    Plokhy, Yalta, xxiv, 36, 91.

 103.    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Address to Congress on the Yalta Conference, March 1, 1945.

 104.    Quoted in Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 806–8.

 105.    Brown, Manipulating the Ether, 125; Meacham, Franklin and Winston, 345.

 106.    “Buchenwald: Report from Edward R. Murrow,” April 16, 1945, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/report-from-edward-r-murrow-on-buchenwald, accessed July 22, 2017.

 107.    Daly, Covering America, 234, 250, 252.

 108.    Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 797.

 109.    “Buchenwald: Report from Edward R. Murrow.”

 110.    Quoted in Peter S. Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 65.

 111.    General Eisenhower to General Marshall concerning his visit to a Germany internment camp near Gotha (Ohrdruf), April 15, 1945, emphasis in original, Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File (Box 80, Marshall George C.), Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home.

 112.    Novick, The Holocaust in American Life, 63–65.

 113.    Daly, Covering America, 286.

 114.    Henry Stimson to Harry S. Truman, April 24, 1945, Truman Papers, Confidential File, War Department, Box 1, Giangreco, Dennis—Correspondence Between Harry S. Truman, George C. Marshall, Henry Stimson, and Others Regarding Strategy for Ending the War Against Japan, 1945, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum.

 115.    Plokhy, Yalta, 71–72, 228, 381, 392–93.

 116.    Mauro, Twilight at the World of Tomorrow, xx.

 117.    Divine, Second Chance, prologue, 299.

 118.    Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World, 7, 11, 79; Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda 155–56.

 119.    H. G. Wells, The World Set Free: A Story of Mankind (New York: Dutton, 1914), 63–64.

 120.    A Petition to the President of the United States, July 17, 1945, Truman Library and Museum, and quoted in Dan Zak, Almighty: Courage, Resistance, and Existential Peril in the Nuclear Age (New York: Blue Rider Press, 2016), 68–69. On Szilard and Wells, see Philip L. Cantelon et al., eds., The American Atom: A Documentary History of Nuclear Policies from the Discovery of Fission to the Present, 1939–1984 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), 3–7.

 121.    Divine, Second Chance, 283.

 122.    Watchtower Over Tomorrow, dir. Alfred Hitchcock, Office of War Information, 1945.

 123.    William M. Rigdon, “President’s Trip to the Berlin Conference (July 6, 1945 to August 7, 1945),” Harry S. Truman Library and Museum.

Thirteen: A WORLD OF KNOWLEDGE

     1.    John Hersey, “Hiroshima,” TNY, August 31, 1946.

     2.    Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985, 1991), 3; James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 3–4.

     3.    Editorial, Newsweek, August 20, 1945; Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light, 3, 7, 22.

     4.    T. R. Kennedy Jr., “Electronic Computer Flashes Answers, May Speed Engineering,” NYT, February 15, 1946.

     5.    Alan Turing, “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 41 (1936): 241.

     6.    Martin Campbell-Kelly et al., Computer: A History of the Information Machine (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2014), 41; Grace Murray Hopper, “The Education of a Computer,” Proceedings of the Association for Computing Machinery Conference (May 1952), 271–81.

     7.    Isaacson, The Innovators, 45–46, 50–52, 76–79, 96, 72–75, 112.

     8.    Ibid., 219.

     9.    Vannevar Bush, Science, the Endless Frontier (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1945), 19, 10.

   10.    Hearings on Science Legislation (S. 1297 and Related Bills): Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, U.S. Senate, 79th Congress, 1st Session, Pursuant to S. Res. 107 (78th Congress) and S. Res. 146 (79th Congress) Authorizing a Study of the Possibilities of Better Mobilizing the National Resources of the United States (Washington, DC: The Committee, 1945), 144. And see Jessica Wang, “Liberals, the Progressive Left, and the Political Economy of Postwar American Science: The National Science Foundation Debate Revisited,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 26 (1995): 139–66.

   11.    Albert Einstein, “The Real Problem Is in the Hearts of Men,” interview by Michael Amrine, NYT, June 23, 1946; Jessica Wang, “Scientists and the Problem of the Public in Cold War America, 1945–1960,” Osiris 17 (2002): 323–47; Wang, “Liberals, the Progressive Left, and the Political Economy of Postwar American Science”; Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Federation of Atomic Scientists, One World or None: A Report to the Public on the Full Meaning of the Atomic Bomb (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1946), 77.

   12.    Isaacson, The Innovators, 112–15; Kennedy, “Electronic Computer Flashes Answers, May Speed Engineering.”

   13.    Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 786–87; Hilary Herbold, “Never a Level Playing Field: Blacks and the GI Bill,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 6 (Winter 1994–1995): 104.

   14.    Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Vintage, 2004), 119, 214.

   15.    John Updike, Collected Poems 1953–1993 (New York: Knopf, 1993), 270.

   16.    Randy Bright, Disneyland: Inside Story (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), chs. 1 and 2 (quotation, 73).

   17.    Elaine Tyler May, “Cold War—Warm Hearth: Politics and the Family in Postwar America,” in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 153–81 (quotation, 161). And see Elaine Tyler May, “Rosie the Riveter Gets Married,” in Erenberg and Hirsch, The War in American Culture, 128–43.

   18.    Cohen, Consumers’ Republic, 137–42; Margot Canaday, “Building a Straight State: Sexuality and Social Citizenship under the 1944 G.I. Bill,” JAH 90 (2003): 936–57.

   19.    Herbold, “Never a Level Playing Field,” 104–8.

   20.    Patterson, Grand Expectations, 26–27, 333; Matusow, The Unraveling of America, xii; William E. Leuchtenburg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War: American Society, 1945–1960,” in The Unfinished Century: America Since 1900 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), 750.

   21.    Patterson, Grand Expectations, 23; Langston Hughes, “Adventures in Dining,” Chicago Defender, June 2, 1945, reprinted in Langston Hughes and the Chicago Defender: Essays on Race, Politics, and Culture, 1942–62, ed. Chris C. De Santis (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 55–56.

   22.    Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 99–100.

   23.    Harry S. Truman, “Special Message to the Congress Recommending a Comprehensive Health Program,” Washington, DC, November 19, 1945.

   24.    Carey McWilliams, “The Education of Earl Warren,” The Nation, October 12, 1974; on the apology, see G. Edward White, Earl Warren: A Public Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 76, 81; weeping during a 1972 interview is mentioned by Paul Finkelman in his entry for Warren in American National Biography Online; Clem Whitaker, Plan of Campaign for Earl Warren, 1942, in Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 1, Folder 3, 2–3; Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Chief Justice Earl Warren (1977; Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 2001), 163–65; Whitaker, oral history, 48–49.

   25.    Warren, The Memoirs of Chief Justice Earl Warren, 187–88.

   26.    Baxter, oral history, 1972, 89; White, Earl Warren, 112. But see also McWilliams’s attempts to understand Warren’s political transformation, including McWilliams, “Strange Doings in California,” February 1945, in Fool’s Paradise, 210; McWilliams, “The Education of Earl Warren,” The Nation, October 12, 1974, 325–26; and McWilliams to Freda Kirchwey, October 12, 1947, The Nation Records, Houghton Library, Harvard, Box 25, Folder 4953.

   27.    McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” April 21, 1951, 366–67; Whitaker from Medical Economics (1948) as quoted in Kelley, Professional Public Relations and Political Power, 57; Whitaker, oral history, 1988–89, 14–16.

   28.    Campaigns, Inc., Records, California Medical Association, 1945–1949, Box 5, Folder 20.

   29.    Warren, The Memoirs of Chief Justice Earl Warren, 188.

   30.    “The Yalta Conference,” The Avalon Project. David F. Trask, “The Imperial Republic: America in World Politics, 1945 to the Present,” in Leuchtenberg, The Unfinished Century, 583; George Kennan to the U.S. Department of State, telegram, February 22, 1946; Winston Churchill, “Sinews of Peace,” Fulton, Missouri, March 5, 1946.

   31.    John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 9–10.

   32.    Harry S. Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on Greece and Turkey: The Truman Doctrine,” Washington, DC, March 12, 1947; Trask, “The Imperial Republic,” 577–87, 597.

   33.    Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 66; John A. Farrell, Richard Nixon: The Life (New York: Doubleday, 2017), 23, 34–38.

   34.    Brinkley, The End of Reform, 201; Nelson Lichtenstein, “From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy During the Postwar Era,” in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 122–52; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 83–84.

   35.    Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 63–66, 68–71; James T. Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century: A History, 5th ed. (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000), 314.

   36.    Patel, The New Deal, 279; William D. Hartung, Prophets of War: Lockheed Martin and the Making of the Military-Industrial Complex (New York: Nation Books, 2011, 2012), 29, 252, 259, 263, 43–47, 52–59.

   37.    Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy; Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 312. And see Michael S. Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States Since the 1930s (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).

   38.    Kennan quoted in Gaddis, The Cold War, 47.

   39.    Gaddis, The Cold War, 39.

   40.    John L. Boies, Buying for Armageddon: Business, Society, and Military Spending Since the Cuban Missile Crisis (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 1. Faulkner quoted in Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 135, and, more broadly, see ch. 6.

   41.    Chambers, Ghosts on the Roof, xxxvi–xxxvii.

   42.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 98, 115–24.

   43.    Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 161.

   44.    Ibid., 317; Michael Straight, “Truman Should Quit,” TNR, April 5, 1948.

   45.    National Party Conventions, 96–97.

   46.    Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 319.

   47.    Quoted in Michael A. Genovese and Matthew J. Streb, eds., Polls and Politics: The Dilemmas of Democracy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), 18.

   48.    Gallup quoted in Lindsay Rogers, The Pollsters: Public Opinion, Politics, and Democratic Leadership (New York: Knopf, 1949), vi.

   49.    Fried, Pathways to Polling, 79–80.

   50.    Herbert Blumer, “Public Opinion and Public Opinion Polling,” American Sociological Review 13 (1948): 524–49.

   51.    Rogers, The Pollsters, vi, 37, 65, 71, 46, 61. On Rogers, see Amy Fried, “The Forgotten Lindsay Rogers and the Development of American Political Science,” APSR 100 (2006): 555–56. Although The Pollsters appeared in 1949, Rogers wrote it in 1948, before the election.

   52.    Fredrick Mosteller et al., The Pre-Election Polls of 1948: Report to the Committee on Analysis of Pre-election Polls and Forecasts (New York: Social Science Research Council, 1949), vii, Appendix A.

   53.    Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety, 39–40.

   54.    Wang, “Liberals, the Progressive Left, and the Political Economy of Postwar American Science,” 156–64.

   55.    “Summary of Conclusions and Proposals,” APSR 44 (September 1950): 1–14 (quotation, 14). And see Evron M. Kirkpatrick, “‘Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System’: Political Science, Policy Science, or Pseudo-Science?,” APSR 65 (December 1971): 965–90.

   56.    Dewey quoted in V. O. Key, Politics, Parties and Pressure Groups (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1942), 220–21.

   57.    “Medicine Show,” Washington Post, August 30, 1949; McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” April 14, 1951, 346. A typescript titled “AMA’s Plan of Battle: An Outline of Strategy and Policies in the Campaign against Compulsory Health Insurance,” and identified as written by W&B, Directors of the National Education Campaign of the AMA, February 12, 1949, Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 9, Folder 27, 2. On the numbers of pamphlets, see Whitaker and Baxter, “What Will We Do with the Doctor’s $25.00?,” Dallas Medical Journal, April 1949. Daniel Cameron to the National Education Campaign, September 3, 1949, in Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 9, Folder 40.

   58.    Campaign Procedures, Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 9, Folder 27. “AMA’s Plan of Battle,” 1; Whitaker, “Professional Political Campaign Management,” 19—a copy of the printed version is in Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 9, Folder 26; McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” April 21, 1951, 368.

   59.    “Plan of Campaign Against Compulsory Health Insurance,” written by W&B and dated January 8, 1949 (CONFIDENTIAL: NOT FOR PUBLICATION), Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 9, Folder 27.

   60.    I. Isquith, Pharmacist, Stamford, NY, to the NEC, May 22, 1949, Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 9, Folder 40. Whitaker and Baxter spent $4,678,000, according to Ross, “Supersalesmen,” 60.

   61.    “Truman Blames A.M.A. for Defeat of Security Bill,” Boston Globe, May 22, 1952.

   62.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 98, 115–24.

   63.    Richard Nixon, “The Hiss Case: A Lesson for the American People [January 26, 1950],” in Speeches, Writings, Documents, edited and introduced by Rick Perlstein (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 19–59.

   64.    Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008), 34; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 159.

   65.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 143.

   66.    Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: Norton, 2004), 331.

   67.    David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 19.

   68.    Ibid., 21, 79–80, 86–87.

   69.    Robert Griffith, The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970), 60; Arthur Herman, Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America’s Most Hated Senator (New York: Free Press, 2000), 135.

   70.    Fitzgerald, Highest Glass Ceiling, 109, 115; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 163.

   71.    U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Expenditures in the Executive Departments, Subcommittee on Investigations, Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government, 81 Cong., 2d Sess. (1950).

   72.    Johnson, The Lavender Scare, 25–34, 114–116, 93. And see Aaron Lecklider, Inventing the Egghead: The Battle over Brainpower in American Culture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), ch. 7.

   73.    Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1996), 2–4.

   74.    Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951); Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 323–34.

   75.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 43–48.

   76.    Arthur M. Schlesinger and Alfred D. Chandler, The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1949); Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination (New York: Viking, 1950), ix. And see Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 3–5.

   77.    Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 2–7.

