Italic pages refer to figures and tables
Abbott, Edwin, 348
absorption spectra, 84, 87–89, 169, 176, 207–9, 250–51
acceleration: astronaut time (AT) and, 276–82; black holes and, 303–4, 309–10; calculus and, 45; centripetal, 292; as change of velocity/time, 44; Doppler shift and, 64–65, 97, 208–9, 212, 214, 225, 231–32, 235, 245–46, 262, 284–86, 331, 429; Earth and, 49–51, 116, 282; Einstein and, 294; Equivalence Principle and, 290, 292, 298, 310; expansion and, 392, 409; general relativity and, 289–94, 298; gravity and, 23, 47, 49, 52, 116, 158, 294; inflation and, 376–81, 386, 389–92, 398; Moon and, 47–48; Newton’s laws and, 44–52, 116, 259, 264, 289–90, 294; shape of universe and, 350–51; special relativity and, 280, 282; Sun and, 46–47, 116; supernovae and, 389; Twin Paradox and, 280–83
action at a distance, 295–96, 319–20
After Man (Dixon), 417
Albrecht, Andreas, 386
Alcubierre, Miguel, 345
Aldebaran, 120
Aldrin, Buzz, 424
Ali, Muhammad, 260
Alien (film), 165–66
Allen, Chuck, 413–14
Alpha Centauri, 59, 94, 125, 280–83, 341–44, 355, 423
alpha particles, 384–85
Alpher, Ralph, 224–25, 228–30, 375, 415
AM Canum Venaticorum stars, 190
American Astronomical Society, 136
American Museum of Natural History, 126
Ampère’s law, 261
Andromeda Galaxy, 127, 195, 198–202, 204, 207–17, 232, 405
angular momentum, 39, 124, 204, 247–48, 314, 317, 319, 337
anisotropies, 235
antimatter, 99, 158–59, 286–87, 289, 319–20, 402, 404
Apache Point Telescope, 250–51
Apollo astronauts, 50, 302, 308, 422, 424
arc second, 58–59
Arcturus, 120
Aristotle, 37, 50, 115, 269, 290
Armstrong, Neil, 424
asterisms, 30
asteroids, 111, 112, 127–28, 134, 140–44, 148, 164, 253, 355, 416, 423
astronaut time (AT), 276–82
Astronomical Units (AU), 40, 42, 54, 115, 213
Astrophysical Journal, 229, 354
atomic bomb, 103, 259, 269, 287, 413
atomic clocks, 269
atomic number, 103–4
atoms: binding energy and, 86, 103–4; Bohr and, 258; dark matter and, 196 (see also dark matter); density and, 21; early universe and, 222, 227–28, 232–34; electrons and, 81–82 (see also electrons); electron volt (eV) and, 85–86, 103–4; energy levels and, 82–90, 119, 179, 250, 258; fusion and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121, 158, 181, 222–23; ionization and, 86–88, 107, 113, 228, 233; lives of stars and, 98, 103, 113, 119, 122; neutrons and, 13 (see also neutrons); nuclei, 13, 21–22, 81–85, 98–100, 102–5, 113, 119, 122, 128, 181, 222–27, 234, 240, 287, 302, 327, 350–51, 355, 384–85; number of, 20; photons and, 179 (see also photons); protons and, 21 (see also protons); quantum theory and, 21, 258 (see also quantum theory); quasars and, 245; recombination and, 236–37, 403, 405; scale of universe and, 128; Schrödinger and, 258; size of, 22; spectra and, 81–92, 242, 245; strong nuclear force and, 24, 99, 351, 384–85, 402; weak nuclear force and, 351, 402–3
axions, 232
Baade, Walter, 243–44
Balmer series, 86, 88, 90–92, 179, 242, 258
Barrabès, Claude, 399
barred spiral galaxies, 191
Barrow, Isaac, 257
Bayesian statistics, 418, 421, 436n5
Bayeux Tapestry, 53
Bekenstein, Jacob, 12–13, 20, 314–16, 431
Bell, Jocelyn, 125
Bell Laboratories, 229
Bessel, Friedrich, 59
Bethe, Hans, 224
Bhagavad Gita, 287
BICEP2, 393
Bienen, Henry, 436n5
Big Bang: beginning of time and, 368–69; black holes and, 250, 312, 327; CMB and, 229 (see also cosmic microwave background (CMB)); early universe and, 222–37, 240; empirical evidence for, 226; energy radiation and, 71; expansion and, 218–21; Friedmann and, 367–73, 375–76; Hayden Planetarium and, 127; as Hoyle term, 218; inflation and, 374–78, 381, 393, 398; Lemaître and, 363, 393–94; origin of all elements and, 224; predictions of model, 226–27; quasars and, 250; relativity and, 415; scale of universe and, 19, 22, 24; shape of universe and, 367–73; spectra and, 81–82; timeline of, 19; uniformity of, 376
Big Crunch, 367–68, 372, 373, 384
Big Dipper, 30–31
Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure (film), 325
bimodal distribution, 61–62
Binzel, Richard, 136
bismuth, 82
blackbodies, 72–74, 77, 113, 154, 222, 225, 228–31, 375
black holes: acceleration and, 303–4, 309–10; accretion disks and, 247, 249; action at a distance and, 295–96; Bekenstein and, 12–13, 20, 314–16, 431; Big Bang and, 250, 312, 327; Big Crunch and, 368; centers of galaxies and, 249; challenges in detecting, 249; circumferential radius and, 306; collapsing stars and, 100, 247, 302–3, 312–13, 316, 336–37, 398, 401, 432; computer simulations of, 314; cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 318–19; as cosmic vacuum cleaners, 248; decay and, 314, 317, 407; Doppler shift and, 249; early universe and, 250; Einstein and, 300–303, 314, 317, 319–20; electromagnetism and, 317; electrons and, 317–20; energy density and, 318; entropy and, 315–16, 323, 431; evaporation of, 318–19; event horizons and, 305, 308–20, 337–38, 340, 344, 379–80, 386, 405–7, 431; firewalls and, 319; formation of, 252–53; future of universe and, 401, 403, 405, 407–8; general relativity and, 300–302, 314, 320; geometry and, 300, 306–11, 314, 316; gravity and, 13, 23, 122, 247, 249, 302–4, 314, 403; Hartle-Hawking vacuum and, 318–19, 344; Hawking and, 314–20; Hawking radiation and, 317–19, 340, 406–8; Hubble Space Telescope and, 247–48, 306; inflation and, 380, 398; jet streams of, 247–48; Karl Schwarzschild and, 300–302, 308; Kerr, 314–17, 337–39; lives of stars and, 123; lost information and, 316–17, 319, 431–32; Martin Schwarzschild and, 301–2; mass and, 121, 176, 196, 246–53, 300–311, 314–19, 338, 355, 403, 407–8; mass of, 121, 249–50, 252, 300–301, 303, 308; Mercury and, 300; Milky Way and, 247–49, 251; orbitals and, 314; Penrose and, 317; perturbations and, 300, 314; photons and, 310, 318; Planck length and, 302, 316, 407, 431; point-masses and, 300–301, 303, 309, 311; positrons and, 317–20; quantum theory and, 249, 302, 316–19; red giants and, 302–3; redshift and, 252–53, 318; Schwarzschild radius and, 301–10, 313–15, 318, 401; shape of universe and, 355, 362, 368; singularities and, 302, 305–6, 309–13; solar mass and, 247–49, 252, 303, 305–6, 314–16, 318–19, 338, 355, 403; spacetime and, 300–304, 309–17; spaghettification and, 305–6; speed of light and, 300, 302, 304–6, 309–12, 316; Sun and, 237–50, 300–303, 313; supermassive, 121, 249–50, 252, 303, 308; temperature and, 247, 316–19; thermal, 314, 317–19; tidal forces and, 304, 306; time travel and, 337–41, 344; uncertainty principle and, 316–17, 381, 385, 393, 401, 403, 407; virtual pairs and, 317–18; wavelength and, 318; Wheeler and, 314–15; white dwarfs and, 303; white holes and, 312, 338; worldlines and, 309–13; wormholes and, 311–12, 319–20
BL Lacertae stars, 190
blueshift, 209, 217, 231, 245, 339, 341, 429
blue stars, 90, 93, 96–98, 180, 194, 204
Blumenthal, George, 234
Bode, Johann, 139
Boltzmann constant, 73
Boötes, 120
Borde, Arvin, 384
Bradley, James, 263
brightness: apparent, 169; eclipses and, 141; energy radiation and, 78–80; inverse-square law and, 78–79, 184, 188; lives of stars and, 116; quasars and, 246 (see also quasars); radio, 168; spectra and, 92; variable stars and, 189–90, 198, 200, 209–11, 213–15
Brokaw, Tom, 413
Brown, Mike, 144
bubble universes, 381–88, 394, 396, 402, 408, 431nn1–3
Buller, A.H.R., 326
Burney, Venetia, 130
calculus, 40–41, 45, 50, 62, 74–75, 257, 261
Caldwell, Robert, 409
California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 144, 196, 242–44, 320, 334
Campbell, W. W., 299
carbon: abundance of, 81–82; early universe and, 224, 251; interstellar medium and, 181; lives of stars and, 99, 102, 105, 119–21; nucleus of, 99; search for life and, 147, 162–63, 169, 410; spectra and, 88
carbon dioxide, 132, 147, 163, 169, 422
Carnegie Observatories, 215–16
Cartesian coordinate system, 278
Cassidy, Michael J., 345
Catholic Church, 37
Cauchy horizon, 335–41, 345, 396
Cavendish, Henry, 116
Celsius temperature scale, 69
centripetal acceleration, 292
Cepheid variables, 198, 200, 209–10, 213–15, 392
Ceres, 134, 138–40, 143–44, 355
CERN particle accelerator, 351
Chang, Kenneth, 135–36
Charon, 13, 130–31, 137–38, 141–45
Christodoulou, Demetrios, 317
Chronology Protection Conjecture, 345
circumferential radius, 306
circumpolar stars, 30
Clairaut, Alexis, 53
Coat of the Future, 321–22, 323
Coleman, Sidney, 381–82, 435n2
Colley, Wes, 331
Collins, Michael, 424
color temperature, 68–70
Columbus, Christopher, 31–32
Coma Cluster, 196
comets, 48, 53, 127–28, 131–32, 134, 137, 139–42, 156, 163
computers: apps and, 35; black holes and, 314; blink comparators and, 130; first, 121; human, 93–94; megabytes and, 17; patterns and, 32; power of large, 238; simulations of early universe and, 238–40; supercomputers and, 314
Comte, Auguste, 92
conservation of angular momentum, 39
conservation of charge, 261
conservation of energy, 297, 334, 367, 380
conservation of momentum, 285, 429–30
constellations, 27–33, 57, 59, 92, 120, 123, 186, 189
Contact (film), 165–67
Contact (Sagan), 343
Copernican Principle: Drake equation and, 420; expansion and, 210; future of universe and, 411, 413, 415–16, 420, 422, 435n3; inflation and, 375; search for life and, 165; testing of, 436n5; shape of universe and, 370
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 165; Catholic church and, 37; De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium and, 36; Earth as planet and, 138; expansion and, 210; future of universe and, 411–22; heliocentric theory and, 36–37, 42, 139, 184–85; inflation and, 375; known universe in day of, 183–85; Newton’s laws and, 42–43; night sky and, 36–37; shape of universe and, 370
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 230–31, 234–35, 375–76
cosmic distance ladder, 215
cosmic microwave background (CMB): black holes and, 318–19; blueshift and, 231; cosmic strings and, 331; cosmological principle and, 230; dark matter and, 233–37; Doppler shift and, 232; early universe and, 71, 74, 216, 229, 235–40, 252, 318–19, 331, 352–55, 362, 373–76, 381, 386–93, 398, 403, 404–7, 415; expansion and, 216; future of universe and, 404–7, 415; Gibbons and Hawking radiation and, 406–7; Hubble’s law and, 236–37; inflation and, 298, 375–76, 381, 386–92; Lyman series and, 252; Map of the Universe and, 354, 362; Penzias and, 71, 229–30, 373, 375, 415; redshift and, 252; shape of universe and, 352–55, 362, 373; undulations in, 232–36; uniformity of, 230–31, 252–53; Wilson and, 71, 229–30, 373, 375, 415; WMAP and, 235–40