   78.    “Socialized Medicine ‘Opiate,’ 200 Physicians Warned Here,” Boston Globe, March 28, 1949. And see “Welfare State Hit as a Slave State,” NYT, November 12, 1949.

   79.    Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (1948; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 4–12 and see especially ch. 2.

   80.    Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind, from Burke to Santayana (Chicago: H. Regnery, 1953), 3, 4, 8; Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 19–22.

   81.    George H. Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 72, 142, 150–51; William Buckley, “Publisher’s Statement,” National Review, November 19, 1955.

   82.    Catherine E. Rymph, Republican Women: Feminism and Conservatism from Suffrage through the Rise of the New Right (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 117, 113.

   83.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 85.

   84.    Rymph, Republican Women, 138, 162.

   85.    Ibid., 94, 107, 117, 131–38.

   86.    Kennan quoted in Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 324.

   87.    Ira Chinoy, “Battle of the Brains: Election-Night Forecasting at the Dawn of the Computer Age,” PhD diss., University of Maryland, 2010, 244–45, 256, 260.

   88.    “Briefs . . .,” Journal of Accountancy 92 (1951): 142; Cohen, Consumers’ Republic, 292–344.

   89.    “8-Foot ‘Genius’ Dedicated,” NYT, June 15, 1951.

   90.    Saval, Cubed, 128–131, 144–47; C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 209. The quotation is from a Melville story called “The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids,” which appeared in Harper’s in 1855 (volume 10; quotation, 675).

   91.    Mills discusses “The Cheerful Robot” in The Sociological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959, 2000), 171–76, but introduces it in White Collar, in a section called “The Morale of the Cheerful Robot” (233–34).

   92.    Chinoy, “Battle of the Brains,” 206–7.

   93.    Whitaker and Baxter to Carey McWilliams, May 1, 1951, in Campaigns Inc. Records, Box 10, Folder 3; McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” May 5, 1951, 420; McWilliams, “Government by Whitaker and Baxter,” April 21, 1951, 368; Frances Burns, “Mass. General Chief, Dr. Means, Quits AMA Over Health Insurance,” Boston Globe, June 21, 1951. Whitaker and Baxter reported to McWilliams that his exposé had been sent, anonymously, to the president of the AMA, “probably from someone who thinks W&B should be fired forthwith!” (Whitaker and Baxter to Carey McWilliams, May 1, 1951). Editorial, “Whitaker and Baxter Bow Out,” New England Journal of Medicine, 247 (1951): 577.

   94.    Larry J. Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants: New Ways of Winning Elections (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 112, 113, 117, 114; Citizens for Eisenhower, “Eisenhower Answers America,” The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign Commercials 1952–2016, Museum of the Moving Image.

   95.    Johnson, Lavender Scare, 121–22; Lecklider, Inventing the Egghead, 206–7; Daly, Covering America, 290.

   96.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 35–36; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 199–200; Bernard Schwartz and Stephan Lesher, Inside the Warren Court (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 17.

   97.    Richard Nixon, Checkers speech, September 23, 1952.

   98.    “23 Professors Score Nixon Campaign Fund,” Columbia Spectator, October 6, 1952. And see Philip Ranlet, Richard B. Morris and American History in the Twentieth Century (Dallas: University Press of America, 2004), 63–5. But see Farrell, Richard Nixon, 200.

   99.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 41; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 194–5.

 100.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 38–43; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 198–9.

 101.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 208.

 102.    Chinoy, “Battle of the Brains,” 210, 194–196.

 103.    Ibid., 369–88. And see “CBS News Election Coverage: November 4, 1952.” YouTube video, 31:02, posted by “NewsActive3,” December 17, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5vjD0d8D9Ec; Wuthnow, Inventing American Religion, 64.

 104.    Murrow, quoted in Ibo, Averaged American, 180–81.

 105.    C. Wright Mills, “The Mass Society” in The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 298–324.

 106.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 222.

 107.    “A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy,” See It Now, CBS, March 9, 1954.

 108.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 47–49.

 109.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 225.

 110.    Sydney E. Ahlstrom and Daniel Aaron, A Religious History of the American People (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1972), 952.

 111.    FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 145, 236, 169; Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 87, 77.

 112.    FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 170, 177, 186; Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 80–81.

 113.    FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 204, 184–85; Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 88.

 114.    Marc Linder, “Eisenhower-Era Marxist-Confiscatory Taxation: Requiem for the Rhetoric of Rate Reduction for the Rich,” Tulane Law Review 70 (1995–96): 905.

 115.    Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, 23–4. Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 763; David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 217–18.

 116.    Ledbetter, Unwarranted Influence, 45–46; Zak, Almighty, 47–49; The Future of the U.S. Military Ten Years After 9/11 and the Consequences of Defense Sequestration: Prepared for the Use of the Committee on Armed Services of the House of Representatives (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2011), 35.

 117.    The year was 1938, and the subject was how democracies should respond to dictatorships, http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s/Radio/TownMeeting/TownMeeting.html.

 118.    Newton N. Minow and Craig L. LaMay, Inside the Presidential Debates: Their Improbable Past and Promising Future (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 18–19; “Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver—First Televised Debate, 1956,” broadcast by WTVJ on May 21, 1956.

 119.    “GOP Calls Debate ‘Flop,’” NYT, May 23, 1956; Minow and LaMay, Inside the Presidential Debates, 20.

 120.    William E. Porter, Assault on the Media: The Nixon Years (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1976), 9–17; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 206–7, 217, 233–34.

 121.    Richard Rovere, “Letter from San Francisco,” TNY, September 1, 1956; Herbert M. Baus and William R. Ross, Politics Battle Plan (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 258. On Proposition 4, see the files in Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 29, Folders 23–25.

 122.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 243. Perlstein, Nixonland, 46.

 123.    Citizens for Eisenhower, “Cartoon Guy,” The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign Commercials 1952–2016, Museum of the Moving Image.

 124.    Democratic National Committee television advertisement, “The Man from Libertyville,” available for viewing at the online exhibit The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign Commercials 1952–2016, Museum of the Moving Image.

 125.    Whitfield, Culture of the Cold War, 21.

 126.    Ibid., 155–60.

 127.    Desk Set, dir. Walter Lang (20th Century Fox, 1957); The Desk Set: Screenplay, film-script, March 14 1957.

 128.    Linda Greenhouse, “Thurgood Marshall, Civil Rights Hero, Dies at 84,” NYT, January 25, 1993; Michael D. Davis and Hunter R. Clark, Thurgood Marshall: Warrior at the Bar, Rebel on the Bench (New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1992), 9.

 129.    Greenhouse, “Thurgood Marshall, Civil Rights Hero, Dies at 84”; Davis and Clark, Thurgood Marshall, 9, 160–65.

 130.    Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

 131.    Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 765; Mary L. Dudziak, “Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative,” Stanford Law Review 41 (1988–89): 81–93, 111.

 132.    Michael J. Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), ch. 3.

 133.    “Supreme Court: Memo from Rehnquist,” Newsweek, December 13, 1971. On how word of the memo leaked, see Jill Lepore, “The Great Paper Caper,” TNY, December 2, 2014, and my note on sources at https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jlepore/files/lepore_great_paper_caper_bibliography.pdf.

 134.    Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement, ch. 3.

 135.    In one footnote, Warren wrote, “And see generally Myrdal, An American Dilemma”: Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

 136.    Dudziak, “Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative,” 65, 115.

 137.    Tomiko Brown-Nagin, Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), ch. 4.

 138.    Emmet John Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years (New York: Atheneum, 1963), 201; “Divergent Views of Public Men,” Life, September 17, 1956, 119–20; Jim Newton, Justice for All: Earl Warren and the Nation He Made (New York: Riverhead Books, 2006), 386.

 139.    Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 766–67.

 140.    Taylor Branch, The King Years: Historic Moments in the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013), ch. 1.

 141.    Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008), 50.

 142.    Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 771–72; Harvard Sitkoff and Eric Foner, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1945–1992 (New York: Macmillan, 1993), 45–46. And, broadly, see David L. Chappell, Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).

 143.    Davis and Clark, Thurgood Marshall, 191.

 144.    Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education, 187–91; Davis and Clark, Thurgood Marshall, 458.

 145.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 53–54; Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995, 2000), 96–97.

 146.    Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education, 191; Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and the Cold War,” 770; Orval E. Faubus, “Speech on School Integration” (1958).

 147.    Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 147–48.

 148.    Thurgood Marshall, oral history interview, 1977, in Thurgood Marshall, ed. Tushnet, 463.

Fourteen: RIGHTS AND WRONGS

     1.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 269–71.

     2.    Jerry Marlatt to Dwight Eisenhower, July 10, 1969, in Shane Hamilton and Sarah Phillips, The Kitchen Debate and Cold War Consumer Politics: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 2014), 41–43.

     3.    Hamilton and Phillips, The Kitchen Debate; “The Kitchen Debate,” July 24, 1959, posted by “Richard Nixon Foundation,” August 26, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRgOz2x9c08.

     4.    Michael B. Katz and Mark J. Stern, One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming (New York: Russell Sage, 2006), 66.

     5.    John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society and Other Writings (New York: Library of America, 2010), 355.

     6.    Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 678–80.

     7.    Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1960), 393, 402.

     8.    Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 351.

     9.    Robert Haber, The End of Ideology as Ideology (New York: Students for a Democratic Society, c. 1960).

   10.    Daniel Bell, “The End of Ideology in the West: An Epilogue,” in The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (1960; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 393–407; Macdonald quoted in Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), 330.

   11.    Philip E. Converse, “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics,” in Ideology and Discontent, ed. David E. Apter (1964): 207–60; Angus Campbell and Philip E. Converse, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), 193–94.

   12.    Converse, “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics.” And see Alan Abramowitz and Kyle Saunders, “Is Polarization a Myth?,” Journal of Politics 70 (2008): 542.

   13.    Galbraith, The Affluent Society and Other Writings, 356; Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 339; Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” in Against the American Grain (New York, NY: Random House, 1962), 4.

   14.    William Miller, “Provocative Goals,” Life, December 12, 1960.

   15.    Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), 271–74; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 772; Susan Gushee O’Malley, “Baker, Ella Josephine,” American Biography Online.

   16.    Goals for Americans: Programs for Action in the Sixties (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1960), 3, 42–48.

   17.    William Miller, “Provocative Goals,” Life, December 12, 1960.

   18.    Ithiel de Sola Pool and Robert Abelson, “The Simulmatics Project,” Public Opinion Quarterly 25 (1961): 167–83; Ithiel de Sola Pool, Robert Abelson, and Samuel L. Popkin, Candidates, Issues, and Strategies: A Computer Simulation of the 1960 and 1964 Presidential Election (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965).

   19.    Eugene Burdick, The 480 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), vii.

   20.    1960 Democratic Party Platform, July 11, 1960.

   21.    Pool and Abelson, “The Simulmatics Project”; Pool, Abelson, and Popkin, Candidates, Issues, and Strategies.

   22.    John F. Kennedy, Address of Senator John F. Kennedy to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association, Houston, Texas, September 12, 1960.

   23.    Memo, James Dorais to Clem Whitaker Jr. and Newton Stearns, 1960 Nixon Plan of Campaign, Campaigns, Inc., Records, Box 60, Folder 25; Minow and LaMay, Inside the Presidential Debates, 20; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 299.

   24.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 52.

   25.    Newton N. Minow and Clifford M. Sloan, For Great Debates: A New Plan for Future Presidential TV Debates (New York: Priority Press Publications, 1987), 9–10, 13–14.

   26.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 287–89, 294–98.

   27.    John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961.

   28.    Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address, January 17, 1961; Kennedy, Inaugural Address.

   29.    Fredrik Logevall, Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam (New York: Random House, 2012), xi–xii.

   30.    James M. Carter, Inventing Vietnam: The United States and State Building, 1954–1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 79.

   31.    Carter, Inventing Vietnam, 113–14, 31–32, 97–98; William J. Lederer and Eugene Burdick, The Ugly American (New York: Norton, 1958), 272–73, 282.

   32.    Logevall, Embers of War, xiii.

   33.    Joy Rohde, “The Last Stand of the Psychocultural Cold Warriors: Military Contract Research in Vietnam,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 47 (2011): 232–50.

   34.    Carter, Inventing Vietnam, 33–34, 139–42.

   35.    Trask, “The Imperial Republic,” 638–45; John F. Kennedy, “Radio and Television Report to the American People on the Soviet Arms Buildup in Cuba,” October 22, 1962.

   36.    Robert F. Kennedy, Speech, University of Georgia, May 6, 1961.

   37.    Freedom Riders, dir. Stanley Nelson, American Experience, PBS, May 16, 2011; Branch, Parting the Waters, 428–91.

   38.    Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Ballantine, 1965), 200.

   39.    Marable, Malcolm X, chs. 3–6 (quotation, 133); Portable Malcolm X Reader, 34–71, 97–117, 145–65, 184–98.

   40.    Portable Malcolm X Reader, 199–206.

   41.    Robert F. Williams, Negroes with Guns (New York: Marzani and Munsell, 1962); Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 13, 136.

   42.    Carter, The Politics of Rage, 115; Branch, Parting the Waters, 737–45; Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” April 16, 1963.

   43.    Carter, The Politics of Rage, 90–6, 11, 112, 133.

   44.    Branch, King Years, 49–57; John F. Kennedy, “Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights,” June 11, 1963.

   45.    Bayard Rustin, I Must Resist: Bayard Rustin’s Life in Letters, introduced and edited by Michael G. Long (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2012), 257, 261–64.

   46.    Branch, Pillar of Fire, 133.

   47.    Martin Luther King Jr., “I Have a Dream,” speech delivered at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Washington, DC, August 28, 1963; Branch, King Years, 61–67.

   48.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 83–84; Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks at the University of Michigan,” Ann Arbor, May 22, 1964.

   49.    Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 56; Leuchtenburg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 824; Lyndon B. Johnson, Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, Washington, DC, January 8, 1964.

   50.    Leuchtenburg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 810; Galbraith, The Affluent Society, 419; Leuchtenberg, “Consumer Culture and Cold War,” 726; Dwight Macdonald, “Our Invisible Poor,” TNY, January 19, 1963. And see Jill Lepore, “How a New Yorker Article Launched the First Shot in the War against Poverty,” Smithsonian Magazine, September 2012.

   51.    Lyndon B. Johnson, Address before a Joint Session of the Congress, Washington, DC, November 27, 1963.

   52.    Portable Malcolm X Reader, 311–26.

   53.    Ibid., 318.

   54.    Thurgood Marshall, Glenn L. Starks, and F. Erik Brooks, Thurgood Marshall: A Biography (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012), 42.

   55.    Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy Since the 1960s (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), 25.

   56.    Carter, The Politics of Rage, 206–7.

   57.    Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 72.

   58.    Ibid., 53.

   59.    Ibid., 67.

   60.    Ibid., 67.

   61.    Ibid. 70–71; Fitzgerald, Highest Glass Ceiling, 142.

   62.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 63–64; Barry Goldwater, Acceptance Speech, 28th Republican National Convention, Daly City, California, July 17, 1964.

   63.    Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 395; Leuchtenburg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 812–13; FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 243–44.

   64.    Marjorie J. Spruill, Divided We Stand: The Battle Over Women’s Rights and Family Values That Polarized American Politics (New York: Bloomsbury, 2017), 77.

   65.    Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 41; Donald T. Critchlow, Phyllis Schlafly and Grassroots Conservatism: A Woman’s Crusade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 145; Rymph, Republican Women, 182.

   66.    Rymph, Republican Women, 166–87.

   67.    Schulman, Lyndon Johnson and American Liberalism, 82.

   68.    Sarah A. Binder, Stalemate: Causes and Consequences of Legislative Gridlock (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), ch. 4, and see also Binder, “The Dynamics of Legislative Gridlock, 1947–96,” APSR 93 (1999): 519–33, and David R. Jones, “Party Polarization and Legislative Gridlock,” Political Research Quarterly 54 (2001): 125–41.

   69.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 90.

   70.    Michelmore, Tax and Spend, 48–50, 62–63; Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America, 123.

   71.    Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 57.

   72.    Trask, “The Imperial Republic,” 647; Carter, Inventing Vietnam, 161; Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 101.

   73.    Steve Warshaw, The Trouble in Berkeley (Berkeley, CA: Diablo Press, 1965), 27.

   74.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 96.

   75.    Branch, Pillar of Fire, 578–79; Portable Malcolm X Reader, 394.

   76.    James Baldwin’s remarks on the death of Malcolm X can be seen at https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=cHm31kOWFec.

   77.    Lyndon B. Johnson, “The American Promise”: Address before a Joint Session of the Congress, Washington, DC, March 15, 1965.

   78.    Elizabeth Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 1–5, 13–16, 65, 79, 90–98, 106–7, 119–21; Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 414.

   79.    Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime, 66–69.

   80.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 111–12.

   81.    Leuchtenburg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 829.

   82.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 189–96.

   83.    Leuchtenberg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 874.

   84.    Ronald Reagan, “Time for Choosing,” Speech, televised campaign address for Goldwater presidential campaign, October 27, 1964.

   85.    Martin Luther King Jr., “Our God Is Marching On,” speech delivered at the Selma to Montgomery March, Montgomery, Alabama, March 25, 1965; John Herbers, “Right Backers Fear a Backlash,” NYT, September 21, 1966; Gerald R. Ford, Illinois State Fair Address, August 17, 1966, Ford Congressional Papers, Press Secretary and Speech File, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Box D20, Folder “Illinois State Fair”; Perlstein, Nixonland, 71, 83, 114.

   86.    Quoted in David Chagall, The New King-Makers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981), 3.

   87.    “Reagan Urges Carmichael Not to Speak at UC,” Los Angeles Times, October 19, 1966; Richard Bergholz, “Reagan Criticizes UC for Permitting Bob Kennedy Talk,” Los Angeles Times, October 21, 1966.

   88.    Redacted to Hoover, September 4, 1966, decoded telegram, Stokely Carmichael FBI file, FBI Vault (vault.fbi.gov), Part 3, page 5. Special Agent in Charge, Atlanta, to Hoover, September 20, 1966, Carmichael’s FBI file, FBI Vault, Part 4, page 9. The FBI was trying to find a way to deport Carmichael, who had been born in Trinidad.

   89.    Stuart Spencer, oral history, November 15–16, 2001, Miller Center, University of Virginia. Reagan told a slightly different story: Gerard J. De Groot, “Ronald Reagan and Student Unrest in California, 1966–1970,” Pacific Historical Review 65 (1996): 107–29.

   90.    Michelle Reeves, “‘Obey the Rules or Get Out’: Ronald Reagan’s 1966 Gubernatorial Campaign and the ‘Trouble in Berkeley,’” Southern California Quarterly 92 (2010): 295. And see Stanley G. Robertson, “LA Confidential,” Los Angeles Sentinel, November 3, 1966.

   91.    Stokeley Carmichael, speech at Berkeley, October 1966, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWsgT67-RM4; James Reston, “Berkeley, California: The University and Politics,” NYT, October 23, 1966; Patterson, America in the Twentieth Century, 416–19.

   92.    Adam Winkler, “The Secret History of Guns,” Atlantic, September 2011.

   93.    Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime, 123–27.

   94.    Quoted in De Groot, “Ronald Reagan and Student Unrest,” 116.

   95.    Arnold Hano, “The Black Rebel Who ‘Whitelists” the Olympics,” NYT, May 12, 1968.

   96.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 97; David Remnick, King of the World: Muhammad Ali and the Rise of an American Hero (New York: Knopf, 2014), 289; Sandra Millner, The Dream Lives On: Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: MetroBooks, 1999), 44.

   97.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 126, 139, 241.

   98.    Leuchtenburg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 874.

   99.    Carter, Politics of Rage, 306.

 100.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 163–65.

 101.    “Lyndon Johnson Says He Won’t Run,” NYT, April 1, 1968.

 102.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 119; Perlstein, Nixonland, 257; Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture (New York: Free Press, 2001), 2–3; Ben. A. Franklin, “Army Troops in Capital as Negroes Riot,” NYT, April 5, 1968.

 103.    Robert F. Kennedy, “Statement on Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.,” Indianapolis, Indiana, April 4, 1968.

 104.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 239–41; Ronald Reagan, radio address, March 7, 1968.

 105.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 343–44, 367.

 106.    Carter, Politics of Rage, 379; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 330, 336; Richard Nixon, Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida, August 8, 1968.

 107.    Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime, 139–40.

 108.    Schulman, The Seventies, 12. The best account is Norman Mailer, Miami and the Siege of Chicago: An Informal History of the Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1968 (New York: New American Library, 1968).

 109.    Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 161; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, “On Party Polarization in Congress,” Daedalus 136 (2007): 104–7.

 110.    Baxter, oral history, 1972, 17, 22–4.

 111.    Quoted in Hartman, War for the Soul of America, 25.

 112.    Noam Chomsky, “The Menace of Liberal Scholarship,” The New York Review of Books, January 2, 1969; Rohde, “The Last Stand of the Psychocultural Cold Warriors,” 246. Chomsky refers to Simulmatics’s “urban insurgency” work as confidential; Rohe cites Simulmatics’s “Urban Insurgency file” in Armed with Expertise: The Militarization of American Social Research During the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013), 169n5.

 113.    Schulman, The Seventies, 16.

 114.    Leuchtenburg, “The Travail of Liberalism,” 873.

 115.    This was on January 8, 1970; Carter, Politics of Rage, 380.

 116.    H. R. Haldeman, transcript of an oral history, conducted 1991 by Dale E. Trevelen, State Government Oral History Program, California State Archives, 317.

 117.    Richard M. Scammon and Ben J. Wattenberg, The Real Majority (New York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1970), 20–21, 280–81.

 118.    Schulman, The Seventies, 38; James M. Naughton, “Nixon, Confident of Gains in ’70, Planning Same Tactics for ’72,” NYT, October 23, 1970; Farrell, Richard Nixon, 388; Andrew Hacker, The End of the American Era (New York: Atheneum, 1970), ch. 2.

 119.    Perlstein, Nixonland, 393–96.

 120.    Schulman, The Seventies, 34–35; Carter, Politics of Rage, 398–99.

 121.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 413.

 122.    Ibid., 418.

 123.    The Nixon Tapes, 1971–1972, edited and annotated by Douglas Brinkley and Luke A. Nichter (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2014), ix–x.

 124.    Neil Sheehan, “Pentagon Study Traces 3 Decades of Growing U.S. Involvement,” NYT, June 13, 1971.

 125.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 420–26.

 126.    Audio, https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/tapeexcerpts/534-2(3)-brookings.mp 3; transcript, https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/forresearchers/find/tapes/watergate/trial/exhibit_12.pdf; Schulman, The Seventies, 44.

 127.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 465–84. For the June 23 conversation: “The Smoking Gun Tape,” Watergateinfo, http://watergate.info/1972/06/23/the-smoking-gun-tape.html, ac cessed August 17, 2017.

 128.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 497–98.

 129.    LBJ, interview with Walter Cronkite, January 12, 1973, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vW5PemdbcT8; Schulman, Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, 164.

 130.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 519.

 131.    Ibid., 523–57; U.S. v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974).

 132.    Richard Nixon, Resignation Speech, Washington, DC, August 8, 1974.

 133.    Farrell, Richard Nixon, 532.

Fifteen: BATTLE LINES

     1.    Betty Ford to Lesley Stahl, in a 1997 interview, CBS News, “The Remarkable Mrs. Ford,” August 17, 2015, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-remarkable-mrs-ford/, accessed August 21, 2017.

     2.    Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1963), 11.

     3.    Betty Ford with Chris Chase, The Times of My Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), 120. And on these years, see also John Robert Greene, Betty Ford: Candor and Courage in the White House (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), ch. 2.

     4.    On Murray’s role in NOW’s founding and mission, see Rosenberg, Jane Crow, 298–300.

     5.    An August 1972 Gallup poll reported that 68 percent of Republicans and 58 percent of Democrats agreed that “the decision to have an abortion should be made solely by a woman and her physician” (Jack Rosenthal, “Survey Finds Majority, in Shift, Now Favors Liberalized Laws,” NYT, August 25, 1972), a poll that Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun included in his Roe v. Wade case file; Linda Greenhouse and Reva B. Siegel, “Before (and After) Roe v. Wade: New Questions About Backlash,” Yale Law Journal 120 (2011): 2031.

     6.    “The Republican Party favors a continuance of the public dialogue on abortion and supports the efforts of those who seek enactment of a constitutional amendment to restore protection of the right to life for unborn children” (Republican Party Platform of 1976, August 18, 1976). “We fully recognize the religious and ethical nature of the concerns which many Americans have on the subject of abortion. We feel, however, that it is undesirable to attempt to amend the U.S. Constitution to overturn the Supreme Court decision in this area” (1976 Democratic Party Platform, July 12, 1976).

     7.    Byron W. Daynes and Raymond Tatlovich, “Presidential Politics and Abortion, 1972–1988,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 22 (1992): 545–61.

     8.    Richard A. Viguerie, The New Right: We’re Ready to Lead (Falls Church, VA: Viguerie, 1981), 55; on the culture wars, broadly, see Andrew Hartman, A War for the Soul of America: A History of the Culture Wars (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).

     9.    Michael Kelly, “The 1992 Campaign,” NYT, October 31, 1992.

   10.    Editor’s note in Margaret Sanger, The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, ed. Esther Katz et al., 4 vols. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 3:469. And see James W. Reed, Interview with Mary Steichen Calderone, MD, August 7, 1974, transcript, Schlesinger-Rockefeller Oral History Project, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe, Reel A-1, 2; Tom Davis, Sacred Work: Planned Parenthood and Its Clergy Alliances (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 89.

   11.    James W. Reed, interviews with Loraine Lesson Campbell, December 1973–March 1974, Schlesinger-Rockefeller Oral History Project, Reel A-1, 71, 83; Alan F. Guttmacher, “Memoirs,” typescript, November 1972, Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) Records, Smith College, PPFA 2, Administration, Guttmacher, A. F., Autobiography, Rough Draft, Box 117, Folder 39; David M. Kennedy, Birth Control in America; the Career of Margaret Sanger (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970), vii; Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).

   12.    Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).

   13.    Bush quoted in Gloria Feldt with Carol Trickett Jennings, Behind Every Choice Is a Story (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2002), 94. Spruill, Divided We Stand, 286; Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972).

   14.    Greenhouse and Siegel, “Before (and After) Roe,” 2047–49; Linda Gordon, The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 289; Richard Nixon: “Special Message to the Congress on Problems of Population Growth,” July 18, 1969.

   15.    “F. J. Bardacke on The Woman Question,” San Francisco Express Times, September 25, 1968.