cosmic strings: cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 331; Cutler and, 334–35, 339; Einstein and, 327, 331; Flatland and, 340, 435n1; general relativity and, 327, 331; gravity and, 331; length of, 328–29; mass of, 330; oscillation of, 331; quasars and, 330; shape of universe and, 351; shortcuts and, 327, 330–32; spacelike separation and, 332; speed of light and, 331; tension of, 331; time travel and, 327–37, 340
cosmic web, 404
Cosmic Web, The (Gott), 381
cosmological constant: as big blunder, 369; as correct, 391; Einstein and, 363–70, 377–78, 380, 389, 391, 393–94, 409–10; future of universe and, 409–10; inflation and, 377–78, 380, 389, 391, 393–94; phantom energy and, 409–10; shape of universe and, 363–70
cosmological models: all possible, 389; closed, 365; Einstein and, 364–65; expansion and, 221; gravity and, 364–65; inflation and, 388–92; parameters of, 388–89; standard, 13, 391
cosmological principle, 225–26, 230, 237–38, 248
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey (film), 33
Cosmos (TV series), 165
Cotham, Frank, 164
Coulomb’s law, 261
Crab Nebula, 123–25
Crick, Francis, 352
Curie, Marie, 288
Cygnus X-1, 355
dark energy: decay and, 402; early universe and, 236; future of universe and, 402, 405, 408–10; inflation and, 236, 389–92, 398; shape of universe and, 364–65, 370; slow-roll, 409; standard cosmological model and, 13
dark matter: amount of, 13, 195; axions and, 232; composition of, 222, 232–34; cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 233–37; early universe and, 222, 232–34, 236–37; gravitational lensing and, 253; gravitinos and, 234; inferred existence of, 243; inflation and, 388, 390–91; Milky Way and, 195–96; photinos and, 232; selectrons and, 232; shape of universe and, 351; standard cosmological model and, 13; supersymmetry and, 232; Zwicky and, 196, 243–44
d’Arrest, Heinrich Louis, 53
Davis, Marc, 230
decay: asymmetric, 402, 404; beryllium to lithium, 224; black holes, 314, 317, 407; dark energy, 402; fission and, 287; gravitinos, 234; Hawking radiation and, 407; muons, 268–69; neutrons, 223; protons, 223, 403, 407; quantum theory and, 403; radioactivity and, 103, 114, 218, 226, 351, 384; timescale for, 407; uranium, 114, 384–85; vacuum energy, 328, 381–82, 403
density wave, 194
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 22, 66, 161, 213, 352
De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium (Copernicus), 36
de Sitter, Willem, 378, 380, 382–85, 393–99, 405–6
deuterium, 99, 117, 158, 223–25, 227, 233, 240, 375, 404
deuterons, 223–24
Deutsch, David, 326
Dewdney, A., 435n2
Dewynne, J. N., 436n5
Dicke, Robert, 228–29, 375, 410
differential calculus, 45
distance: action at, 295–96, 319–20; arc second and, 58–59; Astronomical Unit (AU), 40, 42, 54, 115, 213; Cepheid variables and, 198, 200, 209–10, 213–15, 392; co-moving, 250; Copernican Principle and, 165, 210, 370, 375, 411, 413, 415–16, 420, 422, 435n3, 436nn3,4; cosmic distance ladder and, 215; geometry and, 39, 58; Hubble’s law and, 210–17, 220, 236–37; light-year and, 54, 58–59; parallax and, 55–60, 115, 213–14, 262, 434n1; parsec and, 58–59, 159, 215, 218; redshift and, 208 (see also redshift)
distribution functions, 60–62, 67, 73
Dixon, Dougal, 417
Dog Star (Sirius), 29
Doppler, Christian, 208
Doppler shift, 97, 331; black holes and, 249; derivation of E = mc2 and, 428–29; early universe and, 225, 231–32, 235; energy radiation and, 64–65; expansion and, 208–9, 212, 214; quasars and, 245–46; relativity and, 262, 284–86; speed of sound and, 208
Drake equation, 147–49, 157–60, 162, 165–69, 193, 420
dwarf planet, 144
Dysnomia, 144
Dyson, Freeman, 406
E = hν, 67, 83, 84, 259–60, 284, 286, 401, 427, 429
E = mc2: conservation of momentum and, 429–30; derivation of, 427–30; Doppler shift and, 428–29; future of universe and, 401–2; mass-energy relationship and, 9, 99, 101–2, 115, 158, 223, 259–60, 269, 284–86, 318, 401–2, 427–30
early universe: Alpher and, 224–25, 228–30; atoms and, 222, 227–28, 232–34; Big Bang and, 222–37, 240; blackbodies and, 222, 225, 228–31; black holes and, 250; carbon and, 224, 251; computer simulations of, 238–40; cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 71, 74, 216, 229, 235–40, 252, 318–19, 331, 352–55, 362, 373–76, 381, 386–93, 398, 403, 404–7, 415; cosmological principle and, 225–26, 230, 237–38, 248; dark energy and, 236; dark matter and, 222, 232–34, 236–37; deuterium and, 223–25, 227, 233, 240; deuterons and, 223–24; Dicke and, 228–29; Doppler shift and, 225, 231–32, 235; electrons and, 222–23, 227–28, 233–34; formation of structure in, 232–33; fusion and, 222–23; future of universe and, 404–5; Gamow and, 224–25, 228, 374–75; gravity and, 232–34, 238, 240; helium and, 223–27, 233, 240; Herman and, 225, 228–30; Hoyle and, 224, 226–27, 230; hydrogen and, 11, 223–25, 227–28, 232, 240, 403, 404–5; iron and, 224; mass and, 223, 226, 232, 234; microwaves and, 229; Milky Way and, 232–39; neutrons and, 222–24, 227, 233–34; oxygen and, 224; Peebles and, 228–30, 232–35, 243, 409; Penzias and, 71, 229–30, 373, 375, 415; photons and, 222, 225, 227–28, 233–34, 236; plasma and, 227; positrons and, 222–23, 227; protons and, 222–24, 227–28, 233–34; quantum theory and, 403–4; quark soup and, 403; quasars and, 245–46, 250; recombination and, 236–37, 403, 405; redshift and, 225, 228, 231, 237–38; Roll and, 228–29; scattering and, 227–28, 233–34, 236; silicon and, 224; spectra and, 238; speed of light and, 231; Sun and, 222–23, 226–27, 231–32; temperature and, 24, 219–20, 222–31, 235, 237, 240; thermal radiation and, 228, 231; water and, 222; wavelength and, 225, 228–29, 231, 250–53; Wilkinson and, 228–32, 235; Wilson and, 71, 229–30, 373, 375, 415
Earth: acceleration and, 49–51, 116, 282; age of, 95, 114–15, 227; angular momentum of, 248; asteroid hitting, 148; Astronomical Unit (AU) and, 40, 42, 115, 213; atmosphere of, 90, 112–13, 147, 152, 154, 176; axis of, 11, 26–27, 30; center of, 47, 51, 116, 294, 355; as center of universe, 184, 210; circumference of, 115; Copernican Principle and, 165, 210, 370, 375, 411, 413, 415–16, 420, 422, 435n3, 436nn4,5; crust of, 137; diameter of, 135, 140, 151, 186; distance to Mars, 115; distance to Sun, 21, 115–16; end of life on, 118; energy radiation and, 54–62, 77, 80; equator of, 238, 291–95, 308, 352–55, 365; equilibrium temperature and, 153–54; equinox and, 30; formation of, 146–47; gravity and, 23, 46, 49, 51–52, 111, 192; great circle and, 18, 291–94; half-illumination from Sun and, 33; heat from Sun, 29, 153; iron and, 181; Kepler’s laws and, 37–41; life on, 146–65, 169, 403, 416–17, 419–23; major elements of, 82, 224; mantle of, 355; Map of the Universe and, 355; mass of, 48–49, 116, 135, 137–38, 194, 302, 392, 432; Moon and, 131 (see also Moon); Newton’s laws and, 42–52, 130; night sky and, 26–40; Northern Hemisphere and, 28–31, 173, 186, 308; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; orbit of, 11, 26–27, 34, 37, 42–46, 51, 55, 57–58, 80, 115, 128, 137–38, 153, 156, 193, 210, 213, 218, 232, 248, 262, 270–72, 283; planetary family of, 132, 141; polar caps of, 27–28, 30; radius of, 115–16, 388; relativity and, 262–66, 269–83, 289–98; Rose Center display and, 129, 135; rotation of, 32; scale of universe and, 18–25, 110; size of, 133, 185; solstice and, 28; Southern Hemisphere of, 28, 30, 173, 186; speed of sound on, 208; surface of, 21, 23, 28–29, 47, 51, 113–16, 153–54, 158, 161, 169, 270, 290, 295, 327, 355, 394; temperature of, 78, 135; time travel and, 324, 327–31, 341–43; wobble of, 32–33, 137–38
eclipses, 34–35, 92, 115, 130, 141, 260, 262, 298–99
Efron, Bradley, 257
Einstein, Albert, 12; action at a distance and, 295–96, 319–20; anecdotes about, 259–60; atomic bombs and, 259; black holes and, 300–303, 314, 317, 319–20; cosmic strings and, 327, 331; cosmological constant and, 363–70, 377–78, 380, 389, 391, 393–94, 409–10; cosmological principle and, 225–26, 230, 237–38, 248; curved spacetime and, 260 (see also spacetime); deflection prediction of, 260; E = hν and, 67, 83, 84, 259–60, 284, 286, 401, 427, 429; E = mc2 and, 9, 99, 101–2, 115, 158, 223, 259–60, 269, 284–86, 318, 401–2, 427–30; eclipse of 1919 and, 298–99; education of, 260–61; electromagnetism and, 261; Equivalence Principle and, 290, 292, 298, 310; expansion and, 220; field equations of, 296–98, 300–301, 314, 323, 327, 331, 337, 367, 369, 375, 378, 402; Flatland and, 365; future of universe and, 402–3, 405, 409–10, 417; general relativity and, 11 (see also general relativity); genius of, 257–60, 289; gravitational waves and, 402–3; inflation and, 375–78, 383, 389, 391–95; influence of, 258, 288, 299; Kerr and, 314; lasers and, 259, 317, 403; Maxwell and, 261, 349; Michelson-Morley experiment and, 265–66; Minkowski and, 270; Newton and, 257–60, 296–98; Nobel Prize in Physics and, 260; photoelectric effect and, 260; photon energy and, 67; pressure/energy density ratio and, 391; Riemann curvature tensors and, 2, 295–96, 301, 434nn1,2; Roosevelt letter of, 259, 287; shape of universe and, 347–52, 355, 362–70; special relativity and, 101, 260, 264, 270–87, 300–301, 326, 347, 371, 377, 380; speed of light and, 263–64; static model of, 362–65, 369, 393; thought experiments of, 263–65, 273, 275, 280, 285–86; 3-sphere geometry and, 365–67; time travel and, 323, 326–27, 331, 337, 339, 341, 345–46; uniform motion and, 264, 280
Einstein-Rosen bridge, 320
electric fields, 261–62, 290, 320, 350
electromagnetism: black holes and, 317; Einstein and, 261; energy radiation and, 66, 406; fields and, 290; Hertz and, 263; inflation and, 375, 377, 381, 399; lives of stars and, 125; Maxwell and, 11, 261–65, 290, 296–97, 349–50, 402; photons and, 402–3 (see also photons); radio telescopes and, 241; relativity and, 290, 294, 297; shape of universe and, 348–52; time travel and, 330
electrons: binding energy and, 86, 103–4; black holes and, 317–20; early universe and, 222–23, 227–28, 233–34; energy levels and, 82–90, 119, 179, 250, 258; ground state and, 82–84, 86, 91, 250; inflation and, 402; interstellar medium and, 179; ionization and, 86–88, 107, 113, 228, 233; lives of stars and, 98–99, 103, 107, 113, 119, 122; orbitals and, 21, 82–85, 92, 162; positrons and, 99, 222–23, 227, 317–20, 402, 403, 407; quantum theory and, 83–84; recombination and, 236–37, 403, 405; relativity and, 266, 268, 299; selectrons and, 232; shape of universe and, 350–51; spectra and, 81–92; time travel and, 324; weak force and, 402–3
electron shell, 81
electron volt (eV), 85–86, 103–4
electrostatic forces, 24, 98–99, 261, 385
Elements in the Theory of Astronomy, The (textbook), 139–40
eleven dimensions, 351–52, 397–98
elliptical galaxies, 202, 204, 248–49, 303
elliptical orbits: Kepler and, 37–42, 53, 156, 196, 297; planetary motion and, 37–42, 53, 131, 134, 156, 196, 271, 297
emission lines, 90, 179, 242, 245–46, 250–51
e (natural logarithm), 73
endothermic process, 103–4
energy density: as attractive force, 364; black holes and, 318; future of universe and, 405, 408–9; inflation and, 377–81, 384, 386–91, 394; radiation and, 76; relativity and, 434n2; shape of universe and, 362–64; slow-roll dark energy and, 409; spacetime and, 76, 318, 327, 340, 344, 362–64, 377–81, 384–91, 394, 405, 408–9, 434n2; time travel and, 327, 340, 344
energy levels, 119, 179; equilibrium and, 85, 89, 153; excited electrons and, 81–92; ground state and, 82–84, 86, 91, 250; ionization and, 86–88, 107, 113, 228, 233; Paschen series and, 86, 90–92; relativity and, 258
Englert, François, 327–28
equator, Earth’s, 238, 291–95, 308, 352–55, 365
equilibrium, 407; energy levels and, 85, 89, 153; gravity and, 112–13, 122, 189; internal stellar pressure and, 112–13, 122, 189; static, 144; thermal, 376, 380
Equivalence Principle, 290, 292, 298, 310
Eratosthenes, 115
ET (film), 165–66
Euclidean geometry, 58, 278, 290–92, 330, 365–66, 371, 387
event horizon: firewalls and, 319; future of universe and, 405–7; Hawking radiation and, 406; inflation and, 379–80, 386; Planck length and, 431; spacetime and, 305, 308–20, 337–38, 340, 344, 379–80, 386, 405–7, 431; time travel and, 337–38, 340, 344
exothermic process, 102–4
expansion: acceleration and, 392, 409; Big Bang and, 218–21; Big Crunch and, 367–68, 372, 373, 384; Copernican Principle and, 210; cosmic distance ladder and, 215; cosmological constant and, 362–70, 377–78, 380, 389, 391, 393–94, 409–10; cosmological models and, 221; cosmological principle and, 225–26, 230, 237–38, 248; decreasing density and, 219–20; Doppler effect and, 208–9, 212, 214; general relativity and, 212, 220–21; geometry and, 216, 221; gravity and, 217, 232–34, 238; Hubble and, 207–20, 363, 367, 369–70, 373; isotropy and, 367, 375, 380, 415; luminosity and, 213–14; main sequence stars and, 214, 219; mass and, 207, 219; Milky Way and, 209–12, 217, 221; nebulae and, 207, 209; photons and, 221; recombination and, 236–37, 403, 405; redshift and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; Slipher and, 209; spectra and, 208–9; speed of light and, 208–9, 212, 408; temperature and, 207, 214, 219–20; variable stars and, 209–11, 213–15; wavelength and, 208–9, 250; white dwarfs and, 242
exponential measurement, 17, 74, 379, 381, 394, 406, 408
extraterrestrials, 148, 156, 161, 165, 167–68, 185, 212, 312, 405, 419–20, 433n1
Fan, Xiaohui, 250
Faraday’s law, 261
Feynman, Richard, 326
firewall, 319
first-quarter Moon, 34–35
Flatland: Circleland and, 365, 367; cosmic strings and, 340, 435n1; Einstein and, 365; inflation and, 398; Lineland and, 348–49, 351, 365; shape of universe and, 347–49, 365, 371; Sphereland and, 365; time travel and, 340
Flatland (Abbott), 348
Foreman, George, 260
four-dimensional universe: Euclidean geometry and, 366; inflation and, 394–95; Kaluza-Klein dimensions and, 349–50, 352, 397; relativity and, 270–76, 290, 296, 324, 326, 349, 366, 394–95, 434n1; time travel and, 324, 326
Freedman, Wendy, 215–16
frequency, 65–67, 84, 208, 259, 284–85, 400–401, 427–29
friction, 44, 51, 65, 247, 308
Friedmann, Alexander: Big Bang and, 367–76; Einstein and, 369, 375; football spacetime of, 367–70, 376–77, 381; inflation and, 374–78, 381–83, 386, 388–89, 393; shape of universe and, 367–73; 3-sphere geometry and, 365–67, 370, 373, 374–75, 378–79, 382–83, 388–89, 394
Frolov, Valeri, 399
FU Orionis stars, 190
fusion: early universe and, 222–24; as energy source, 121; future of universe and, 403–4; heavy elements and, 181; helium and, 158; hydrogen and, 118, 158, 287; lives of stars and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121, 123; strong nuclear force and, 99
future of universe: black holes and, 401, 403, 405, 407–8; colonization and, 414, 420–24; Copernican Principle and, 411, 413, 415–16, 420, 422; cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 404–7, 415; cosmological constant and, 409–10; dark energy and, 402, 405, 408–10; Drake equation and, 420; E = mc2 and, 401–2; early universe and, 404–5; Einstein and, 402–3, 405, 409–10, 417; energy density and, 405, 408–9; event horizon and, 405–7; general relativity and, 402, 415; gravitational waves and, 402–3, 406; Hawking on, 423; helium and, 403, 404; inflation and, 402, 404, 408–9; intelligent lineage and, 417, 436n4; longevity measurement and, 411–24; phantom energy and, 409–10; photons and, 400–406; Planck density and, 401; Planck mass and, 401; Planck time and, 401, 403; recombination and, 403, 405; singularities and, 401, 409; spacetime and, 401–2, 405, 418, 428–29; temperature and, 403, 405–7; thermal radiation and, 402–3, 406; timeline for, 400, 403, 413, 420; vacuum energy and, 408–9; white dwarfs and, 403, 405, 407
Gaia spacecraft, 434n1
galaxies: Andromeda, 127, 195, 198–202, 204, 207–17, 232, 405; barred spiral, 191; Big Crunch and, 367–68, 372, 373, 384; blueshift and, 209, 217, 231, 245, 339, 341, 429; Cepheid variables and, 198, 200, 209–10, 213–15, 392; Coma Cluster and, 196; cosmological principle and, 225–26, 230, 237–38, 248; dark matter and, 243 (see also dark matter); distances between, 202, 204; dust and, 197, 201–2, 204; early universe and, 222–40; elliptical, 202, 204, 248–49, 303; expansion and, 207–21; future of universe and, 400–424; galactic plane and, 185–86, 313; Geller-Huchra Great Wall and, 355, 362; gravitational lensing and, 244, 253, 313, 330–31, 391; halos of, 192; Hubble and, 198, 200–202, 207; intergalactic space and, 21, 204, 227; irregular, 202; as island universes, 198, 200; Local Group and, 127; luminosity and, 200; M31, 355; M51, 105–6; M81, 355; M87, 248, 306–8, 355; Magellanic Clouds and, 125, 137, 187, 188, 202; Map of the Universe and, 354–62; Milky Way, 127 (see also Milky Way); nebulae and, 197–201; Pinwheel, 198, 199, 201–2; quasars and, 244–46 (see also quasars); red giants and, 197; redshift and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; RR Lyraes and, 189–90, 198; Sloan Great Wall and, 238, 353, 362; spectra and, 207–8, 238, 244; spiral, 105–6, 111, 190–92, 194, 197–201, 204, 214, 245, 249; static model of, 362–65, 369, 393; Sombrero, 202, 203, Subaru, 362; Sun and, 204, 210, 213, 217–19; Tadpole, 204–5; temperature and, 201; variable stars and, 189–90, 198, 200, 209–11, 213–15
Galileo, 44, 46, 50, 125, 137, 140, 175, 183, 198, 232
Galle, Johann Gottfried, 53
gamma rays, 63, 66–67, 73, 125, 222, 263, 319, 339, 362
Gamow, George: cosmological constant and, 369; early universe and, 224–25, 228; future of universe and, 404, 415; inflation and, 374–75, 384–85, 391; quantum tunneling and, 392–95
gas clouds, 24, 82, 85, 89–91, 96, 105, 107, 163, 179
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 296, 371
Geller-Huchra Great Wall, 355, 362
general relativity: acceleration and, 289–94, 298; action at a distance and, 295–96; black holes and, 300–302, 314, 320; cosmic strings and, 327, 331; cosmology and, 362–63; eclipse of 1919 and, 298–99; Equivalence Principle and, 290, 292, 298, 310; expansion and, 212, 220–21; four-dimensional universe and, 290, 296, 324, 326, 347, 349, 366, 394–95, 434n1; future of universe and, 402, 415; GPS and, 11; gravity and, 244, 260, 289–90, 292, 294–99, 402–3; great circle and, 291–94; inflation and, 380, 386, 396–99; interstellar medium and, 182; mass and, 289, 294–98; quantum theory and, 339; Riemann curvature tensors and, 295–96; shape of universe and, 349–50, 362–63, 367, 369–70, 435n1; spacetime and, 289–98; speed of light and, 296; time travel and, 283, 321, 323, 327, 331, 334, 339, 341, 345–46; verification of, 11; Wheeler and, 314; worldlines and, 294–95, 297
geometry: arc second and, 58–59; black holes and, 300, 306–11, 314, 316; cosmic strings and, 327–33, 336–37, 340, 351, 435n1; distance and, 39, 58; DNA and, 352; Euclidean, 58, 278, 290–92, 330, 365–66, 371, 387; expansion and, 216, 221; four-dimensional universe and, 270–76, 290, 296, 324, 326, 347, 349, 366, 394–95, 434n1; great circle and, 18, 291–94; inflation and, 383, 386–87, 393–94; Kepler and, 39; relativity and, 270, 278, 290–92, 294, 296; shape of universe and, 362, 364–65, 367, 371, 405, 435n1; spacetime and, 260, 270–76, 280–81, 285–86, 289–98, 401 (see also spacetime); 3-sphere geometry and, 365–70, 373, 374, 378–79, 382–83, 388–89, 394; time travel and, 327, 329–30, 332–33, 343
George III, king of England, 138–39
Glashow, Sheldon, 351
Gliese 581, 100
globular clusters, 96–97, 127, 168, 184–91, 214, 219
Gödel, Kurt, 341
googol, 20
googolplex, 20
Gott, J. Richard, 11, 12, 13, 122, 411; Berlin Wall and, 411–13, 424; black holes and, 300–320; Coat of the Future of, 321–22, 323; cosmic strings and, 327–341; future of universe and, 400–424; Guinness Book of Records and, 362; Hubble constant and, 216; inflation and, 374–99; Map of the Universe and, 354–62; relativity and, 257–99; shape of universe and, 347–73; time travel and, 321–46; undergraduate course of, 12; Zwicky and, 244
Gott-Li model, 396–98
Gould, Stephen Jay, 417
grandmother paradox, 324–26
gravitational instability, 232, 238, 240
gravitational lens, 244, 253, 313, 330–31, 391
gravitational mass, 289
gravitational waves: black holes and, 13, 314, 403; cosmic strings and, 331; Einstein and, 402–3; existence of, 403; future of universe and, 402–3, 406; inflation and, 393; interstellar medium and, 182; LIGO and, 13, 314–15, 331, 402–3, 406; Maxwell and, 402; pulsars and, 355
gravitinos, 232