   16.    Alice Echols, Daring To Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 56–57, 92–96, 120.

   17.    Vern L. Bullough, Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context (New York: Harrington Park Press, 2002); Frank Kameny and Michael G. Long, Gay Is Good: The Life and Letters of Gay Rights Pioneer Franklin Kameny (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2014), 93, 165, 173–74; Lacey Fosburgh, “Thousands of Homosexuals Hold a Protest Rally in Central Park,” NYT, June 29, 1970. And, on the transition from the 1950s homophile movement to the 1960s gay rights movement, see Gregory Andrew Briker, “The Right to Be Heard: One Magazine, Obscenity Law, and the Battle over Homosexual Speech,” AB thesis, Harvard University, 2017.

   18.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 14, 29–33.

   19.    Irin Carmon and Shana Knizhnik, Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (New York: William Morrow, 2015), 46.

   20.    Pauline M. Trowbridge to Alan Guttmacher, August 2, 1970, Alan Guttmacher Papers, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School, Box 2, Folder 10.

   21.    Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).

   22.    Greenhouse and Siegel, “Before (and After) Roe,” 2053–54.

   23.    Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).

   24.    Richard Nixon to Charles Colson, January 23, 1976, in The Nixon Tapes: 1973, edited and annotated by Douglas Brinkley and Luke A. Nichter (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2015), 17–18.

   25.    “The First Lady,” 60 Minutes, August 10, 1975, transcript of an interview with Betty Ford by Morley Safer, Box 11, Folder “Ford, Betty—General,” Ron Nessen Papers, Ford Presidential Library, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/docu ment/0204/1511773.pdf. And on her cancer, see Ford, The Times of My Life, ch. 26.

   26.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 43–45.

   27.    “The First Lady,” 60 Minutes, August 10, 1975.

   28.    Greene, Betty Ford, 59. And on this point, generally, see Spruill, Divided We Stand.

   29.    Greene, Betty Ford, 67.

   30.    Sean Wilentz, The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (New York: HarperCollins, 2008), 14.

   31.    Ibid., 35; Patterson, Restless Giant, 7.

   32.    For this thesis and its evidence, see Robert J. Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).

   33.    Piketty and Saez, “Income Inequality in the United States, 1913–1998,” 1–41; Self, All in the Family, 314.

   34.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 71, 80, 85.

   35.    Rymph, Republican Women, 198–99.

   36.    Republican Party Platform of 1976, August 18, 1976; Freeman, We Will be Heard, 122–25; Rymph, Republican Women, 189, 205, 207, 209–10, 223.

   37.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 127.

   38.    Rymph, Republican Women, 215–16; Self, All in the Family, 312, 313. For chronicles of the conference, see Alice S. Rossi, Feminists in Politics: A Panel Analysis of the First National Women’s Conference (New York: Academic Press, 1982), and Shelah Gilbert Leader and Patricia Rusch Hyatt, American Women on the Move: The Inside Story of the National Women’s Conference, 1977 (Lanham, NJ: Levington Books, 2016).

   39.    “The Torch Relay,” in National Commission on the Observance of International Women’s Year, The Spirit of Houston: The First National Women’s Conference (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1978), 193–203.

   40.    Maya Angelou, “To Form a More Perfect Union,” in The Spirit of Houston, 195.

   41.    “Speech by Betty Ford, National Commissioner and Former First Lady, First Plenary Session,” in The Spirit of Houston, 220–21.

   42.    Self, All in the Family, 217; Spruill, Divided We Stand, 225.

   43.    Self, All in the Family, 318; Spruill, Divided We Stand, 7.

   44.    “The Minority Caucus: ‘It’s Our Movement Now,’” in The Spirit of Houston, 156–57.

   45.    Anita Bryant, The Anita Bryant Story: The Survival of Our Nation’s Families and the Threat of Militant Homosexuality (Old Tappan, NJ: Felming H. Revell Company, 1977), 17, 21.

   46.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 228–29.

   47.    Anna Quindlen, “Women’s Conference Approves Planks on Abortion and Rights for Homosexuals,” NYT, November 21, 1977; Self, All in the Family, 320–21.

   48.    Carolyn Kortge, “Schlafly Says Women’s Movement Is Dying in an Anti-Feminist Surge,” Eagle & Beacon, August 3, 1977, reprinted in National Women’s Conference Official Briefing Book: Houston, Texas, November 18 to 21, 1977 (Washington, DC: National Commission on the Observance of International Women’s Year, 1977), 228. Self, All in the Family, 319.

   49.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 152.

   50.    Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 132–33.

   51.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 21.

   52.    Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy, 128; John D’Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 349–50; FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 291, 302.

   53.    “Resolution On Abortion: St. Louis, Missouri, 1971,” Southern Baptist Convention, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/13/resolution-on-abortion); FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 299; Robert C. Post and Reva C. Siegel, “Roe Rage: Democratic Constitutionalism and Backlash,” 2007, Faculty Scholarship Series, Yale University, Paper 169, 420–21.

   54.    FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 291–94.

   55.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 288–89.

   56.    Rymph, Republican Women, 221, 228, 237–38.

   57.    Self, All in the Family, 358–60.

   58.    Ronald Reagan, Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Republican National Convention in Detroit, July 17, 1980.

   59.    Spruill, Divided We Stand, 287.

   60.    Kenneth Janda, “Innovations in Information Technology in American Party Politics Since 1960,” in Guy Lachapelle and Philippe J. Maarek, eds. The Political Parties in the Digital Age: The Impact of New Technologies in Politics (Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2015).

   61.    Viguerie, The New Right, 12, 21, 32, 35, 91–93.

   62.    Wuthnow, Inventing American Religion, 99–100; Leo Bogart, Silent Politics: Polls and the Awareness of Public Opinion (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1972), 101; Philip Meyer, Precision Journalism: A Reporter’s Introduction to Social Science Methods (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973)—quotation, 191; David W. Moore, The Opinion Makers: An Insider Exposes the Truth Behind the Polls (Boston: Beacon, 2008), xvii.

   63.    Nolan M. McCarty, Keith T. Poole, and Howard Rosenthal, “Polarized Politicians,” in Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 15–70; Sinclair, Party Wars, 16; Self, All in the Family, 371; Rymph, Republican Women, 231.

   64.    Greg D. Adams, “Abortion: Evidence of an Issue Evolution,” American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997): 718, 723; Greenhouse and Siegel, “Before (and After) Roe,” 2069–70.

   65.    Hartman, War for the Soul of America, 134.

   66.    Ronald Reagan, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1981; Crichtlow, Conservative Ascendancy, 199.

   67.    Michelmore, Tax and Spend, 122, 138–39; Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America, 134; Patterson, Restless Giant, 66–69.

   68.    H. W. Brands, Reagan: The Life (New York: Doubleday, 2015), 179; Alan O. Ebenstein, Milton Friedman: A Biography (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 208; Reagan’s introduction to Friedman’s television series, “President Reagan on Dr. Friedman and Free to Choose,” YouTube video, 1:09, posted by “Free to Choose Network,” July 18, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=um-p3ZhiO60; Eamonn Butler, Milton Friedman: A Guide to His Economic Thought (New York: Universe Books, 1985).

   69.    Larissa MacFarquhar, “The Gilder Effect,” TNY, May 29, 2000. For a skeptical view of the rise of supply-side economics, see Jonathan Chait, The Big Con: The True Story of How Washington Got Hoodwinked and Hijacked by Crackpot Economics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007).

   70.    MacFarquhar, “The Gilder Effect”; George F. Gilder, Sexual Suicide (New York: Quadrangle, 1973), 5–6, 92–93, 131, 241–42.

   71.    George Gilder, Wealth and Poverty: A New Edition for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Regnery, 2012), foreword by Steve Forbes, x, 27, 15, 17.

   72.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 48–49.

   73.    Daniel Wirls, Irrational Security: The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 19; Michelmore, Tax and Spend, 141, 147.

   74.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 158–59, 165, 175.

   75.    Winkler, Gunfight, 65, 248, 253, but see Siegel, “Dead or Alive,” n58.

   76.    Winkler, Gunfight, 233–235.

   77.    William Safire, “An Appeal for Repeal,” NYT, June 10, 1999. Nixon Library, White House Tapes, Nixon to H. R. Haldeman, June 1, 1971, tape 256; Nixon Oval Office Conversation with Aides, May 19, 1972, tape 726; Nixon phone calls, June 15, 1972, tape 256.

   78.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 25–6, 293–95.

   79.    Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, ch. 6 (quotation, 203); Ngai, Impossible Subjects, ch. 7.

   80.    Winkler, Gunfight, 67–68.

   81.    John M. Crewdson, “Hard-Line Opponent of Gun Laws Wins New Term at Helm of Rifle Association,” NYT, May 4, 1981.

   82.    Ronald Reagan, Kiron K Skinner, Annelise Graebner Anderson, and Martin Anderson, Reagan: A Life in Letters (New York: Free Press, 2003), 368. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Ronald Reagan: 1981–1988/89 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992), 388.

   83.    Steven M. Teles, The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement: The Battle for Control of the Law (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008) and Amanda Hollis-Brusky, Ideas with Consequences: The Federalist Society and the Conservative Counterrevolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).

   84.    The Right to Keep and Bear Arms: Report of the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-seventh Congress, Second Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982).

   85.    Robert A. Sprecher, “The Lost Amendment,” American Bar Association Journal 51 (1965): 665–69. Both party platforms supported gun control in 1968. The Republican platform only began to oppose gun control in 1980. On polling, see Carl T. Bogus, “The Hidden History of the Second Amendment,” U.C. Davis Law Review 31 (1998): 312.

   86.    Carl T. Bogus, “The History and Politics of Second Amendment Scholarship: A Primer,” in The Second Amendment in Law and History, edited by Carl T. Bogus (New York: New Press, 2000), 1, 4.

   87.    Michael Avery and Danielle McLaughlin, The Federalist Society: How Conservatives Took the Law Back from Liberals (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2013), 2. And see Teles, The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement.

   88.    Edwin Meese, Address to the Federalist Society’s Lawyers Division, Washington, DC, November 15, 1985.

   89.    Steven F. Hayward, The Age of Reagan. The Conservative Counterrevolution, 1980–1989 (New York: Crown Forum, 2009), 414; William J. Brennan, “The Constitution of the United States: Contemporary Ratification,” reprinted in Interpreting the Constitution: The Debate over Original Intent, ed. Jack N. Rakove (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990); Garry Wills, “To Keep and Bear Arms,” New York Review of Books, September 21, 1995.

   90.    Jamal Greene, “Selling Originalism,” Georgetown Law Journal 97 (2009): 708.

   91.    Reva B. Siegel, “Dead or Alive: Originalism as Popular Constitutionalism in Heller,” Faculty Scholarship Series, 2008, Paper 1133, 216.

   92.    Warren Burger, “2nd Amendment Fraud,” YouTube video, 0:57, from an interview on The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, televised by PBS on December 16, 1991, posted by “Frank Staheli,” August 28, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eya_k4P-iEo.

   93.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 123–26.

   94.    Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1962); President’s Science Advisory Committee, Environmental Pollution Panel, Restoring the Quality of Our Environment (Washington, DC: White House, 1965), appendix, “Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide.”

   95.    S. Fred Singer, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Global Effects of Environmental Pollution; a Symposium Organized by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Held in Dallas, Texas, December 1968 (Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1970).

   96.    FitzGerald, The Evangelicals, 321–32.

   97.    Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010), 45.

   98.    Badash, A Nuclear Winter’s Tale, 66, 122; Edward Teller, “Widespread After-Effects of Nuclear War,” Nature 310 (August 23, 1984): 621–24.

   99.    Nicole Hemmer, Messengers of the Right: Conservative Media and the Transformation of American Politics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 115–17.

 100.    Singer is quoted in Badash, Nuclear Winter’s Tale, 142. His career is discussed at some length in Oreskes, Merchants of Doubt. For Singer’s more recent views, see Ashley Thorne, “The Father of Global Warming Skepticism: An Interview with S. Fred Singer,” National Association of Scholars, January 3, 2011, https://www.nas.org/articles/The_Father_of_Global_Warming_Skepticism_An_Interviewwith_S_Fred_Singer.

 101.    “Climate Change,” Heartland Institute, July 27, 2016, https://www.heartland.org/top ics/climate-change/, accessed August 28, 2017; Jastrow is quoted in Oreskes, Merchants of Doubt, 59.

 102.    Reagan-Bush ’84, “Prouder, Stronger, Better,” 1984, Museum of the Moving Image; Gingrich quoted in Ronald Brownstein, The Second Civil War: How Extreme Partisanship Has Paralyzed Washington and Polarized America (New York: Penguin, 2007), 143.

 103.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 174.

 104.    Antonin Scalia, “Originalism: The Lesser Evil,” University of Cincinnati Law Review 57 (1989): 849–65.

 105.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 179; Buchanan is quoted in Crichtlow, Conservative Ascendancy, 217; Randy Shilts, And the Band Played on: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (New York: St. Martin’s, 2000), 173, 294–99; on spending: Craig A. Rimmerman, From Identity to Politics: The Lesbian and Gay Movements in the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 93.

 106.    Jeffrey Toobin, The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 218–19; Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986), Blackmun, dissenting.

 107.    See, for example, Elizabeth M. Schneider, “The Synergy of Equality and Privacy in Women’s Rights,” University of Chicago Legal Forum 137 (2002): 137–154, especially 140n12.

 108.    Catharine A. MacKinnon, “Privacy v. Equality: Beyond Roe v. Wade (1983),” in Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 93–102 (quotations, 100, 93); Ruth Bader Ginsburg, “Some Thoughts on Autonomy and Equality in Relation to Roe v. Wade,” North Carolina Law Review 63 (1984–85): 375–86 (quotation, 383).

 109.    Self, All in the Family, 385, 391–93. And see Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000).

 110.    Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986). And on the place of historical analysis in the court during this era, see Erwin Chemerinsky, “History, Tradition, the Supreme Court, and the First Amendment,” Hastings Law Journal 44 (1993): 919.

 111.    Thurgood Marshall, Bicentennial Speech, Annual Seminar of the San Francisco Patent and Trademark Law Association, Maui, Hawaii, May 6, 1987.

 112.    Robert Bork, Saving Justice: Watergate, the Saturday Night Massacre, and Other Adventures of a Solicitor General (New York: Encounter Books, 2013), 86; Robert Bork, “The Great Debate,” University of San Diego Law School, San Diego, California, November 18, 1985; guns: Reva B. Siegel, “Dead or Alive: Originalism as Popular Constitutionalism in Heller,” Bork quoted on 224.

 113.    United States Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Nomination of Robert H. Bork to Be Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court: Hearings before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, One Hundredth Congress, First Session, on the Nomination of Robert H. Bork to Be Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 2818.

 114.    The People for the American Way, Anti-Bork Commercial, 1987, www.pfaw.org.

 115.    John Corry, “Evaluating Bork on TV,” NYT, September 17, 1987; Linda Greenhouse, “The Bork Battle: Visions of the Constitution,” NYT, October 4, 1987. Footage from the PBS NewsHour at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ffTtOMIJAk.

 116.    Michael Avery and Danielle McLaughlin, The Federalist Society: How Conservatives Took the Law Back from Liberals (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2013), 26–27.

 117.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 214–16.

 118.    Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton, 1991, 1992, 1998), 11; Irving Kristol, “My Cold War,” National Interest 31 (1993): 141–44. On the history of hate speech codes, see Erwin Chemerinsky and Howard Gillman, Free Speech on Campus (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

 119.    Maureen Dowd, “The 1992 Campaign,” NYT, May 18, 1992.

 120.    Patrick Buchanan, “Culture War,” Republican National Convention, Houston, Texas, August 17, 1992.

 121.    Robert H. Bork, Slouching Towards Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline (New York: ReganBooks, 1996), 2.

 122.    Carl Bernstein, A Woman in Charge: The Life of Hillary Rodham Clinton (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 30–38, 54–56, 69; Mark Leibovich, “In Turmoil of ’68, Clinton Found a New Voice,” NYT, September 5, 2007; on the history of her name, see Janell Ross, “The Complicated History Behind Hillary Clinton’s Evolving Name,” Washington Post, July 25, 2015.

 123.    The term was coined by Peter Drucker in 1962 (Saval, Cubed, 197, 201).

 124.    Lily Geismer, Don’t Blame Us: Suburban Liberals and the Transformation of the Democratic Party (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 1–9.

 125.    Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 2.

 126.    Ibid., 81; The Last Whole Earth Catalog: Access to Tools (Menlo Park, CA: Portola Institute, distributed Random House, 1971), 344, 248–49, 225, 389.

 127.    Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 38, 76–77, 98. And see, for example, “Kibbutz: Venture in Utopia,” Whole Earth Catalog (San Rafael, CA: Point Foundation, 1998), 42.

 128.    Isaacson, The Innovators, 268–81.

 129.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 59–60.

 130.    Frederick G. Dutton, Changing Sources of Power: American Politics in the 1970s (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), ch. 7.

 131.    Thomas Frank, Listen, Liberal: Or, What Ever Happened to the Party of the People? (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2016), 46–53.

 132.    Crichtlow, Conservative Ascendancy, 203; Al From and Alice McKeon, The New Democrats and the Return to Power (New York City: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), especially ch. 5; Patterson, Restless Giant, 190.

 133.    Michael Rothschild, “Beyond Repair: The Politics of the Machine Age Are Hopelessly Obsolete,” New Democrat, July/August 1995, 8–11.

 134.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 249; “Stories of Bill,” Frontline, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/choice/bill/greenberg.html, accessed August 28, 2017.

 135.    Davis and Clark, Thurgood Marshall, 5.

 136.    Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton, interview by Steve Kroft, 60 Minutes, CBS, January 26, 1992; Patterson, Restless Giant, 256.

 137.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 253; Bob Woodward, The Agenda: Inside the Clinton White House (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 117.

 138.    Margaret Carlson, “A Hundred Days of Hillary,” Vanity Fair, June 1, 1993. On the name, see Ross, “The Complicated History Behind Hillary Clinton’s Evolving Name.”

 139.    “Harry and Louise on Clinton’s Health Plan,” YouTube video, 1:00, aired 1994, posted by “danieljbmitchell,” July 15, 2007, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dt31nhleeCg; William Kristol to Republican Leaders, December 2, 1993, Memo, https://www.scribd.com/document/12926608/William-Kristol-s-1993-Memo-Defeating-President-Clinton-s-Health-Care-Proposal; Brownstein, Second Civil War, 155; Patterson, Restless Giant, 328–30.

 140.    Frank, Listen, Liberal, 78–79.

 141.    Biden quoted in Frank, Listen, Liberal, 93; Elizabeth Hinton, Julilly Kohler-Hausmann, and Vesla M. Weaver, “Did Blacks Really Endorse the 1994 Crime Bill?,” NYT, April 13, 2016.

 142.    Kleiman, When Brute Force Fails, 1; Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: The New Press, 2010, 2012), 3–60.

 143.    William J. Clinton, “Statement on Signing the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996,” Washington, DC, August 22, 1996.

 144.    Stephen Labaton, “A New Financial Era,” NYT, October 23, 1999; Frank, Listen, Liberal, 119.

 145.    “What We Believe,” Combahee River Collective, April 1977, http://circuitous.org/scraps/combahee.html. Combahee is a river associated with Harriet Tubman’s rescue missions.

 146.    On the rise of trauma, see Anne Rothe, Popular Trauma Culture: Selling the Pain of Others in the Mass Media (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011), and especially Ruth Leys, Trauma: A Genealogy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). And for a jaundiced view, see Mark Lilla, The Once and Future Liberal: After Identity Politics (New York: Harper, 2017).

 147.    Gordon, Moral Property, 309.

 148.    Mark Hamm, Apocalypse in Oklahoma: Waco and Ruby Ridge Revenged (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997), 158.

 149.    Jonathan Kay, Among the Truthers: A Journey into the Growing Conspiracist Underground of 9/11 Truthers, Birthers, Armagheddonites, Vaccine Hysterics, Hollywood Know-Nothings and Internet Addicts (New York: HarperCollins, 2011), 27–29; Lee Nichols, “Libertarians on TV,” Austin Chronicle, August 7, 1998.

 150.    Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (1987; New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 25; Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1995), 35–36; and on the history of political correctness, 169–71.

 151.    Chemerinsky and Gillman, Free Speech on Campus, 71; Herbert Marcuse, “Repressive Tolerance,” in Robert Paul Wolff, Barrington Moore Jr., and Herbert Marcuse, A Critique of Pure Tolerance (Boston: Beacon, 1965); Henry Louis Gates Jr., “Critical Race Theory and the Freedom of Speech,” The Future of Academic Freedom, ed. Louis Menard (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), ch. 5.

 152.    Hemmer, Messengers of the Right, 258–59; Daly, Covering America, 412.

 153.    Philip Seib, Rush Hour: Talk Radio, Politics, and the Rise of Rush Limbaugh (Fort Worth, TX: The Summit Group, 1993), 4, 27, 59; Ze’ev Chafets, Roger Ailes: Off Camera (New York, New York: Sentinel, 2013), 62–63; Charles J. Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind (New York: St. Martin’s, 2017), 135.

 154.    Baxter, oral history, 1972, 17, 22–4.

 155.    Sherman, Loudest Voice, 115–16.

 156.    Roger Ailes with Jon Kraushar, You Are the Message: Getting What You Want by Being Who You Are (New York: Crown Business, 1988, 1995), 17, 82.

 157.    Minow and Sloan, For Great Debates, 28; Dorothy S. Ridings to Editorial Page Editors and Writers, September 23, 1983, Dorothy Ridings Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe, Box 1.

 158.    Ailes, You Are the Message, 23–24; Chafets, Roger Ailes, 48; George Farah, No Debate: How the Republican and Democratic Parties Secretly Control the Presidential Debates (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2004), 89.

 159.    Bush in an interview with James Lehrer, Debating Our Destiny: 40 Years of Presidential Debate (Washington, DC: MacNeil/Lehrer Productions, 2000).

 160.    Cronkite made his original remarks in the 1990 Theodore H. White lecture at Harvard’s Kennedy School; Farah, No Debate, 32–33, 90, 93.

 161.    Daly, Covering America, 401–15; Gabriel Sherman, The Loudest Voice in the Room: How the Brilliant, Bombastic Roger Ailes Built Fox News—and Divided a Country (New York: Random House, 2014), 183.

 162.    Ken Auletta, “Vox Fox,” TNY, May 26, 2003. Sherman, Loudest Voice, 175. Jane Hall, “Murdoch Will Launch 24-Hour News Channel; Roger Ailes Will Head the New Service,” Los Angeles Times, January 30, 1996.

 163.    Sherman, Loudest Voice, 230.

 164.    Markus Prior, Post-Broadcast Democracy: How Media Choice Increase Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

 165.    Leibovich, This Town, 101–7; Sherman, Loudest Voice, 200, 229.

 166.    Benjamin Ginsberg and Martin Shefter, Politics by Other Means: Politicians, Prosecutors, and the Press from Watergate to Whitewater, revised and updated edition (New York: Norton, 1990, 1999), figure 1.1., 27.

 167.    Kenneth Starr, and United States Office of the Independent Counsel. The Starr Report: The Findings of Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr on President Clinton and the Lewinsky Affair (New York: Public Affairs, 1998), 49–50. The quotation is attributed to Lewinsky by David Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace: Bush, Clinton, and the Generals (New York: Scribner, 2001), 372.

 168.    Johnson, Best of Times, 254.

 169.    Ibid., 259.

 170.    Ibid., 272–73.

 171.    Ibid., 232–33, 292; William J. Clinton, interview by Jim Lehrer, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, PBS, January 21, 1998; Patterson, Restless Giant, 390; Today show, interview with Matt Lauer, January 27, 1998.

 172.    Sherman, Loudest Voice, 236–38, 245; Brownstein, Second Civil War, 171; A. M. Rosenthal, “Risking the Presidency,” NYT, March 17, 1998; Andrew Sullivan, “Lies That Matter,” TNR, September 14, 21, 1998.

 173.    Hemmer, Messengers of the Right, xiii–xiv.

 174.    Johnson, The Best of Times, 328–30, 373–74, 397; Steven M. Gillon, The Pact: Bill Clinton, Newt Gingrich, and the Rivalry That Defined a Generation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 249; Katharine Q. Seelye, “The Speaker Steps Down,” NYT, November 7, 1998.

 175.    Gloria Steinem, “Why Feminists Support Clinton,” NYT, March 22, 1998; Toni Morrison, “On the First Black President,” TNY, October 5, 1998.

 176.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 267; “Letter to Conservatives” from Paul M. Weyrich, February 16, 1999, in Direct Line, http://www.rfcnet.org/archives/weyrich.htm.

 177.    Anthony Lewis, “Nearly a Coup,” New York Review of Books, April 13, 2000.

 178.    “I decided real estate was a much better business,” he later explained: Donald J. Trump with Tony Schwartz, The Art of the Deal (New York: Random House, 1987), 77.

 179.    Ibid., 77–81; David Dunlap, “Meet Donald Trump,” NYT [Insider], July 30, 2015.

 180.    Luis Romano, “Donald Trump, Holding All the Cards,” Washington Post, November 15, 1984.

 181.    Trump, The Art of the Deal, 105, 107; Fox Butterfield, “New Hampshire Speech Earns Praise for Trump,” NYT, October 23, 1987.

 182.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 357; Lawrence R. Samuel, Rich: The Rise and Fall of American Wealth Culture (New York: American Management Association, 2009), 224–31.

 183.    Carl Rowan, “The Uglification of Presidential Politics,” Titusville (PA) Herald, November 3, 1999; Donald Trump, interview by Chris Matthews, Hardball with Chris Matthews, NBC News, August 27, 1998; Adam Nagourney, “President? Why Not?,” NYT, September 25, 1999.

 184.    Donald J. Trump with Dave Shiflett, The America We Deserve (Los Angeles: Renaissance Books, 2000), 261; The Donald 2000, https://web.archive.org/web/199 91104133242/http://thedonald2000.org/; “In to Win? Trump Eyes Candidacy,” Harrisburg (PA) Daily News Record, October 8, 1999; Nagourney, “President? Why Not?”; Chris Matthews, “Gotham Hero,” Corbin Times Tribune, December 1, 1999; Tony Kornheiser, “Look Who’s Running for President,” The Titusville Herald, October 13, 1999.

 185.    Trump, The America We Deserve, 271–72; Adam Nagourney, “President? Why Not?”

 186.    Maureen Dowd, “Behold the Flirtation of the Trumpster,” Lowell Sun, November 18, 1999; Adam Nagourney, “Trump Proposes Clearing Nation’s Debt at Expense of the Rich,” NYT, November 10, 1999; William Mann, “If Donald Trump Were President,” Syracuse (New York) Post-Standard, November 1, 1999.