gravity, 13; acceleration and, 23, 47, 49, 52, 116, 158, 294; black holes and, 23, 122, 247, 249, 302–4; cosmic strings and, 331; cosmological constant and, 363–70, 377–78, 380, 389, 391, 393–94, 409–10; cosmological models and, 364–65; curved spacetime and, 260 (see also spacetime); dark matter and, 234 (see also dark matter); early universe and, 232–34, 238; Earth and, 23, 46, 49, 51–52, 111, 192; equilibrium and, 112–13, 122, 189; Equivalence Principle and, 290, 292, 298, 310; expansion and, 217, 232–34, 238; general relativity and, 260, 289–90, 292, 294–99; great circle and, 291–94; inflation and, 376, 392, 398; interstellar medium and, 180; inverse-square law and, 47, 49, 79, 116, 125, 168, 188, 213, 243; Kepler’s law and, 37–39; Lagrange points and, 144; lives of stars and, 104, 107, 111–19, 122, 156, 197; Mars and, 422; measuring, 3; Milky Way and, 189, 192–95, 204; Newton’s laws and, 41–45, 79, 82, 97, 192–93, 195, 246, 259, 264, 302; perturbations and, 53, 131, 160, 300, 314; Planet X and, 130–31; Pluto and, 134, 144; quantum, 339, 341, 345, 398, 402; Schwarzschild radius and, 301–10, 313, 315, 318, 401; self-gravitating objects and, 111–12; shape of universe and, 349–52, 363; singularities and, 302, 305–6, 309–13, 337–40, 344, 368, 381, 396, 399, 401, 409; spaghettification and, 305–6, 339; special relativity and, 282–83; static model and, 362–65, 369, 393; Sun and, 32, 111, 114–15; supernovae and, 100, 106–7, 121–25, 181, 216, 219, 243–44, 247, 252–53, 362, 389–92; temperature and, 134; tidal forces and, 118, 151, 160, 192, 204, 304, 306, 337, 339; time travel and, 339, 341, 345; universal law of, 40–41, 48–49; Uranus and, 53
Great Dark Spot, 133
Great Red Spot, 133
Great Wall of China, 413
greenhouse effect, 132, 147, 154–57, 169
Greenstein, Jesse, 243
G stars, 100, 151–52, 155, 156
guest star, 123–24
Guinness Book of Records, 362
Hale-Bopp, 433n1
half-Moon, 34–35
Hamlet (Shakespeare), 287–88
Hartle-Hawking vacuum, 318–19, 344
Harvard College Observatory, 93
Hawking, Stephen: Bekenstein and, 12–13; black holes and, 314–20; bubble universes and, 386; Cauchy horizon and, 340; Chronology Protection Conjecture and, 345; on future of universe, 423; inflation and, 386, 394; intelligence of, 107; no boundary condition and, 394–95; Planck length and, 431; The Theory of Everything and, 12, 320; time travel and, 336, 340, 344–45
Hawking radiation, 317–19, 340, 406–8
Hawking temperature, 403, 406–7
Hayden Planetarium, 11
heavy elements, 105, 123, 181, 219, 224
Heisenberg, Werner, 316–17, 381, 385, 393
heliocentric theory, 36–37, 42, 139, 184–85
helium, 24; alpha particles and, 384–85; early universe and, 223–27, 233, 240; fusion and, 158; HR diagram and, 189; interstellar medium and, 181; Jupiter and, 133; lives of stars and, 99–105, 118–21; ppn nucleus, 99–100, 105; spectra and, 81–82, 99; Sun and, 121, 134, 181, 287; timeline of universe and, 403, 404
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 114, 117
Herman, Robert, 225, 228–30, 375, 415
Herschel, William, 62–63, 138, 140, 183–84
Hertz, Heinrich, 263
Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 93–94, 184
Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram, 93–96, 98, 100, 121, 160, 189, 207, 219
Hewish, Antony, 125
Higgs, Peter, 327–28
Higgs boson, 13, 327, 351, 402
Higgs field, 327, 351, 377, 384, 402
Higgs vacuum, 408
Hiscock, William, 327
Hitler, Adolf, 287
Holst, Sören, 340
Homo sapiens, 410, 413, 416–17, 420, 436n4
How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming (Brown), 144
Hoyle, Fred, 218, 224, 226–27, 230, 248
Hubble, Edwin, 92; Andromeda and, 214; Cepheid variables and, 198–99, 210, 214; death of, 215; early universe and, 226; expansion and, 207–20, 363, 367, 369–70, 373; galaxies and, 198, 200–202, 207; isotropy and, 367, 375, 380, 415; Leavitt and, 200; redshift and, 209–10, 250, 393; scale of universe and, 226; shape of universe and, 367; universal uniformity and, 226
Hubble constant, 210, 215–16, 218, 227, 242–43, 388, 390, 392
Hubble expansion, 217, 363, 369–70, 373
Hubble’s law, 210–17, 220, 236–37
Hubble Space Telescope, 13; black holes and, 247–48, 306; clarity of, 59, 215; distance of galaxies and, 210; Freedman and, 215–16; long exposures of galaxies and, 206; Map of the Universe and, 352, 355; Neptune’s Great Dark Spot and, 133; orbit of, 51; Pluto and, 130; quasars and, 244–45, 253; as reflecting telescope, 259; resolution of, 159; Sandage and, 215–16; scale of universe and, 108–9; Spitzer and, 121
Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, 108–9
Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar, 182, 355, 402
Humason, Milton, 210
Huygens, Christiaan, 262–63
hydrogen: abundance of, 81; Balmer lines and, 86, 88, 90–92, 179, 242, 258; Cavendish and, 116; cosmic clouds and, 82; deuterium, 99, 117, 158, 223–25, 227, 233, 240, 375, 404; early universe and, 11, 223–25, 227–28, 232, 240, 403, 404–5; fusion and, 158, 287; HR diagram and, 189; in human body, 11; interstellar medium and, 176, 179, 181; Jupiter and, 133; lives of stars and, 94, 98–107, 116–18, 121, 407; Lyman series and, 86, 91–92, 250, 252; periodic table and, 24; quantum understanding of, 258; quasars and, 250–52; scale of universe and, 128; as simplest atom, 21; spectra and, 81–92, 250; structure of, 21; Sun and, 94, 134, 217, 223, 227, 287
hyperbolic universe, 371–73, 382–83
inflation: acceleration and, 376–81, 386, 389–92, 398; Big Bang and, 374–78, 381, 393, 398; Big Crunch and, 384; black holes and, 380, 398; bubble universes and, 381–88, 394, 396, 402, 408, 431nn1–3; chaotic, 387, 393; cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 298, 375–76, 381, 386–92; cosmological constant and, 377–78, 380, 389, 391, 393–94; cosmological models and, 388–92; dark energy and, 236, 389–92, 398; dark matter and, 388, 390–91; de Sitter spacetime and, 378, 380, 382–85, 393–99, 405–6; Einstein and, 375–78, 383, 389, 391–95; electromagnetism and, 375, 377, 381, 399; electrons and, 402; energy density and, 377–81, 384, 386–91, 394; event horizon and, 379–80, 386; Flatland and, 398; four-dimensional universe and, 394–95; Friedmann and, 374–78, 381–83, 386, 388–89, 393; future of universe and, 402, 404, 408–9; general relativity and, 380, 386, 396–99; geometry and, 383, 386–87, 393–94; Gott-Li model and, 396–98; gravity and, 376, 392–93, 398; Guth and, 376–82, 388; Hawking and, 386, 394; Higgs field and, 377, 384; high-density vacuum state and, 380–82, 399; Kaluza-Klein dimensions and, 397; mass and, 302, 390; mechanisms for beginning, 398–99; M-theory and, 397–98; multiverse and, 382–84, 386–87, 397–99, 402, 409; neutrons and, 384, 390; no boundary condition and, 394–95; photons and, 374–75; pressure/energy density ratio and, 391; quantum theory and, 381, 384–87, 393–96, 398–99; redshift and, 375, 379, 389, 393; singularities and, 381, 384, 396, 399; spacetime and, 376–83, 388, 393–98; speed of light and, 374–75, 378–80, 382, 386, 393; surface of constant epoch and, 382; temperature and, 375–77, 387; thermal radiation and, 374–75; 3-sphere geometry and, 374–75, 378–79, 382–83, 388–89, 394; vacuum energy and, 377–92; wavelength and, 375; worldlines and, 378, 379–81
information: Bekenstein limit and, 13; black holes and, 316–17, 319, 431–32; Planck length and, 431; time travel and, 323
infrared (IR) light: greenhouse effect and, 154; interstellar medium and, 176–77; mapping Milky Way and, 186–88, 196; quasars and, 250, 252–53; radiation and, 29, 62–70, 75, 77–78, 86, 90, 117, 153–54, 161, 176–77, 186–88, 196, 250, 252–53, 263, 406; search for life and, 161; thermal radiation and, 153–54
integral calculus, 50, 62, 257, 261
internal pressure, 112–13, 115, 189
International Astronomical Union (IAU), 13, 137, 144
International Space Station (ISS), 52, 283, 355
Interstellar (film), 342
interstellar medium: carbon and, 181; dust and, 176–81; electrons and, 179; gravity and, 180, 182; helium and, 181; hydrogen and, 176, 179, 181; lives of stars and, 105; mass and, 176, 180–82; Milky Way and, 173–82; nebulae and, 176–81; neutrons and, 181; opaqueness of, 176; oxygen and, 176, 179, 181; photons and, 179; red giants and, 181; silicon and, 181; Sun and, 180–96; telescopes and, 174, 180; 2MASS and, 176, 188; visible light and, 176; wavelength and, 176–79
inverse-square law: brightness and, 78–79, 184, 188; distance and, 116, 125, 188, 213, 243; gravity and, 79; luminosity and, 116, 125, 168, 213, 243; Newton and, 47, 49, 79, 116, 125, 168, 188, 213, 243
Io, 139
ionization, 86–88, 107, 113, 228, 233
iron: early universe and, 224; Earth and, 181; lives of stars and, 102–5, 107, 120, 123; nuclear energy and, 287; Sun’s core and, 132; Vesta and, 141
irregular galaxies, 202
Jeans, James, 74
Jet Propulsion Labs, 131
jinn particles, 322–24
Juno, 139–40
Jupiter: Callisto and, 139, 142; eclipses and, 262; Europa and, 139–40, 142–43, 160; fusion and, 117; Ganymede and, 139–40, 142; as gas planet, 131; Great Red Spot of, 133; helium and, 133; historical perspective on, 138–39; hydrogen and, 133; Io and, 262; Jupiter/Mars gap and, 138; Kepler satellite and, 150; Kepler’s time and, 39; Map of the Universe and, 355; mass of, 131; moons of, 139–43, 160, 262; Newton’s laws and, 53, 130; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; radius of, 149; rapid spin of, 111; relative size of, 133, 143; rings of, 133; Rose Center display and, 19, 128, 129–30, 135; Shoemaker-Levy 9 and, 137; Standish and, 131; statistics of, 135; Trojan asteroids of, 144
Kaluza, Theodor, 349
Kaluza-Klein dimensions, 349–50, 352, 397
Kamionkowski, Mark, 409
Kant, Immanuel, 198
Kelly, Mark, 283
Kelvin temperature scale, 69
Kennedy Space Flight Center, 422
Kepler, Johannes: Brahe data and, 36–37, 43, 258; Copernicus and, 37; elliptical orbits and, 37–42, 53, 156, 196, 297; first law of, 38, 41; geometrical approach of, 39; Newton’s laws and, 40–41, 43, 46–47, 49, 52–53; night sky and, 33, 36–42; planetary motion and, 36–43, 46–47, 49, 52–53, 157, 196, 258, 297; second law of, 38, 39, 41; solar system model and, 115; third law of, 38, 39–41, 43, 46–47, 49, 52, 157, 258
Kepler satellite, 149–51, 155–57, 160
Kierland, Brian, 436n5
Kirhakos, Sofia, 245
Kirshner, Robert, 321
Klaproth, Martin, 139
Klein, Oskar, 349–50, 352, 397
Kruskal, Martin, 308–9, 314–15
Kruskal diagram, 309–12, 314, 320
K stars, 69, 85, 87–88, 151, 155, 156
Kuiper, Gerard, 134
Kuiper Belt, 134–36, 140–44, 253, 355, 362
Kundić, Tomislav, 331
Lagrange points, 144
LaLande, Jérôme, 53
Landsberg, P. T., 436n5
Large Hadron Collider, 13, 234, 327, 351
Large Magellanic Cloud, 125, 202
Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, 253
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), 13, 314–15, 331, 402–3, 406
lasers, 259, 266, 274–77, 314, 317, 402–3
LAWKI, 162
law of charge conservation, 261
Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 257–58
Lemaître, Georges, 363, 393–94
Lemonick, Michael, 138
Lepaute, Nicole-Reine, 53
Leslie, John, 418
Le Verrier, Urbain, 53
Levy, David, 137
Lick Observatory, 198
light elements, 102–3, 105, 123, 134, 222, 224, 287, 403–4
Linde, Andrei, 384, 386–87, 395–96, 398, 408
lives of stars: atoms and, 98, 103, 113, 119, 122; birth and, 180–81; black holes and, 123; blue stars and, 90, 93, 96–98; brightness and, 116; carbon and, 99, 102, 105, 119–21; death of, 106, 117, 117–19; electromagnetism and, 125; electrons and, 98–99, 103, 107, 113, 119, 122; endothermic process and, 103–4; equilibrium and, 112–13, 122, 189; exothermic process and, 102–4; fission and, 103–4; fusion and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121; globular clusters and, 96–97, 127, 168, 184–91, 214, 219; gravity and, 104, 107, 111–19, 122, 156, 197; helium and, 99–105, 118–21; Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram and, 93–96, 98, 100, 121, 160, 189, 207, 219; hydrogen and, 94, 98–107, 116–18, 121, 407; internal pressure and, 112–13, 115, 189; interstellar medium and, 105; iron and, 102–5, 107, 120, 123; luminosity and, 93–101, 107, 114–20, 125, 151; main sequence stars and, 94, 95–104, 115–23; mass and, 97–104, 107, 111, 115–23, 147; Milky Way and, 106, 125; nebulae and, 107–8, 119–20, 123–25; neutrons and, 99–105, 122; neutron stars and, 100, 105, 107, 122–25; O B A F G K M L T Y scheme and, 100–101; oxygen and, 99, 102, 105, 107, 119–21; Pauli exclusion principle and, 119, 122; photons and, 99, 107, 113–14; positrons and, 99; protons and, 98–105, 122; quantum theory and, 100, 119; red giants and, 95–97, 100, 102, 118, 120–21, 123; red stars and, 93, 96, 98, 120; self-gravitating objects and, 111–12; silicon and, 107, 120; speed of light and, 123; star cluster and, 95–97, 137, 180; strong nuclear force and, 99; Sun and, 94–105, 111–21, 125, 146–61, 168–69; supernovae and, 100, 106–7, 121–25, 181, 216, 219, 243–44, 247, 252–53, 362, 389–92; temperature and, 93–100, 105, 113–14, 117–18; visible light and, 114, 117, 125; white dwarfs and, 94, 95, 100, 119–23
Local Group, 127
logarithms, 73, 101, 155, 231, 431
London Times, 299
Los Angeles Times, 354
Lowell, Percival, 129–30
luminosity: energy radiation and, 60, 76–80; expansion and, 213–14; galaxies and, 200; Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram and, 93–96, 98, 100, 121, 160, 189, 207, 219; inverse-square law and, 116, 125, 168, 213, 243; lives of stars and, 93–101, 107, 114–20, 125, 151; Milky Way and, 184, 188–90, 252; O B A F G K M L T Y scheme and, 100–101; quasars and, 244–52; search for life and, 146–47, 151, 153, 168; spectra and, 251–52 (see also spectra); temperature and, 214; Zipf’s law and, 168
lunar eclipse, 34, 92, 115, 298
Lyman series, 86, 91–92, 250, 252
M13 globular cluster, 96–97, 168, 184
M31 galaxy, 355
M51 galaxy, 105–6
M81 galaxy, 355
Magellanic Clouds, 125, 137, 187, 188, 202
main sequence stars: death of, 403, 405, 418; expansion and, 214, 219; lives of stars and, 94, 95–104, 115–23; Milky Way and, 188–89, 192; search for life and, 151, 160, 169
Maldacena, Juan, 319–20
many-worlds theory, 325–26
Map of the Universe, 354–62
Mars: asteroids and, 140; atmosphere of, 422; canals of, 129–30; colonization of, 421–23; distance to, 115, 213, 262; gravity of, 422; historical perspective on, 138–39; Jupiter/Mars gap and, 138; Kepler’s time and, 39; life on, 65, 129–30, 422; Lowell and, 129–30; Map of the Universe and, 355; Newton’s laws and, 130; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; oxygen and, 422; parallax and, 115; planetary motion and, 36; as the red planet, 133; relative size of, 132; Rose Center display and, 129, 135; statistics of, 135; terrestrial family and, 132, 141; water and, 129, 133, 422; worldline of, 271, 272
Mars One group, 421–22
mass: acceleration and, 44; black holes and, 121, 176, 196, 246–53, 300–311, 314–19, 338, 355, 403, 407–8; brain to body, 163; center of, 49, 137; cosmic strings and, 330; Doppler shifts and, 97–98; E = mc2 and, 9, 99, 101–2, 115, 158, 223, 259–60, 269, 284–86, 318, 401–2, 427–30; early universe and, 223, 226, 232, 234; Earth and, 49, 116; expansion and, 207, 219; gas giants and, 134; Higgs boson and, 351; inertial, 43–44, 289; inflation and, 302, 390; Jupiter and, 131; law of universal gravitation and, 49; lives of stars and, 97–104, 107, 111, 115–23, 147; of local planets, 135; methods for figuring, 97–98; Milky Way and, 192–96; Neptune and, 131; neutron stars and, 303; Newton’s laws and, 41, 44, 48–52, 49, 97–98, 196, 259, 289; Planet X and, 131; Pluto and, 131, 138, 144; point, 300–301, 303, 309, 311, 365, 435n1; quasars and, 245–47, 252; relativity and, 158, 259, 284, 286–89, 294–98; Saturn and, 131; shape of universe and, 300–301, 303, 309, 311, 351, 355, 365, 368, 435n1; solar, 102, 121–23, 176, 181–82, 247–49, 252, 303, 305–6, 314–16, 318–19, 338, 344, 355, 403; spectra and, 97–98; Sun and, 49; time travel and, 323–24, 329–30, 334–38, 341–44; Uranus and, 131
Mather, John, 375
Matschull, Hans-Jürgen, 340
Maxwell’s equations, 11, 261–65, 290, 296–97, 349–50, 402
McConaughey, Matthew, 166–67
McNeil/Lehrer Newshour (TV show), 306
Mercator maps, 354
Mercury, 25; black holes and, 300; clocks on, 283; historical perspective on, 138–39; iron core of, 132; Kepler’s time and, 39; Lowell’s time and, 130; Map of the Universe and, 355; as nearest planet to Sun, 132; Newton’s laws and, 130, 350; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; planetary motion and, 39; relative size of, 132; relativity and, 271–72, 283, 297–98, 350; Rose Center display and, 129, 135; statistics of, 135; terrestrial family and, 141; worldline of, 271–72
meteorites, 218
Michelson, Albert, 265–66
microwaves, 64–67, 263. See also cosmic microwave background (CMB)
Milky Way: Andromeda nebula and, 200–201; average distance between stars in, 185–86; black holes and, 247–49, 251; brightness and, 184, 188; Cepheid variables and, 198, 200, 209–10, 213–15, 392; dark matter and, 195–96; dark regions of, 175–76; density wave and, 194; Drake’s equation and, 193; dust and, 184–90, 196, 238; early universe and, 232–39; exoplanets and, 149–51, 362; expansion and, 209–12, 217, 221; fuzzy appearance of, 197; galactic plane and, 185–86, 313; Galileo and, 183; globular clusters and, 184–91; gravity and, 189, 192–95, 204; halo of, 192; Herschel and, 183; Hubble and, 92; infrared light view of, 186–88, 196; interstellar medium and, 173–82; inverse-square law and, 184, 188; as island universe, 198, 200; Kapteyn and, 183–85, 210; lives of stars and, 106, 125; as living ecosystem, 181–82; Local Group and, 127; luminosity and, 184, 188–90, 252; main sequence stars and, 188–89, 192; Map of the Universe and, 353–55; mass and, 192–96; number of stars in, 18, 149, 193; orbit of, 232; quasars and, 245–46; red giants and, 189; Rose Center display and, 127; RR Lyraes and, 189–90; search for life and, 149, 151–52, 159, 166, 168; shape of universe and, 363; Shapley and, 184–85, 187, 189–90; size of, 185–86, 197, 212; spiral arms of, 106, 190–92, 194; star orbits in, 193–94; stars beyond, 92; structure of, 174–76, 190–91; Sun’s location in, 184–86, 194–95; supernovae and, 100, 106–7, 121–25, 181, 216, 219, 243–44, 247, 252–53, 362, 389–92; 2MASS telescopes and, 176, 188; visible light and, 186
Minkowski, Hermann, 270
Miranda, 139
Misner, Charles W., 314
Mitochondrial Eve, 413
molecules: atmospheric, 20–21, 25, 156; complex, 161, 163; DNA, 22, 352; energy levels and, 84, 89; formation of, 161, 163, 222; water, 65, 81–82, 161
Montond, Bradley, 436n5
Moon, 131; acceleration and, 47–48; age of, 218; atmosphere of, 50, 156, 422; center of mass of, 137; distance to, 54, 283; Earth’s wobble and, 32; half-illumination from Sun and, 33; landing on, 158, 326, 423–24; lunar eclipse and, 34, 92, 115, 298; Map of the Universe and, 355; Newton’s laws and, 47–51, 290; night sky and, 32–36, 40, 137–39, 241, 355; phases of, 30, 33–35, 109; relative size of, 132; tides and, 151
Mordor, 145
Morley, Edward, 265–66
Morris, Mike, 341
Mount Wilson Observatory, 198, 201
multiverse, 382–84, 386–87, 397–99, 402, 409
Musk, Elon, 422–23
NASA, 137, 144, 159, 164, 230, 235, 282, 422
nebulae: emission, 90, 179–80; expansion and, 207, 209; galaxies and, 197–201; interstellar medium and, 176–81; lives of stars and, 107–8, 119–20, 123–25; reflection, 180; spectra and, 90–91; spiral, 197–98, 200
Neptune: distance to, 80; as gas planet, 131; Great Dark Spot and, 133; historical perspective on, 139; Hubble Space Telescope and, 133; Kepler satellite and, 150; Kuiper Belt and, 136; Lowell’s time and, 130; Map of the Universe and, 355; mass of, 131; moons of, 140, 142; Newton’s laws and, 53, 130; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; Planet X and, 131; Pluto’s orbit across, 134; relative size of, 133; Rose Center display and, 129, 135; Standish and, 131; statistics of, 135; variant orbit of, 131
neutrinos, 99, 122, 222–23, 227, 351, 402–3
neutrons: atomic nucleus and, 13, 82, 99–104, 122, 181, 222–24, 227, 233–34, 349, 384, 390, 403, 404; decay and, 223; early universe and, 222–24, 227, 233–34; fusion and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121, 158, 181, 222–23; interstellar medium and, 181; lives of stars and, 99–105, 122; quantum tunneling and, 384–85; quarks and, 403, 404
neutron stars, 22–24, 100, 105, 107, 122–25, 181–82, 243, 303, 355, 402, 403, 407
New Horizons spacecraft, 13, 144, 145
new Moon, 34–35
New Scientist journal, 354
Newton, Isaac: calculus and, 40–41, 45, 50, 75; Cambridge University and, 47–48; corpuscles of light and, 62; deflection prediction of, 260; Einstein and, 257–60; genius of, 257–60; home of, 33; influence of, 43, 52–53, 258; Leibniz and, 257–58; reflecting telescope and, 259; Royal Mint and, 259
Newton’s laws, 12; acceleration and, 44–52, 116, 259, 264, 289–90, 294; action at a distance and, 295–96; calculus and, 40–41; Cavendish and, 116; Earth and, 42–52, 130; eclipse of 1915 and, 298–99; Einstein and, 296–98; first law of motion, 43–44; force and, 44, 49, 259, 289; friction and, 44, 51; genius of, 257; gravity and, 41–45, 79, 82, 97, 192–93, 195, 246, 259, 264, 302; Halley’s comet and, 53; inertia and, 43–44; inverse-square law and, 47, 49, 79, 116, 125, 168, 188, 213, 243; Jupiter and, 53, 130; Kepler and, 40–41, 43, 46–47, 49, 52–53; Mars and, 130; mass and, 41, 44, 48–52, 97–98, 196, 259, 289; Mercury and, 130, 350; Moon and, 47–51, 290, 302; Neptune and, 130; planetary motion and, 42–43, 46–47, 52–53; Planet X and, 130; quasars and, 246; Saturn and, 53, 130; second law of motion, 44, 52; shape of universe and, 352; Sun and, 42–53; third law of motion, 44, 49; time travel and, 283–84, 286, 345; uniform velocity and, 43–45; universal law of gravitation and, 40–41, 48, 48–49; Uranus and, 53, 130; Venus and, 130