 187.    Mark Shields, “A Wonderful Holiday,” Daily Herald Chicago, November 24, 1999; The Donald 2000, https://web.archive.org/web/20000116042120/http://www.the donald2000.org/.https://web.archive.org/web/20000116042120/http://www.thedon ald2000.org/; Michael Janofsky, “Trump Speaks Out About Just About Everything,” NYT, January 8, 2000.

 188.    George W. Bush, Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination, Republican National Convention, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, August 3, 2000; Frum quoted in Kevin M. Kruse, “Compassionate Conservatism: Religion in the Age of George W. Bush,” in Julian E. Zelizer, ed., The Presidency of George W. Bush: A First Historical Assessment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 230.

 189.    Sherman, Loudest Voice, 253, 259–60; Jane Mayer, “Dept. of Close Calls: George W.’s Cousin,” TNY, November 20, 2000.

 190.    Jeffrey Toobin, Too Close to Call: The Thirty-Six Day Battle to Decide the 2000 Election (New York: Random House, 2001), 25; Johnson, Best of Times, 523–24.

 191.    Toobin, Too Close to Call, 266–67.

 192.    Patterson, Restless Giant, 410–16; Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000) (Stevens dissenting).

 193.    “Count the Spoons,” Washington Post, January 24, 2001; Johnson, The Best of Times, 546–47.

 194.    George W. Bush, Address in Austin Accepting Election as the 43rd President of the United States, Austin, Texas, December 13, 2000. Linda Greenhouse, “Bush Prevails,” NYT, December 13, 2000.

Sixteen: AMERICA, DISRUPTED

     1.    This account derives chiefly from The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (New York: Norton, 2004), chs. 1 and 9; and Understanding 9/11: A Television Archive, https://archive.org/details/911. “F93 Attendent CeeCee Lyles Leaves a Message for Her Husband,” YouTube video, 0:45, posted by “911NeverForget,” May 21, 2008, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fUrxsrTKHN4.

     2.    “America Under Attack,” CNN.com, September 11, 2001.

     3.    “World Trade Center Toppled in Attack,” NYT, September 11, 2001, and “Terrorists Attack New York and Washington,” NYT, September 11, 2001.

     4.    “America Under Attack,” Drudge Report, http://www.drudgereportarchives.com/data/specialreports/EFG/20010911_0855.htm.

     5.    “Terrorism Hits America,” FOX News, September 11, 2001.

     6.    George W. Bush, 9/11 Address to the Nation, Washington, DC, September 11, 2001.

     7.    Samuel P. Huntington, “Clash of Civilizations?,” Foreign Affairs, Summer 1993. And see Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996, 2011).

     8.    Bush, 9/11 Address to the Nation.

     9.    Quoted in David Remnick, The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama (New York: Knopf, 2010), 337.

   10.    Susan Sontag, “Tuesday, And After,” TNY, September 24, 2001.

   11.    Charles Krauthammer, “Voices of Moral Obtuseness,” Washington Post, September 21, 2001. And for a roundup, see Celeste Bohlen, “Think Tank: In New War on Terrorism, Words Are Weapons, Too,” NYT, September 29, 2001.

   12.    Ann Coulter, “This Is War,” National Review (online), September 13, 2001, and in print September 17, 2001.

   13.    Jonah Goldberg, “L’Affaire Coulter,” National Review, October 2, 2017.

   14.    Quoted in Leonard Zeskind, Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the Mainstream (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009), 516.

   15.    Laurie Goodstein, “After the Attacks,” NYT, September 15, 2001; John F. Harris, “Falwell Apologizes for Remarks,” Washington Post, September 18, 2001.

   16.    https://archive.org/details/TheAlexJonesRadioShowOn9-11-2001. And see Alexander Zaitchik, “Meet Alex Jones,” Rolling Stone, March 2, 2011.

   17.    Angela Nagle, Kill All Normies: The Online Culture Wars from Tumblr and 4chan to the Alt-Right and Trump (Washington, DC: Zero Books, 2017).

   18.    Infowars, September 11, 2001, https://web.archive.org/web/20011201080653/http://infowars.com:80/archive_wtc.htm; Jones in his 2005 film, Martial Law 9-11, is quoted in Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind, 108.

   19.    Remnick, The Bridge, 362, 370.

   20.    Barack Obama, “A More Perfect Union,” Speech, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 18, 2005.

   21.    David Remnick, “The President’s Hero,” TNY, June 19, 2017.

   22.    Marc Mauer, Young Black Americans and the Criminal Justice System: Five Years Later (Washington DC: The Sentencing Project, 1995).

   23.    Kay, Among the Truthers, xvii.

   24.    David Maraniss, Barack Obama: The Story (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), xxiii.

   25.    Dinesh D’Souza, The Roots of Obama’s Rage (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2010), 26–27, 34, 215, 198.

   26.    Gregory Krieg, “14 of Trump’s Most Outrageous ‘Birther’ Claims—Half from after 2011,” CNN Politics, September 16, 2016.

   27.    David Graham, “The Unrepentent Birtherism of Donald Trump,” Atlantic, September 16, 2016.

   28.    Leonard Zeskind, Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the Mainstream (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 2009), 519–27.

   29.    Trump got the Coulter material via Corey Lewandowski, according to Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind, 155–56.

   30.    Ann Coulter, ¡Adios, America! The Left’s Plan to Turn Our Country into a Third World Hellhole (New York: Regnery, 2015), 1–2.

   31.    Seema Mehta, “Transcript: Clinton’s Full Remarks as She Called Half of Trump Supporters ‘Deplorables.’” Los Angeles Times, September 10, 2016; Romney: http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2012/sep/18/mitt-romney/romney-says-47-per cent-americans-pay-no-income-tax/.

   32.    Jones is quoted in Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind, 109; Tessa Stuart, “How ‘Lock Her Up!’ Became a Mainstream GOP Rallying Cry,” Rolling Stone, July 21, 2016.

   33.    Stephanie Condon, “Obama Campaign Launches ‘Truth Team,’” CBS News, February 13, 2012.

   34.    Katharine Q. Seelye, “Wilson Calls His Outburst ‘Spontaneous,’” NYT, September 10, 2009; Barney Henderson, David Lawler, and Louise Burke, “Donald Trump Attacks Alleged Russian Dossier as ‘Fake News’ and Slams Buzzfeed and CNN at Press Conference,” Telegraph, January 11, 2017.

   35.    “Fact-Checking Trump’s Claim That Thousands in New Jersey Cheered When World Trade Center Tumbled,” PolitiFact, November 21, 2015.

   36.    Eric Hananoki and Timothy Johnson, “Donald Trump Praises Leading Conspiracy Theorist Alex Jones And His ‘Amazing’ Reputation,” Media Matters for America, December 2, 2015.

   37.    Trump called for this ban on December 7, 2016 but after court challenges to his administration’s travel ban, the call was erased from his website. Laurel Raymond, “Trump, Who Campaigned on a Muslim Ban, Says to Stop Calling It a Muslim Ban,” Think-Progress, January 30, 2017, https://thinkprogress.org/trump-who-campaigned-on-a-muslim-ban-says-to-stop-calling-it-a-muslim-ban-630961d0fbcf/.

   38.    David Runciman, How Democracy Ends (New York: Basic Books, 2018); Patrick Deneen, Why Liberalism Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018); Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind; Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt, How Democracies Die (New York: Crown, 2018).

   39.    Karen Breslau, “One Nation, Interconnected,” Wired, May 2000, 154.

   40.    Broadly, see G. John Ikenberry, Liberal Leviathan: The Origins, Crisis, and Transformation of the American World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011).

   41.    Sam Reisman, “Trump Tells Crowd to ‘Knock the Crap Out’ of Protesters, Offers to Pay Legal Fees,” Mediaite, February 1, 2016. And see Louis Jacobson and Manuela Tobias, “Has Donald Trump Never ‘Promoted or Encouraged Violence’?,” PolitiFact, July 5, 2017.

   42.    Isaacson, The Innovators, ch. 7.

   43.    Stewart Brand, “We Owe It All to the Hippies,” Time, March 1, 1995, 54.

   44.    Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 216–18; Louis Rossetto, “Why Wired?,” Wired, March 1993. On Rossetto’s biography and politics, see Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 209–11; Owen Thomas, “‘The Ultimate Luxury Is Meaning and’ . . . Chocolate?,” Gawker, December 12, 2007. And see Mitchell Kapor, “Where Is the Digital Highway Really Heading?,” Wired, July & August 1993.

   45.    Roger Parloff, “Newt Gingrich and His Sleazy Ways: A History Lesson,” Fortune, December 5, 2011; Esther Dyson, “Friend and Foe,” Wired, August 1995; Po Bronson, “George Gilder,” Wired, March 1996; Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 208, 215, 222–24.

   46.    Esther Dyson et al., “Cyberspace and the American Dream: A Magna Carta for the Knowledge Age,” The Progress & Freedom Foundation, August 22, 1994, http://www.pff.org/issues-pubs/futureinsights/fi1.2magnacarta.html.

   47.    Guy Lamolinara, “Wired for the Future: President Clinton Signs Telecom Act at LC,” Library of Congress Information Bulletin, February 19, 1996. And see Andy Greenberg, “It’s Been 20 Years Since John Perry Barlow Declared Cyberspace Independence,” Wired, June 3, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2016/02/its-been-20-years-since-this-man-declared-cyberspace-independence/.

   48.    John Perry Barlow, “A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, February 8, 1996, https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence.

   49.    Mariana Mazzucato, The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking Private v. Public Sector Myths (London: Anthem Press, 2013); A. B. Atkinson, Inequality: What Can Be Done? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 82, 118.

   50.    David O. Sacks and Peter A. Thiel, The Diversity Myth: Multiculturalism and Political Intolerance on Campus (Oakland, CA: The Independent Institute, 1995, 1998); Haynes Johnson, The Best of Times: America in the Clinton Years (New York: Harcourt, Inc., 2001), 25; WorldWideWeb SLAC Home Page, December 24, 1993, https://swap.stanford.edu/19940102000000/http://slacvm.slac.stanford.edu/FIND/slac.html; George Packer, The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013), 129–34.

   51.    Johnson, Best of Times, 25, 57; Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberspace, 214.

   52.    Edmund Burke to Chevalier de Rivarol, June 1, 1791, in Correspondence of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, ed. Earl Fitzwilliam and Sir Richard Bourke, KCB, 4 vols. (London, 1844), 3:211; Gazette of the United States, June 10, 1800.

   53.    See Joseph A. Schumpeter, Essays on Entrepreneurs, Innovations, Business Cycles, and the Evolution of Capitalism, ed. Richard V. Clemence (1951; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989). Regarding the origins of innovation studies, see Benoît Godin, “‘Innovation Studies’: The Invention of a Specialty,” Minerva 50 (2012): 397–421, and especially Jan Fagerberg et al., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Innovation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), introduction—note, in particular, figure 1.1 (a graph of scholarly articles with the word “innovation” in the title, 1955–2005); and Box 1.2 (on Schumpeter as the theorist of innovation).

   54.    Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: The Revolutionary Book That Will Change the Way You Do Business (1997; New York: HarperBusiness, 2011). For an earlier usage, see Jean-Marie Dru, Disruption: Overturning Conventions and Shaking Up the Marketplace (New York: Wiley, 1996).

   55.    I discuss the shaky evidence for “disruptive innovation” in “The Disruption Machine,” TNY, June 23, 2014; a bibliography for that article can be found at https://scho lar.harvard.edu/files/jlepore/files/lepore_disruption_bibliography_6_16_14_0.pdf. On heedlessness, see, for example, Jonathan Taplin, Move Fast and Break Things: How Facebook, Google, and Amazon Cornered Culture and Undermined Democracy (New York: Little, Brown, 2017).

   56.    Franklin, “Apology for Printers.”

   57.    Daly, Covering America, ch. 13.

   58.    Quoted in Matthew Hindman, The Myth of Digital Democracy (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 2.

   59.    Taplin, Move Fast and Break Things, 6, 21. And see Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin Press, 2009).

   60.    See, broadly, Hindman, Myth of Digital Democracy; Cass Sunstein, Republic.com (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Nathan Heller, “The Failure of Facebook Democracy,” TNY, November 18, 2016.

   61.    George W. Bush, Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the United States Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, Washington, DC, September 20, 2001; “The National Security Strategy of the United States of America,” March 2006, http://web.archive.org/web/20060517140100/www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2006/nss2006.pdf.

   62.    Stephen E. Atkins, The 9/11 Encyclopedia: Second Edition (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2011), 741; The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (Washington, DC: National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, 2004), ch. 2.

   63.    Daniel Wirls, Irrational Security: The Politics of Defense from Reagan to Obama (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 17.

   64.    Wirls, Irrational Security, 134–35; Melvin A. Goodman, National Insecurity: The Cost of American Militarism (San Francisco: City Lights, 2013), 279, 327; Timothy Naftali, “George W. Bush and the ‘War on Terror,’” in Zelizer, The Presidency of George W. Bush, 59–87; George W. Bush, “Remarks at the Embassy of Afghanistan,” Washington, DC, September 10, 2002.

   65.    Fredrik Logevall, “Anatomy of an Unnecessary War: The Iraq Invasion,” in Zelizer, The Presidency of George W. Bush, 88–113; Patrick J. Buchanan, Where the Right Went Wrong: How Neoconservatives Subverted the Reagan Revolution and Hijacked the Presidency (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 6, 233.

   66.    Pew Research, “The Military-Civilian Gap,” November 23, 2011, http://www.pew so cialtrends.org/2011/11/23/the-military-civilian-gap-fewer-family-connections/; Goodman, National Insecurity, 8–9, 30, 211.