New York Times, 129, 135–36, 299, 354
nickel, 224
Nielson, Holgar, 418–19
night sky: arc second and, 58–59; constellations, 27–33, 57, 59, 92, 120, 123, 186, 189; Hayden Planetarium and, 11; Kepler and, 33, 36–42; Moon and, 32–36, 40, 137–39, 241, 355; visible light and, 29
nitrogen, 21, 81–82, 140, 181, 224
Nobel Prize, 125, 182, 230, 260, 299, 318, 328, 350–51, 355, 375, 385, 389
no boundary condition, 394–95
North Celestial Pole, 30
Northern Cross, 27–28
Northern Hemisphere, 28, 30–31, 173, 186, 308
North Star (Polaris), 28–32, 214
nuclear bomb, 101
nuclei, 327, 355; early universe and, 222–27, 234, 240; electron volt (eV) and, 85–86, 103–4; fusion and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121, 158, 181, 222–23; interstellar medium and, 181; lives of stars and, 98–100, 102–5, 113, 119, 122; neutrons and, 13, 82, 99–104, 122, 181, 222–24, 227, 233–34, 349, 384, 390, 403, 404; Planck length and, 302; protons and, 13, 21–24, 62, 82, 85–88, 98–105, 122, 222–24, 227–28, 233–34, 266, 282, 350, 384, 390, 402–7; quantum tunneling and, 384–85, 394–95, 398, 408, 435n2; relativity and, 287; scale of the universe and, 128; spectra and, 81–85; strong nuclear force and, 24, 99, 351, 384–85, 402; weak nuclear force and, 351, 402–3
null separation, 277
O B A F G K M L T Y (star classification scheme), 100, 117
Of Time and Power (Bienen and van de Walle), 436n5
O’Neill, Gerard, 422
open clusters, 96
Oppenheimer, Robert, 287
orbits: black holes and, 314; Earth and, 232; eccentric, 38, 134, 156–57; eclipses and, 34–35, 92, 115, 130, 141, 260, 262, 298–99; electrons and, 21, 82–85, 92, 162; elliptical, 37–42, 53, 131, 134, 156, 196, 271, 297; Kepler’s laws and, 36–43, 46–47, 49, 52–53, 157, 196, 258, 297; lives of stars and, 146, 151, 156–57; major axis and, 40; minor axis and, 40; Moon and, 51; planets and, 39–40, 46, 131, 134, 135, 144, 193, 263, 272, 428; Planet X and, 130–31; solar system and, 39; stars and, 193–95; Sun and, 232; transit and, 130, 149–51, 213
Ori, Amos, 345
Orion Nebula, 27, 107–8, 120, 178, 179, 197
osmium, 113
Ostriker, Jeremiah P., 243
Ouranos, 139
Owens, Jesse, 260
oxygen: abundance of, 81–82; atmospheric, 20–21, 65; interstellar medium and, 176, 179, 181; lives of stars and, 99, 102, 105, 107, 119–21; Mars and, 422; ozone, 65, 147; search for life and, 147, 159, 169; spectra and, 88
Paczyński, Bohdan, 5
Padalka, Gennady, 283
Pagels, Heinz, 234
Pale Blue Dot (Sagan), 110
Pallas, 139–40
Palomar Observatory, 215, 241–42, 244
parallax, 55–60, 115, 213–14, 262, 434n1
Pauli, Wolfgang, 119
Pauli exclusion principle, 119, 122
Payne, Cecilia, 93–94, 224, 227
Peebles, Jim, 228–30, 232–35, 243, 409
Penrose, Roger, 317
Penzias, Arno, 71, 229–30, 373, 375, 415
perfect cosmological principle, 226, 248
periodic table, 24, 81, 102, 120, 162
perturbations, 53, 131, 160, 300, 314, 341
phantom energy, 409–10
Philosophical Monthly, The, 436n5
photinos, 232
photoelectric effect, 260
photons: black holes and, 310, 318; blueshift and, 209, 217, 231, 245, 339, 341, 429; color and, 62; deflection and, 260; derivation of E = mc2 and, 427–30; E = hν and, 67, 83, 84, 259–60, 284, 286, 401, 427, 429; early universe and, 222, 225, 227–28, 233–34, 236; Einstein and, 62, 67; energy levels and, 82–90, 119, 179, 250, 258; expansion and, 221; frequency and, 67; future issues and, 400–406; H-alpha, 87, 90, 179; inflation and, 374–75; infrared (IR) light and, 29, 62–65, 67–70, 75, 77–78, 86, 90, 117, 153–54, 161, 176–77, 186–88, 196, 250, 252–53, 263, 406; interstellar medium and, 179; lives of stars and, 99, 107, 113–14; Newton and, 62; as particles, 63; Paschen series and, 86, 90–92; Planck’s constant and, 67; proportionality constant and, 67; radiation and, 62–67, 75, 80; rainbow and, 41, 62, 67–68, 71; redshift and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; relativity and, 259, 284–86, 427–30; scattering and, 227–28, 233–34, 236; spectra and, 81, 90; speed of, 66; Sun and, 67–68; time travel and, 284–86, 327, 338–39, 341; ultraviolet (UV) light and, 62–63, 65, 69, 74, 86, 91, 107, 119–20, 179, 263; wavelength and, 66; as waves, 63; X-rays and, 63, 65–68, 113–14, 263
Piazzi, Giuseppe, 138
Pinwheel galaxy, 198, 199, 201–2
Planck, Max, 67, 73–75, 80, 92, 288
Planck density, 401
Planck function, 73, 75, 92, 95
Planck length, 302, 316, 401, 431
Planck mass, 401
Planck satellite, 13, 216, 218, 236, 240, 373, 387, 391–93, 409
Planck’s constant, 67, 73, 84, 92, 259, 284, 316, 401
Planck spectrum, 87, 225, 231, 407
planetary motion: Brahe and, 35–37, 43, 258; changing speed of, 37–38; Copernicus and, 36–37, 42–43, 138–39, 165, 183–85, 210, 370, 375, 411–18, 420–22; elliptical orbits and, 37–42, 53, 131, 134, 156, 196, 271, 297; gravity and, 130 (see also gravity); Kepler and, 36–43, 46–47, 49, 52–53, 157, 196, 258, 297; Newton’s laws and, 42–43, 46–47, 52–53; parallax and, 55–60, 115, 213–14, 262, 434n1; retrograde, 36; transit and, 130, 149–51, 213
planetary nebulae, 119–20, 123, 181, 197
planetos (wanderer), 39–40
Planet X, 130–31
Planiverse (Dewdney), 435n2
Please, C. P., 436n5
plutinos, 135
Pluto: Charon and, 13, 130–31, 137–38, 141–45; controversy over, 129, 135–37, 141–45; defining planet and, 139–40; discovery of, 130, 138; downgrading of, 39, 126–45; gravity and, 134, 144; Hubble Space Telescope and, 130; Kuiper Belt and, 134–36, 140–44; Lowell and, 129–30, 209; Map of the Universe and, 355; mass and, 131, 138, 144; moons of, 130–31; naming of, 130; New York Times article and, 129, 135–36; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; orbit of, 40, 134–36, 144; relative size of, 131–32, 140; Rose Center display and, 126–28, 132, 135, 141, 144; Sun and, 128–34, 139–44; Tombaugh and, 130, 138, 144–45; uniqueness of, 132, 134
Pluto (Disney character), 138
Pluto Files, The: The Rise and Fall of America’s Favorite Planet (Tyson), 144
Poldowski, Boris, 320
Polshek, Jim, 126
Popper, Karl, 434n1
Positive Philosophy, The (Comte), 92
positrons: black holes and, 317–20; early universe and, 222–23, 227; formation of, 99; future of universe and, 402, 403, 407; lives of stars and, 99
President’s Award for Distinguished Teaching, 12
Primack, Joel, 234
prime meridian, 367
Procyon, 100
Project Daedalus, 158
proportionality constant, 49, 67, 210, 213
protons: alpha particles and, 384; atomic nuclei and, 13, 21–24, 62, 82, 85–88, 98–105, 122, 222–24, 227–28, 233–34, 266, 282, 350, 384, 390, 402–7; as baryon, 390; decay and, 223, 403, 407; density of in Sun, 21; early universe and, 222–24, 227–28, 233–34; fusion and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121, 158, 181, 222–23; lives of stars and, 98–105, 122; proton-proton collisions and, 223; quantum tunneling and, 384–85; quarks and, 403, 404–5; relativity and, 266, 282; spectra and, 85–86, 88; strong force and, 24, 351, 384
Ptolemy, Claudius, 33, 37, 210
public policy prior, 436n5
pulsars, 22, 59, 125, 182, 244, 355, 382, 402
Pythagorean theorem, 268, 278, 434n2
QSO 0957+561, 331
quantum theory: atomic nuclei and, 21; Bekenstein formula and, 20; black holes and, 249, 302, 316–19; Bohr and, 258; decay and, 403; early universe and, 403–4; electrons and, 83–84; energy levels and, 82–90, 119, 179, 250, 258; entanglement and, 319, 344; fuzziness and, 73; general relativity and, 339; gravity and, 339, 341, 345, 398, 402; Hartle-Hawking vacuum and, 318–19, 344; Hawking mechanism and, 406; HR diagram and, 100; inflation and, 381, 384–87, 393–96, 398–99; lives of stars and, 100, 119; many-worlds theory and, 325–26; no boundary condition and, 394–95; Pauli exclusion principle and, 119, 122; Planck length and, 302, 316, 401, 431; Planck’s constant and, 67, 73, 84, 259, 284, 316, 401; radiation and, 73–74; relativity and, 258–59, 345–46, 402; Schrödinger and, 258; supersymmetry and, 234, 402; time travel and, 322, 325–27, 337, 339–41, 344–46 (see also time travel); tunneling and, 384–85, 394–95, 398, 408, 435n2; uncertainty principle and, 316–17, 381, 385, 393, 401, 403, 407; vacuum energy and, 327–28, 364, 377–78, 381–82, 408–9; vacuum state and, 318–19, 327, 340, 344–45, 396, 398, 403; virtual pairs and, 317–18; wormholes and, 311–12, 319–21, 327, 336, 341–44
Quaoar, 355
quasars: atoms and, 245; Big Bang and, 250; as black holes, 247; centers of galaxies and, 244–46; cosmic strings and, 330; cosmological principle and, 248; Doppler shift and, 245–46; early universe and, 250; gas speeds in, 246; Hubble Space Telescope and, 244–45, 253; hydrogen and, 250–52; luminosity and, 244–52; Map of the Universe and, 354–55; mass of, 245–47, 252; Milky Way and, 245–46; Newton’s laws and, 246; rarity of, 248; redshift and, 250–53; Schmidt and, 242–44; spectra and, 242–43, 245–46, 249–53; speed of light and, 245–47; Strauss’s discovery and, 12; Sun and, 246; 3C 273, 238, 241–45, 362; variable brightness of, 246; wavelength and, 241–42, 245, 253; Zwicky and, 243–44
radiation: Big Bang and, 71; binding energy and, 86, 103–4; blackbody, 72–74, 77, 113, 154, 222, 225, 228–31, 375; brightness and, 78–80; distance to stars and, 54–59; Earth and, 54–62, 77, 80; Einstein’s mass-energy equation and, 99, 101, 104, 115, 158, 223, 259–60, 269, 284–86, 318, 401–2, 427–30; electromagnetism and, 66, 406; excited electrons and, 81–92; frequency and, 65–67, 84, 208, 259, 284–85, 400–401, 427–29; fusion and, 99, 102–5, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 121, 158, 181, 222–23; gamma rays and, 63, 66–67, 73, 125, 222, 263, 319, 339, 362; infrared (IR) light and, 29, 62–70, 75, 77–78, 86, 90, 117, 153–54, 161, 176–77, 186–88, 196, 250, 252–53, 263, 406; ladder diagrams and, 85, 88–89; luminosity and, 60, 76–80; photons and, 62–67, 75, 80; Planck functions and, 73; proportionality constant and, 67; quantum theory and, 73–74; radar and, 64–65, 132; radio waves and, 63, 65–67, 73, 125, 229, 263, 310, 318; Raleigh-Jeans Law and, 74; red giants and, 74; speed of light and, 54–55, 66–67, 73; Sun and, 54–81, 424; temperature and, 67–78; thermal, 71, 74–76, 87, 89, 153, 228, 231, 314, 317–19, 374–75, 402–3, 406; ultraviolet (UV) light and, 62–63, 65, 69, 74, 86, 91, 107, 119–20, 179, 263; visible light and, 65–71, 77–78; wavelength and, 64–68, 71–75 (see also wavelength); X-rays and, 63, 65–68, 113–14, 263
radioactivity, 103, 114, 218, 226, 351, 384
radio telescopes, 71, 158, 168, 229–30, 241
radio waves, 63, 65–67, 73, 125, 229, 263, 310, 318
Raleigh-Jeans Law, 74
Ramirez-Ruiz, Enrico, 182