   67.    Katharine Q. Seeyle and Ralph Blumenthal, “Documents Suggest Special Treatment for Bush in Guard,” NYT, September 9, 2004; “Bill Clinton’s Vietnam Test,” NYT, February 14, 1992; Steven Eder and Dave Philipps, “Donald Trump’s Draft Deferments,” NYT, August 1, 2016; Marvin Kalb, “The Other War Haunting Obama,” NYT, October 8, 2011.

   68.    “War and Sacrifice in the Post-9/11 Era,” Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project, October 04, 2011, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/10/05/war-and-sacrifice-in-the-post-911-era/.

   69.    Andrew J. Bacevich, The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2; Andrew J. Bacevich, Washington Rules: America’s Path to Permanent War (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010), 27.

   70.    Kathleen Hall Jamieson and Joseph N. Cappella, Echo Chamber: Ross Limbaugh and the Conservative Media Establishment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), x–xiii.

   71.    Quoted in David Roberts, “Donald Trump and the Rise of Tribal Epistemology,” Vox, May 19, 2017, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/3/22/14762030/donald-trump-tribal-epistemology.

   72.    For a sample wartime transcript, see “Excuse Us for Taking the War on Terror Seriously,” Rush Limbaugh Show, July 31, 2006, https://www.rushlimbaugh.com/daily/2006/07/31/excuse_us_for_taking_the_war_on_terror_seriously/. For a discussion of his Vietnam draft status, see (citing Limbaugh’s biographer), “Rush Limbaugh Avoided the Draft Due to Pilonidal Cyst?,” Snopes, June 17, 2014, https://www.snopes.com/politics/military/limbaugh.asp.

   73.    Chafets, Roger Ailes, 96; Alexandra Kitty, Outfoxed (New York: Disinformation, 2005), ch. 7; Daly, Covering America, 418, 419, https://www.mediamatters.org/research/2004/07/14/33-internal-fox-editorial-memos-reviewed-by-mmf/131430.

   74.    “Interview with Matt Labash, The Weekly Standard—May 2003,” JournalismJobs.com, October 3, 2003, http://web.archive.org/web/20031003110233/http://www.journalism jobs.com/matt_labash.cfm. And see David Greenberg, “Creating Their Own Reality: The Bush Administration and Expertise in a Polarized Age,” in Zelizer, The Presidency of George W. Bush, 202.

   75.    Greenberg, “Creating Their Own Reality,” 210–18.

   76.    Ron Suskind, “Faith, Certainty and the Presidency of George W. Bush,” NYT, October 17, 2004. And see Greenberg: “The Right thus found itself in the Bush years promoting a radical epistemological relativism: the idea that established experts’ claims lacked empirical foundation and represented simply a political choice. In this position, conservatives were espousing a notion resembling that of postmodernism—or at least that strand of postmodernism that denies the possibility of objective truth claims” (“Creating Their Own Reality,” 203–4).

   77.    Stephen Colbert, “The Word,” The Colbert Report, 2:40, October 17, 2005. http://www.cc.com/video-clips/63ite2/the-colbert-report-the-word---truthiness.

   78.    John Ashcroft, “Remarks on the Patriot Act,” Speech, Boise, Idaho, August 25, 2003. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ag/speeches/2003/082503patriotactremarks.htm.

   79.    Military Order of November 13, 2001, Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism, Federal Register, November 16, 2001, 66, 222; Jess Bravin, The Terror Courts: Rough Justice at Guantanamo Bay (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 39.

   80.    Ashcroft is quoted in Bravin, Terror Courts, 41; on when Rice and Powell learned Bush had signed the order, see pp. 41–44; Military Order of November 13, 2001; Cheney is quoted in Bravin, 47.

   81.    Julian Zelizer, “Establishment Conservative: The Presidency of George W. Bush,” in Zelizer, The Presidency of George W. Bush, 1–14.

   82.    On Rumsfeld’s early career, see James Mann, “Close-Up: Young Rumsfeld,” Atlantic, November 2003.

   83.    Mahvish Khan, My Guantánamo Diary: The Detainees and the Stories They Told Me (New York: PublicAffairs, 2008), 55–57; Bravin, Terror Courts, 76. And see Jonathan Hafetz, Habeas Corpus after 9/11: Confronting America’s New Global Detention System (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 28–29.

   84.    John Yoo and Robert J. Delahunty to William J. Haynes II, Memorandum re: Applications of Treaties and Laws to al Qaeda and Taliban Detainees, January 9, 2002, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB127/02.01.09.pdf; Bravin, Terror Courts, 62–63, 71, 74–75, 76–77; Gonzales, January 24, 2002, quoted in Hafetz, Habeas Corpus, 20. And see Mary L. Dudziak, “A Sword and a Shield: The Uses of Law in the Bush Administration,” in Zelizer, The Presidency of George W. Bush, 39–58.

   85.    Hafetz, Habeas Corpus, 21, 23–4, 37–8, 267n56; Donald Rumsfeld, Memorandum to James T. Hill, U.S. Southern Command, April 2003, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB127/03.04.16.pdf; Scott Shane, “China Inspired Interrogations at Guantánamo,” NYT, July 2, 2008; Bravin, Terror Courts, 161.

   86.    Eliza Griswold, “Black Hole; The Other Guantanamo,” TNR, May 7, 2007; “Barack Obama 2003: National Security vs Civil Rights,” YouTube video, 3:08, from an interview televised on the Illinois Channel on November 6, 2003, posted by “IllinoisChannelTV,” June 12, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWeLUPd9vVg; Hafetz, Habeas Corpus, 63.

   87.    James T. Patterson, “Transformative Economic Policies: Tax Cutting, Stimuli, and Bailouts,” in Zelizer, ed., The Presidency of George W. Bush, 122; Alan I. Abramowitz, The Polarized Public: Why Our Government Is So Dysfunctional (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2013), 8; Ronald Brownstein, The Second Civil War: How Extreme Partisanship Has Paralyzed Washington and Polarized America (New York: Penguin, 2007), 4.

   88.    Mark Leibovich, This Town: Two Parties and a Funeral—Plus Plenty of Valet Parking!—in America’s Gilded Capital (New York: Blue Rider Press, 2013), 8.

   89.    Patterson, “Transformative Economic Policies,” 134–35.

   90.    “Inauguration Prompts Travel Rush to Washington,” CNN, November 19, 2008; Mary Anne Ostrom, “Obama’s Inauguration: Record Crowd Gathers on Mall to Celebrate ‘Achievement for the Nation,’” San Jose Mercury News, January 20, 2009.

   91.    Barack Obama, Inaugural Address, January 20, 2009.

   92.    Remnick, The Bridge, 207–8, 227, 230.

   93.    Maraniss, The Story of Obama, 68, 162, 175–76, 193; State of Hawaii Department of Health, certificate of birth number 151 (4 August 1961), Barack Hussein Obama, II. http://static.politifact.com/files/birth-certificate-long-form.pdf.

   94.    Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (New York: Broadway Books, 2004), 85; Remnick, The Bridge, 193–96.

   95.    Remnick, The Bridge, 263–65; James T. Kloppenberg, Reading Obama: Dreams, Hope, and the American Political Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), ch. 1; Barack Obama, “Current Issues in Racism and the Law” (syllabus, University of Chicago Law School, Chicago, IL, 1994), http://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/poli tics/2008OBAMA_LAW/Obama_CoursePk.pdf.

   96.    Quoted in Remnick, The Bridge, 294.

   97.    Remnick, The Bridge, 394; Barack Obama, Keynote Address, Democratic National Convention, Boston, Massachusetts, July 27, 2004.

   98.    Leibovich, This Town, 45.

   99.    Barack Obama, “Tone, Truth, and the Democratic Party,” Daily Kos, September 30, 2005.

 100.    Remnick, The Bridge, 371, 510–13.

 101.    Ibid., 458; Barack Obama, Keynote Address, Democratic National Convention, July 27, 2004.

 102.    Jennifer Aaker and Victoria Chang, “Obama and the Power of Social Media and Technology,” European Business Review, May & June 2010.

 103.    Frank, Listen, Liberal, 140–41; Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson, Winner-Take-All Politics: How Washington Made the Rich Richer—And Turned Its Back on the Middle Class (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 1.

 104.    Hemmer, Messengers of the New Right, 273.

 105.    James Baldwin, “The American Dream and the American Negro,” NYT, March 7, 1965.

 106.    Jill Lepore, The Whites of Their Eyes: The Tea Party’s Revolution and the Battle over American History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 126.

 107.    Elizabeth Kolbert, “Political Outsider Coping with Life as an Insider,” NYT, August 18, 1991.

 108.    Piketty and Saez, “Income Inequality in the United States, 1913–1998”; Alfred Stepan and Juan J. Linz, “Comparative Perspectives on Inequality and the Quality of Democracy in the United States,” Perspectives on Politics 9 (2011): 844; Distribution of family income—Gini index 2014 country comparisons, November 11, 2014, http://www.pho tius.com/rankings/economy/distribution_of_family_income_gini_index_2014_0.html.

 109.    Bernard Sanders, The Speech: A Historic Filibuster on Corporate Greed and the Decline of Our Middle Class (New York: Nation Books, 2011), 20.

 110.    Ibid., 1, 19.

 111.    Aaron Bady and Mike Konczal, “From Master Plan to No Plan: The Slow Death of Higher Public Education,” Dissent, Fall 2012, 10–16; Bernie Sanders on Countdown with Keith Olbermann, MSNBC, September 29, 2011.

 112.    Leibovich, This Town, 43, 52, 107.

 113.    Ibid., 98.

 114.    Citizens United v. FEC, 558 U.S. 310 (2010); Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, 572 U.S. _ (2014).

 115.    Chemerinsky and Gillman, Free Speech on Campus, 97–100.

 116.    Report of the Committee on Freedom of Expression, University of Chicago, 2014, http://provost.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/documents/reports/FOECommitteeRe port.pdf.

 117.    Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind, 67.

 118.    E. J. Dionne, Why the Right Went Wrong: Conservatism—from Goldwater to the Tea Party and Beyond (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016), 2; Frum (in 2012), quoted in Hemmer, Messengers of the Right, 274.

 119.    Alana Abramson, “How Donald Trump Perpetuated the ‘Birther’ Movement for Years,” ABC News, September 16, 2016; “Donald Trump ‘Proud’ to Be a Birther,” YouTube video, 5:59, from an interview on The Laura Ingraham Show on September 1, 2016, posted by “Laura Ingraham,” March 30, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wqa S9OCoTZs.

 120.    Kay, Among the Truthers, xxi.

 121.    Sykes, How the Right Lost its Mind, 111–13; Alexander Zaitchik, “Meet Alex Jones,” Rolling Stone, March 2, 2011; Kurt Nimmo, “New Obama Birth Certificate Is a Forgery,” Infowars, April 28, 2011, https://www.infowars.com/new-obama-birth-certificate-is-a-forgery/; Lymari Morales, “Obama’s Birth Certificate Convinces Some, but Not All, Skeptics,” Gallup, May 13, 2011, http://www.gallup.com/poll/147530/obama-birth-certificate-convinces-not-skeptics.aspx.

 122.    Judd Legum, “What Everyone Should Know About Trayvon Martin (1995–2012),” ThinkProgress, March 18, 2012; “Timeline of Events in Trayvon Martin Case,” CNN, April 11, 2012; “Timeline: The Trayvon Martin Shooting,” Orlando Sentinel, March 26, 2012.

 123.    Karen Farkas, “Chardon High School Video Shows Students Being Shot in Cafeteria,” Cleveland.com, February 27, 2012, http://www.cleveland.com/chardon-shooting/index.ssf/2012/02/chardon_high_school_video_show.html.

 124.    On ownership, see the 2007 Small Arms Survey (smallarmssurvey.org), which is conducted by an organization in Geneva, and is comparative; the most useful appendix of that report is http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2007/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2007-Chapter-02-annexe-4-EN.pdf. Some of that year’s survey is reported in Laura MacInnis, “U.S. Most Armed Country,” Reuters, August 28, 2007. The Small Arms Survey reports the sources of its estimates at http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2007/en/Small-Arms-Sur vey-2007-Chapter-02-annexe-3-EN.pdf. For some slightly older but useful data, see Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig, Guns in America: National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, 1997). On the involvement of guns in murders, see, for example, http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2008/offenses/expanded_information/data/shrtable_07.html. And see my discussion of the U.S. homicide rate in The Story of America, ch. 20.

 125.    District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008); Henry Martin, “Changing of the Guard,” American Rifleman, September 2011, 94–97; Ronald Kessler, “David Keene Takes Over the NRA,” Newsmax, March 28, 2011; David Keene, interview with the author, March 30, 2012.

 126.    Laura Johnston, “Chardon High School Emergency Plan Prepared Community for Shooting Tragedy,” Cleveland.com, February 27, 2012, http://www.cleveland.com/chardon-shooting/index.ssf/2012/02/chardon_community_prepared_for.html.

 127.    Cora Currier, “23 Other States Have ‘Stand Your Ground’ Laws, Too,” Atlantic, March 22, 2012.

 128.    Krissah Thompson and Scott Wilson, “Obama on Trayvon Martin: ‘If I Had a Son, He’d Look Like Trayvon,” Washington Post, March 23, 2012.

 129.    John Hoeffel, “Woman at Gun Range Event Tells Santorum to ‘Pretend It’s Obama,’” Los Angeles Times, March 23, 2012.