Randall, Lisa, 352
Ratra, Bharat, 409
recombination, 236–37, 403, 405
red giants: black holes and, 302–3; energy radiation and, 74; galaxies and, 197; interstellar medium and, 181; lives of stars and, 95–97, 100, 102, 118, 120–21, 123; Milky Way and, 189; scale of universe and, 22; search for life and, 157; Sun becoming a, 217
redshift: black holes and, 252–53, 318; early universe and, 225, 228, 231, 237–38; expansion and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; galaxies and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; Hubble and, 209–10, 250; inflation and, 375, 379, 389, 393; Lemaître and, 393–94; quasars and, 242–45, 248–53, 405; relativity and, 284
red stars, 22, 59, 93, 96, 98, 120
reflecting telescopes, 41, 259
reflection nebulae, 180
relativity, 232; action at a distance and, 295–96, 319–20; Big Bang and, 415; cosmic strings and, 327–33, 336–37, 340, 351, 435n1; E = mc2 and, 9, 99, 101–2, 115, 158, 223, 259–60, 269, 284–86, 318, 401, 427–30; Earth and, 262–66, 269–83, 289–98; electromagnetism and, 290, 294, 297; electrons and, 266, 268, 299; energy density and, 434n2; event horizons and, 305, 308–20, 337–38, 340, 344, 379–80, 386, 405–7, 431; expansion and, 220, 220–21; field equations and, 296–98, 300–301, 314, 323, 327, 331, 337, 367, 369, 375, 378, 402; four-dimensional universe and, 270–76, 290, 296, 324, 326, 347, 349, 366, 394–95, 434n1; general, 11, 182 (see also general relativity); geometry and, 270, 278, 290–92, 294, 296; gravity and, 257–58, 260, 264, 282, 289–90, 292, 294, 298; importance of, 213; lensing and, 244, 253, 313, 330–31, 391; mass and, 158, 259, 284, 286–89, 294–98; Maxwell and, 261–65, 290, 296–97; Mercury and, 271–72, 283, 297–98, 350; photons and, 259, 284–86, 427–30; protons and, 266, 282; quantum theory and, 258–59, 345–46, 402; redshift and, 284; Riemann curvature tensors and, 2, 295–96, 301, 434nn1,2; solar system and, 367; spacetime and, 2, 260, 270–76, 280–81, 285–86, 289–304, 309–17, 428–29, 434nn1,2; special, 101, 260, 264, 270–87, 300–301, 326, 347, 371, 377, 380; speed of light and, 101, 260, 263–69, 274–80, 282, 284, 288, 296, 402, 427; Sun and, 259–65, 270–72, 283, 287, 294, 297–99, 428; time travel and, 345–46 (see also time travel); uniform motion and, 264, 280; wavelength and, 285; worldlines and, 271–74, 278–79, 281–82, 284–86, 294–95, 297, 309–13, 322–27, 334–35, 364, 365, 367–69, 378, 379–81, 427; wormholes and, 311–12, 319–21, 327, 336, 341–44
retrograde motion, 36
Riemann curvature tensors, 2, 295–96, 301, 434nn1,2
ring singularity, 337–38
Roberts, Morton, 243
Robertson, Howard, 372
Roll, Peter, 228–29
Rømer, Ole, 262
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 259, 287
Rose Center for Earth and Space, 19, 39, 126–29, 132, 135, 141, 144
Rosen, Nathan, 320
Rosette Nebula, 90
Royal Astronomical Society, 299
Royal Society, 299
Roy G Biv (colors of rainbow), 62
RR Lyrae variable star, 189–90, 198
Rubbia, Carlo, 351
Rubin, Vera, 243
Rumsfeld, Donald, 253
Russell, Henry Norris, 93–94, 121, 182, 184
Sagan, Carl, 18, 110, 165–67, 193, 218, 343–44
Salam, Abdus, 351
Sandage, Allan, 215–16, 243–44
Saturn: ancient Greece and, 40; as gas planet, 131; historical perspective on, 138–39; Kepler’s time and, 39; Map of the Universe and, 355; mass of, 131; moons of, 141, 142, 160; Newton’s laws and, 53, 130; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; relative size of, 133; Rose Center display and, 128–29, 135; Standish and, 131; statistics of, 135
Saturn V rocket, 158, 422, 424
scalar fields, 350–51
scale of universe: atoms and, 128; Big Bang and, 19, 22, 24; cosmological principle and, 225–26, 230, 237–38, 248; Earth and, 18–25, 110, 153; Hubble and, 226; Hubble Space Telescope and, 108–9; hydrogen and, 128; Milky Way and, 185–86; red giants and, 22; Rose Center display and, 126–29; static model of, 362–65, 369, 393; temperatures and, 23–24, 67–69; trying to comprehend, 17–25; white dwarfs and, 22, 24
scattering, 227–28, 233–34, 236
Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 129
Schmidt, Brian, 389
Schmidt, Maarten, 242–44
Schneider, Don, 245
Schrödinger, Edwin, 258
Schwarzschild, Karl, 121, 300–302, 308
Schwarzschild, Martin, 5, 121, 122, 301–2
Schwarzschild radius, 301–10, 313–15, 318, 401
Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), 148, 165
search for life: bacteria and, 147, 161, 164–65; carbon and, 147, 162–63, 169, 410; communication attempts and, 148–49, 159–60, 163–68; conditions needed for life and, 146–52, 155–69, 193, 420; cyanobacteria and, 147, 161–62; Drake equation and, 147–49, 157–60, 162, 165–69, 193, 420; Dyson and, 406; Earth’s diversity and, 160–62; exoplanets and, 149–51, 362; extraterrestrials and, 148, 156, 161, 165, 167, 168, 185, 212, 312, 405, 419–20, 433n1; Gibbons and Hawking radiation and, 406–7; habitable zone and, 146–47, 149, 151–52, 155–60, 162–63, 169; intelligent lineage and, 417, 436n4; LAWKI and, 162; luminosity and, 146–47, 151, 153, 168; main sequence stars and, 151, 160, 169; measuring intelligence and, 163–64; Milky Way and, 149, 151–52, 159, 166, 168; motivation for, 146–47; oxygen and, 147, 159, 169; picturing aliens and, 165–66; Project Daedalus and, 158; red giants and, 157; silicon and, 162–63; speed of light and, 158; technology and, 165; telescopes and, 158–59, 166, 168; temperature and, 151–56, 169; thermal radiation and, 153; visible light and, 406; water and, 146, 149, 154–61; Weak Anthropic Principle and, 410; Zipf’s law and, 168–69
Secretariat, 260
selectrons, 232
self-gravitating objects, 111–12
shape of universe: acceleration and, 350–51; Big Bang and, 367–73; Big Crunch and, 367–68, 372, 373, 384; black holes and, 355, 362, 368; cosmic microwave background (CMB) and, 352–55, 362, 373; cosmic strings and, 351; cosmological constant and, 363–70; dark energy and, 364–65, 370; dark matter and, 351; Einstein and, 347–52, 355, 362–70; electromagnetism and, 348–52; electrons and, 350–51; energy density and, 362–64; Flatland and, 347–49, 365, 371; four-dimensional universe and, 270–76, 290, 296, 324, 326, 347, 349, 366, 394–95, 434n1; Friedmann football space and, 367–70, 376–77, 381; general relativity and, 349–50, 362–63, 367, 369–70, 435n1; geometry and, 362, 364–65, 367, 371, 405, 435n1; gravity and, 349–52, 355, 363; Hubble Space Telescope and, 352, 355; hyperbolic, 371–73, 382–83; Kaluza-Klein dimensions and, 349–50, 352, 397; map of visible universe and, 352–62; mass and, 351, 355, 365, 368; Maxwell’s equations and, 349–50; Milky Way and, 353, 363; M-theory and, 351–52, 397–98; Newton’s laws and, 352; photons and, 351, 363; point-masses and, 300–301, 303, 309, 311, 365, 435n1; saddle, 301, 371–72, 389; scalar fields and, 350–51; singularities and, 368; spacetime and, 347–51, 362–64, 367–72, 376–77, 381; speed of light and, 363; Standard Model and, 351; static model of, 362–65, 369, 393; stress energy tensor and, 364, 434n2; Sun and, 352, 355, 363; superstring theory and, 22, 351, 397; 3-sphere, 365–67, 370, 373, 374, 378–79, 382–83, 388–89, 394; vacuum energy and, 364; vector fields and, 350
Shapley, Harlow, 94, 184–85, 187, 189–90, 197–98, 201, 210
silicon, 107, 120, 162–63, 181, 224
Simpson, Fergus, 419
singularities: black holes and, 302, 305–6, 309–13; future of universe and, 401, 409; inflation and, 381, 384, 396, 399; ring, 337–38; shape of universe and, 368; spacetime and, 302, 305–6, 309–13, 337–40, 344, 368, 381, 396, 399, 401, 409; time travel and, 337–40, 344
Sirius, 415
Skewe’s number, 21
Slepian, Zack, 409
Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 13, 216, 237–40, 249–53, 353, 355, 391–92, 409
Sloan Great Wall, 238, 353, 362
slow-roll dark energy, 409
Small Magellanic Cloud, 187–88
Smolin, Lee, 398–99
Smoot, George, 375
sodium, 207
solar eclipse, 35, 260, 298–99
solar mass: black holes and, 247–49, 252, 303, 305–6, 314–16, 318–19, 338, 355, 403; interstellar medium and, 176, 182; lives of stars and, 102, 121–23; wormholes and, 344
solar system, 32; age of, 218; Astronomical Unit (AU) and, 213; Brahe and, 35; comparative size of, 352; early, 161; families of, 141; heliocentric theory and, 36–37, 42, 139, 184–85; increasing knowledge of, 183; inner, 127, 134, 272; mass of, 226; movement of, 264; new solar systems and, 107; outer, 33, 126–27, 134, 195; planetary motion and, 40 (see also planetary motion); relative size of, 415; relativity and, 367; scale model and, 115. See also specific object
solstice, 28
Soter, Steven, 165
Southern Cross, 28–29
Southern Hemisphere, 28, 30, 173, 186
Space Age, 229
Space Chronicles (Tyson), 423
spacelike separation, 277, 332
spacetime: action at a distance and, 295–96, 319–20; astronaut time (AT) and, 276–82; black holes and, 300–304, 309–17; bubble universes and, 381–88, 394, 396, 402, 408, 431nn1–3; Cauchy horizon and, 335–41, 345, 396; cosmic strings and, 327–33, 336–37, 340, 351, 435n1; cosmological constant and, 369 (see also cosmological constant); curvature and, 2, 291–93, 306, 313, 337, 339, 366–73, 377, 379, 382, 387–88, 396, 434nn1,2; derivation of E = mc2 and, 427–30; de Sitter, 378, 380, 382–85, 393–99, 405–6; diagrams of, 270–73, 281, 285, 286, 294, 309, 322–23, 325, 334, 335, 338, 364, 367, 368, 376, 378, 393–96, 428–29; Einstein-Rosen bridge and, 320; energy density and, 76, 318, 327, 340, 344, 362–64, 377–81, 384–91, 394, 405, 408–9, 434n2; entropy and, 315–16, 323, 431; Equivalence Principle and, 290, 292, 298, 310; event horizons and, 305, 308–20, 337–38, 340, 344, 379–80, 386, 405–7, 431; four-dimensional universe and, 270–76, 290, 296, 324, 326, 347, 349, 366, 394–95, 434n1; Friedmann football, 367–70, 376–77, 381; future of universe and, 400–424, 428–29; Gaussian curvature and, 371; gravitational waves and, 402–3, 406 (see also gravitational waves); great circle and, 18, 291–94; hyperbolic, 371–73, 382–83; inflation and, 376–83, 388, 393–98; jinn particles and, 322–24; Kruskal diagram and, 309–12, 314; Minkowski and, 270; M-theory and, 351–52, 397–98; multiverse and, 382–84, 386–87, 397–99, 402, 409; no boundary condition and, 394–95; null separation and, 277; Planck time and, 401, 403; quantum entanglement and, 319, 344; relativity and, 2, 260, 270–76, 280–81, 285–86, 289–304, 309–17, 428–29, 434nn1,2; Riemann curvature tensors and, 2, 295–96, 301, 434nn1,2; saddle shape and, 301, 371–72, 389; Schwarzschild radius and, 301–10, 313, 315, 318, 401; shape of universe and, 347–51, 362–64, 367–72, 376–77, 381; singularities and, 302, 305–6, 309–13, 337–40, 344, 368, 381, 396, 399, 401, 409; spacelike separation and, 277, 332; spaghettification and, 305–6, 339; stress energy tensor and, 364, 434n2; superstring theory and, 22, 351, 397; 3-sphere geometry and, 365–67, 370, 373, 374–75, 378–79, 382–83, 388–89, 394; time travel and, 300–304, 309–17, 322–28, 331–45; Twin Paradox and, 280–83; uncertainty principle and, 401; virtual pairs and, 317–18; warp drives and, 185, 336, 342, 344–45; white holes and, 312, 338; worldlines and, 271–74, 278–86, 294–95, 297, 309–13, 322–27, 334–35, 364, 365, 367–69, 378, 379–81, 427; wormholes and, 311–12, 319–20, 327, 336, 341–44