 130.    “New Claims Cast Trayvon Martin as the Aggressor,” Fox News, March 27, 2012, http://www.foxnews.com/us/2012/03/27/new-claims-cast-trayvon-martin-as-aggres sor/?intcmp=obinsite.

 131.    Jay Barmann, “Police Recover Gun Believed Used in Oakland Shooting Spree; Goh’s Alleged Target Revealed,” SFist, April 6, 2012, http://sfist.com/2012/04/06/police_recover_gun_believed_used_in.php; Olivia Katrandjian, “Two Men Arrested, Facebook Clues in Tulsa Shooting Spree,” ABC News, April 8, 2012, http://abcnews.go.com/US/tulsa-oklahoma-men-arrested-shooting-spree/story?id=16096391#.T4HAY5j1Lgo; “2 Mississippi College Students Killed in Separate Shootings over Weekend,” Fox News, March 26, 2012, http://www.foxnews.com/us/2012/03/26/2-mississippi-college-stu dents-killed-in-separate-shoot ings-over-weekend/?intcmp=obinsite.

 132.    James Rainey, “Sorting out Truth from Fiction in the Trayvon Martin Case,” Detroit Free Press, April 7, 2012; Lucy Madison, “Gingrich: Everyone in the World Should Have Right to a Gun,” CBS News, April 13, 2012; “Blitzer and Trump Go at It Over Trump’s Birther Claims,” CNN, May 29, 2012.

 133.    Barack Obama, Speech, Sandy Hook Prayer Vigil, Newtown, CT, December 16, 2012.

 134.    Andrew Bacevich, America’s War for the Greater Middle East: A Military History (New York: Random House, 2016).

 135.    House Budget Committee, “The Path to Prosperity,” March 20, 2012, http://budget.house.gov/uploadedfiles/pathtoprosperity2013.pdf; Thomas L. Hungerford, Taxes and the Economy: An Economic Analysis of the Top Tax Rates Since 1945 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2012), 1; Jonathan Weisman, “Nonpartisan Tax Report Withdrawn After G.O.P. Protest,” NYT, November 1, 2012.

 136.    American Political Science Association and Russell Sage Foundation, American Democracy in an Age of Rising Inequality (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 2004); Lawrence Jacobs and Desmond King, eds., The Unsustainable American State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); United Nations, Department of Economic Social Affairs, Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation 2013 (New York: United Nations, 2013); Joseph Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality (New York: Norton, 2012); “Greatest Dangers in the World,” Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project, October 16, 2014, http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/10/16/greatest-dangers-in-the-world/.

 137.    “I Am Unlimited,” online and television advertisement, Sprint, 2013, https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=C9qxjBlL3ko.

 138.    Bijan Stephen, “Social Media Helps Black Lives Matter Fight the Power,” Wired, November 2015; Jordan T. Camp and Christina Heatherton, eds., Policing the Planet: Why the Policing Crisis Led to Black Lives Matter (London: Verso, 2016).

 139.    Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003); Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health, 798 NE 2d 941 (Mass. 2003).

 140.    Brief for Petitioners, Obergefell v. Hodges & Henry v. Hodges, http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/supreme_court_preview/BriefsV5/14-556_pet.auth checkdam.pdf.

 141.    Rod Dreher, The Benedict Option: A Strategy for Christians in a Post-Christian Nation (New York: Sentinel, 2017), 3–9 and quotation, 219.

 142.    Nagle, Kill All Normies, 10. And see Ralph D. Berenger, ed., Social Media Go to War: Rage, Rebellion and Revolution in the Age of Twitter (Spokane, WA: Marquette Books, 2013); Heather Brooke, The Revolution Will Be Digitised: Dispatches from the Information War (London: William Heinemann, 2011), ix.

 143.    Nagle, Kill All Normies, 64.

 144.    Adrian Florido, “The White Nationalist Origins of the Term ‘Alt-Right’—and the Debate Around It,” NPR, November 27, 2016; Richard Spencer, “Become Who We Are,” conference remarks, Washington, DC, November 2016; Southern Poverty Law Center, Alt-Right: The White Nationalist’s Alternative to American Conservatism (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2016), 4–7; Josh Harkinson, “Meet the White Nationalist Trying to Ride the Trump Train to Lasting Power,” Mother Jones, June 23, 2017.

 145.    By 2015, Breitbart was “one of the top 1,000 most popular websites on the Internet, and just outside the top 200 most popular websites in the United States” (Southern Poverty Law Center, Alt-Right, 15). And see Stephen Piggott, “Is Breitbart.com Becoming the Media Arm of the ‘Alt-Right?,” April 28, 2016, https://www.splcenter.org/hate watch/2016/04/28/breitbartcom-becoming-media-arm-alt-right.

 146.    Maisha E. Johnson and Nisha Ahuja, “8 Signs Your Yoga Is Culturally Appropriated—and Why It Matters,” everydayfeminism, May 25, 2016, http://everydayfeminism.com/2016/05/yoga-cultural-appropriation/. On the rise of clickbait and listicles, see Tim Wu, The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get Inside Our Heads (New York: Knopf, 2016), chs. 22 and 26; Nagle, Kill All Normies, 77.

 147.    Steven Levy, In the Plex: How Google Thinks, Works, and Shapes Our Lives (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 67.

 148.    Institute of Politics, Harvard Kennedy School, Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 2016 (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017), 13, 16, 28–29, 59. Hereafter IOP, Campaign for President.

 149.    Robert Wurthnow, “In Polls We Trust,” First Things, August 2015; Dan Wagner, Civis Analytics, interview with the author, August 17, 2015; Elizabeth Wilner, “Kantar’s Path to Public Opinion,” Kantar, September 4, 2013, http://us.kantar.com/public-affairs/pol itics/2013/kantars-path-to-public-opinion/.

 150.    Cliff Zukin, “What’s the Matter with Polling?,” NYT, June 20, 2015; “Details of Opinion Poll Inquiry Announced,” British Polling Council, May 22, 2015, http://www.britishpollingcouncil.org/details-of-opinion-poll-inquiry-announced/; Doug Rivers, YouGov, interview with the author, August 3, 2015; Scott Horsley, “Changing Polling Metrics to Decide GOP’s Presidential Debate Lineup,” NPR, August 3, 2015; “Election 2015: Inquiry into Opinion Poll Failures,” BBC News, May 8, 2015; “Poll Measures Americans’ Trust in Public Opinion Polls,” C-SPAN.org, September 4, 2013, https://www.c-span.org/video/?314837-1/poll-measures-americans-trust-public-opinion-polls; Mark Blumenthal, “Why the Polls in Greece Got It Wrong,” Huffington Post, July 8, 2015; Oren Liebermann, “Why Were the Israeli Election Polls So Wrong?,” CNN, March 18, 2015.

 151.    “Fox News and Facebook Partner to Host First Republican Presidential Primary Debate of 2016 Election,” Fox News, May 20, 2015; Ann Ravel, Chair, FEC, interview with the author, August 21, 2015; Doyle McManus, “Fox Appoints Itself a GOP Primary Gatekeeper,” Los Angeles Times, May 30, 2015; Rebecca Kaplan, “Marist Doesn’t Want Its Poll Used for Fox Debate Criteria,” CBS News, August 3, 2015; Scott Keeter, interview with the author, August 20, 2015; Bill McInturff, interview with the author, August 21, 2015.

 152.    Donald J. Trump for President, August 8, 2015, https://web.archive.org/web/2015 0808202314/https://www.donaldjtrump.com/; Playbuzz—Authoring Platform for Interactive Storytelling, https://publishers.playbuzz.com/, accessed September 12, 2017; “Republican Debate Poll: Who Won First Fox GOP Debate?,” Time, August 7, 2015, http://time.com/3988073/republican-debate-fox-first-gop/, accessed September 12, 2017.

 153.    Brendan Nyhan, “Presidential Polls: How to Avoid Getting Fooled,” NYT, July 30, 2015; Michael W. Traugott, “Do Polls Give the Public a Voice in a Democracy?,” in Genovese and Streb, Polls and Politics, 85–86. Gallup’s own defense against the critics (including charges of bandwagoning and underdogging) is best read in Gallup and Rae, The Pulse of Democracy, ch. 18. “The conventional wisdom that politicians habitually respond to public opinion when making major policy decisions is wrong,” is the argument of the political scientists Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, Politicians Don’t Pander: Political Manipulation and the Loss of Democratic Responsiveness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), xii–xv. Chris Kirk, “Who Won the Republican Debate? You Tell Us,” Slate, August 6, 2015; Josh Voorhees, “Did Trump Actually Win the Debate? How to Understand All Those Instant Polls That Say Yes,” Slate, August 7, 2015.

 154.    This report is based on the author’s presence at the Kennedy conference. For a transcript of the proceedings, see IOP, Campaign for President. Transcript of the campaign managers’ roundtable, 11–60. Outbursts from the audience at this roundtable and at other events held during the conference that are not found in the transcript come from notes taken by the author while attending.

 155.    Ann Coulter, In Trump We Trust: E Pluribus Awesome! (New York: Sentinel, 2016), 2–5, 21.

 156.    Phyllis Schlafly, Speech in St. Louis, March 13, 2016.

 157.    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DCGLXku15x0; Phyllis Schlafly, Ed Martin, and Brett M. Decker, The Conservative Case for Trump (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2016).

 158.    The remarks of Donald Trump at the funeral of Phyllis Schlafly, September 10, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Bng_6HZlPM; Spruill, Divided We Stand, 336–41; Rod Dreher, The Benedict Option: A Strategy for Christians in a Post-Christian Nation (New York: Sentinel, 2017), 80.

 159.    Dreher, The Benedict Option, 79.

 160.    Ibid., 226; Sykes, How the Right Lost Its Mind, 17.

 161.    Hillary Clinton, What Happened (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017).

 162.    IOP, Campaign for President, 67.

 163.    Ibid., 68.

 164.    Ibid., 69.

 165.    Nicholas Confessore and Daisuke Wakabayashi, “How Russia Harvested American Rage to Reshape U.S. Politics,” NYT, October 9, 2017.

 166.    Caitlyn Dewey, “Facebook Fake-News Writer,” Washington Post, November 17, 2016. And on his death: http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/arts/paul-horner-dead-at-38-9716641.

 167.    Tim Wu, “Please Prove You’re Not a Robot,” NYT, July 15, 2017.

 168.    IOP, Campaign for President, 70.

 169.    Mike Isaac and Scott Shane, “Facebook’s Russia-Linked Ads Came in Many Disguises,” NYT, October 2, 2017. And see, for example, Zeynep Tufekci, “Zuckerberg’s Preposterous Defense of Facebook,” NYT, September 29, 2017.

 170.    Cecilia Kang, Nicholas Fandos, and Mike Isaac, “Tech Executives Are Contrite About Election Meddling, but Make Few Promises on Capitol Hill,” NYT, October 31, 2017.

 171.    IOP, Campaign for President, 70.

 172.    Ibid., 71.

 173.    Indictment, U.S. v. Internet Research Agency et al., 18 USC §§ 2, 371, 1349, 1028A, February 16, 2018.

 174.    On Assange, see Raffi Khatchadourian, “Julian Assange, a Man Without a Country,” TNY, August 21, 2017.

 175.    IOP, Campaign for President, 76.

 176.    Ibid., 83.

 177.    Ibid., 87.

 178.    Ibid., 89.

Epilogue: THE QUESTION ADDRESSED

     1.    Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 1 (1788); Edward R. Garriott, Cold Waves and Frost in the United States (Washington, DC: Weather Bureau, 1906), 10.

     2.    Charles Pierce, A Meteorological Account of the Weather in Philadelphia from January 1, 1790, to January 1, 1847 (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1847), 264. My thanks to Charles Cullen and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania and to Peter Huybers of Harvard’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.

     3.    Average annual temperatures from 1948 to 2017 can be found at NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, Climate at a Glance: U.S. Time Series, Average Temperature, published July 2017, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/, accessed July 23, 2017.

     4.    Michael Carlowicz, “World of Change: Global Temperatures: Feature Articles,” NASA, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldOfChange/decadaltemp.php, accessed September 12, 2017.

     5.    “President Trump Announces U.S. Withdrawal from the Paris Climate Accord,” The White House, June 1, 2017, https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2017/06/01/president-donald-j-trump-announces-us-withdrawal-paris-climate-accord; “President Trump Decides to Pull U.S. Out of Paris Climate Agreement,” All Things Considered, NPR, June 1, 2017; Justin Worland, “The Enormous Ice Sheet that Broke Off of Antarctica Won’t Be the Last to Go,” Time, July 13, 2017.

     6.    Andrew Sullivan, “The Republic Repeals Itself,” New York, November 9, 2016; Donald J. Trump, Inaugural Address, January 20, 2017; Samuel Moyn and David Priestland, “Trump Isn’t a Threat to Our Democracy; Hysteria Is,” NYT, August 11, 2017.

     7.    Jessica Anderson, “Taney Statue Is Moved from Outside Frederick City Hall,” Baltimore Sun, March 18, 2017; Celeste Bott, “Remaining Pieces of Confederate Monument Removed from Forest Park,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, June 28, 2017; Richard Fausset, “Tempers Flare over Removal of Confederate Statues in New Orleans,” NYT, May 2, 2017; Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Brian M. Rosenthal, “Man Charged After White Nationalist Rally in Charlottesville Ends in Deadly Violence,” NYT, August 12, 2017.

     8.    Bork, Slouching Towards Gomorrah, 317–18.

     9.    Newt Gingrich, To Renew America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 7.