Space X, 422
special relativity, 101, 260; acceleration and, 280, 282; astronaut time (AT) and, 276–82; atomic clocks and, 269; black holes and, 300–301; four-dimensional universe and, 270–76; gravity and, 282–83; implications of, 270–88; inflation and, 377, 380; light clock experiment and, 266–69; mass and, 284, 286–88; Michelson-Morley experiment and, 265–66; “motion is relative” postulate and, 264, 290; null separation and, 277; second postulate of, 265–69; shape of universe and, 347, 371; spacelike separation and, 277; spacetime and, 270–76, 280–81, 285–86; speed of light and, 265–69, 274–80, 282, 284, 288; time travel and, 276–84, 326; trusting, 269; Twin Paradox and, 280–83; uniform motion and, 264, 280; worldlines and, 271–74, 278–79, 281–86
spectra: absorption, 84, 87–89, 169, 176, 207–9, 250–51; atoms and, 81–92, 242, 245; Balmer lines and, 86, 88, 90–92, 179, 242, 258; Big Bang and, 81–82; blackbody, 72–74, 77, 113, 154, 222, 225, 228–31, 375; blueshift and, 209, 217, 231, 245, 339, 341, 429; brightness and, 92; carbon and, 88; computers and, 93–94; Doppler shift and, 97 (see also Doppler shift); early universe and, 238; electrons and, 81–92; elements and, 81–82; emission lines, 90, 179, 242, 245–46, 250–51; energy levels and, 82–90, 119, 179, 250, 258; excited electrons and, 81–92; expansion and, 208–9; galaxies and, 207–8, 238, 244; gamma rays and, 63, 66–67, 73, 125, 222, 263, 319, 339, 362; helium and, 81–82, 99; Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram and, 93–96, 98, 100, 121, 160, 189, 207, 219; hydrogen and, 81–92, 250; infrared (IR) light and, 29, 62–70, 75, 77–78, 86, 90, 117, 153–54, 161, 176–77, 186–88, 196, 250, 252–53, 263, 406; interstellar medium and, 176–79; Lyman series and, 86, 91–92, 250, 252; mass and, 97–98; microwaves and, 63–67, 216, 229, 235, 263, 318, 352, 373, 375, 387, 393, 403, 407; nebulae and, 90–91; neutrons and, 82; nitrogen and, 81–82; O B A F G K M L T Y scheme and, 100–101; oxygen and, 88; Paschen series and, 86, 90–92; Payne and, 94; photons and, 81, 90; Planck, 87, 225, 231, 407; protons and, 82, 85–86, 88; quasars and, 242–43, 245–46, 249–53; radar and, 64–65, 132; radio waves and, 63, 65–67, 73, 125, 229, 263, 310, 318; red objects and, 250–52; redshift and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; speed of light and, 81; star classification and, 100–101; star measurements and, 60; temperature and, 68–70, 84–85, 87; thermal emission and, 68–72, 87, 89; ultraviolet (UV) light and, 62–69, 74, 86, 91, 107, 119–20, 179, 263; visible light and, 84, 86, 90; wavelength and, 87–90, 113, 125; white dwarfs and, 242; white light and, 41, 62, 68; X-rays and, 63, 65–68, 113–14, 263
speed of light: Astronomical Unit (AU) and, 54; black holes and, 300, 302, 304–6, 309–12, 316; Bradley and, 263; Buller and, 326; as constant, 264; as cosmic speed limit, 54; cosmic strings and, 331; Doppler effect and, 208; E = mc2 and, 9, 99, 101–2, 115, 158, 223, 259–60, 269, 284–86, 318, 401–2, 427, 429–30; early universe and, 231; eclipses of Jupiter and, 262; Einstein and, 263–64; energy radiation and, 54–55, 66–67, 73; expansion and, 208–9, 212, 408; gravitational waves and, 403; gravitons and, 403; inflation and, 374–75, 378–80, 382, 386, 393; light clock experiment and, 266–69; light-year and, 54, 58–59; lives of stars and, 123; Maxwell’s equations and, 11, 261–65, 290, 296–97, 349–50, 402; Michelson-Morley experiment and, 265–66; photons and, 66; Planck time and, 401; quasars and, 245–47; relativity and, 101, 260, 263–69, 274–80, 282, 284, 288, 296, 402, 427; search for life and, 158; shape of universe and, 363; spectra and, 81; stellar aberration and, 263; time delay from, 55; time travel and, 276–86, 324, 326–27, 330–33, 336, 342–43; Twin Paradox and, 280–83; wormholes and, 341–43
speed of sound, 208
Sphereland, 365
Spica, 100
spiral galaxies, 105–6, 111, 190–92, 194, 198, 201, 204, 214, 245, 249
standard candles, 60, 190, 213–15, 389
standard cosmological model, 13, 351, 391
Standish, Myles, 131
star clusters, 95–97, 137, 180
stars: black holes and, 100, 247 (see also black holes); formation of, 180–81; heavy elements and, 105, 123, 181, 219, 224; Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram and, 93–96, 98, 100, 121, 160, 189, 207, 219; lives of, 93–125; Map of the Universe and, 355; Milky Way and, 183–96; spectra and, 100. See also specific type
Star Trek series, 58, 158, 162, 185, 344
Star Wars IV (film), 157
static model, 362–65, 369, 393
Stefan, Josef, 75
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 75, 78, 95
Steinberg, Saul, 354
Steinhardt, Paul, 386
Stonehenge, 424
Strauss, Michael A., 12; black holes and, 247–53; early universe and, 222–40; expansion and, 207–21; galaxies and, 197–206; interstellar medium and, 173–82; Milky Way and, 183–96; Newton’s laws and, 42–53; quasars and, 241–53
stress energy tensor, 364, 434n2
strong nuclear force, 24, 99, 351, 384–85, 402
Subaru galaxy: 362
Subaru Telescope, 253
Sun: acceleration and, 46–47, 116; angular size of, 116; Astronomical Unit (AU) and, 40, 42, 115–16, 213; becoming white dwarf, 403, 405; becoming red giant, 217; black holes and, 237–50, 300–303, 313; Catholic Church and, 37; color of, 68; Copernicus and, 36–37; core of, 113; death of, 24–25, 403, 405; density of, 22; distance to Earth, 115–16; early universe and, 222–23, 226–27, 231–32; Earth’s orbit around, 11, 26–27, 34, 37, 42–46, 51, 55, 57–58, 80, 115, 128, 137–38, 153, 156, 193, 210, 213, 218, 232, 248, 262, 270–72, 283; energy radiation and, 54–81, 424; equinox and, 30; fusion and, 103, 105, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 181, 222–23; galaxies and, 204, 210, 213, 217–19; gravity and, 32, 111, 114–15; heat from, 29–30; heliocentric theory and, 36–37, 42, 139, 184–85; helium and, 121, 134, 181, 287; hydrogen and, 94, 134, 217, 223, 227, 287; interstellar medium and, 180–96; Kepler’s laws and, 37–41; lives of stars and, 94–105, 111–21, 125; location in Milky Way, 184–86, 194–95; as main sequence star, 403; Map of the Universe and, 355; Newton’s laws and, 42–53; orbit of, 232; as ordinary star, 415; phases of Moon and, 33–36; photons and, 67–68; Pluto and, 128–34, 139–44; quasars and, 246; relativity and, 259–65, 270–72, 283, 287, 294, 297–99, 428; search for life and, 146–61, 168–69; size of, 185; solar eclipse and, 35, 260, 298–99; solar mass and, 49, 117, 102, 121–23, 176, 181–82, 247–49, 252, 303, 305–6, 314–16, 318–19, 338, 344, 355, 403; solar wind and, 21, 180; solstice of, 28; temperatures of, 23–24, 69, 78; as white star, 68–69; worldline of, 271–72
Sundrum, Raman, 352
supernovae: acceleration and, 389; Baade and, 244; heavy elements and, 105, 123, 181, 219, 224; lives of stars and, 100, 106–7, 121–25, 181, 216, 219, 243–44, 247, 252–53, 362, 389–92; Zwicky and, 244
superstring theory, 22, 351, 397
surface of constant epoch, 382
Susskind, Leonard, 319–20
Sykes, Mark, 136
symmetry, 184, 234, 279, 284, 301, 402, 404, 427
Szekeres, George, 308–9
Tadpole galaxy, 204–5
telescopes: Apache Point, 250; arc second and, 58–59; balloon, 389; black holes and, 306; brightness and, 78; early universe and, 229–30, 236–37; galaxies and, 197–98, 201, 205–6; Galileo and, 140; Herschel and, 139; Hubble, 13 (see also Hubble Space Telescope); interstellar medium and, 174, 180; invention of, 13, 60; Keck, 259, 393; lives of stars and, 108–9, 117, 119, 121, 124–25; Lowell and, 129–30; microwave, 229; Milky Way and, 183, 186–87, 189; Palomar Mountain, 215, 241, 244; quasars and, 242–47; radio, 71, 158, 168, 229–30, 241; reflecting, 41, 259; relativity and, 259, 263; remote control of, 251; resolution of, 246; search for life and, 158–59, 166, 168; Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 13, 216, 237–40, 249–53, 353, 355, 391–92, 409; Subaru, 253; as time machines, 205, 249; 2MASS, 176, 188; universal expansion and, 207, 209–10, 215
temperature: black holes and, 247, 316–19; Celsius scale, 69; CMB and, 229 (see also cosmic microwave background (CMB)); early universe and, 24, 219–20, 222–31, 235, 237, 240; Earth’s surface and, 78; equilibrium, 153–54; expansion and, 207, 214, 219–20; future of universe and, 403, 405–7; galaxies and, 201; Gibbons-Hawking, 403, 405–7; gravity and, 134; Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram and, 93–96, 98, 100, 121, 160, 189, 207, 219; human body, 69–70, 77–78; inflation and, 375–77, 387; Jupiter and, 135; Kelvin scale, 69; lives of stars and, 93–100, 105, 113–14, 117–18; of local planets, 135; luminosity and, 214; Mars and, 135; Mercury and, 135; Neptune and, 135; radiation and, 67–78; red objects and, 251–52; red stars and, 251; Saturn and, 135; scale of universe and, 23–24; search for life and, 151–56, 169; spectra and, 84–85, 87; Stefan-Boltzmann constant and, 75, 78, 95; Sun and, 23, 67–69, 78; terrestrial planets and, 134; Uranus and, 135; Venus and, 132, 135; wavelength and, 74–75; of whole universe, 71; Wien’s Law and, 75
theory of everything, 13, 320, 399
Theory of Everything, The (film), 12, 320
thermal emission, 68–72
thermal radiation: black holes and, 314, 317–19; early universe and, 223, 228, 231; Earth’s, 153; future of universe and, 402–3, 406; Hawking radiation and, 317–19, 340, 406–8, 435n1; inflation and, 374–75; radiation and, 71, 74–76; spectra and, 87, 89
thermodynamics, 75, 315–16, 323, 431
3-sphere geometry, 365–67, 370, 373, 374–75, 378–79, 382–83, 388–89, 394
third-quarter Moon, 34–35
Thisted, Ronald, 257
Thorne, Kip, 306, 314, 320, 325, 341–44
thought experiments, 263–65, 273, 275, 280, 285, 316, 325, 386, 429, 431
tidal forces, 118, 151, 160, 192, 204, 304, 306, 337, 339
Time Machine, The (Wells), 283, 345–46
time travel: black holes and, 337–41, 344; Cauchy horizon and, 335–41, 345, 396; Coat of the Future and, 321–22; cosmic strings and, 327–37, 340; Earth and, 324, 327–31, 341–43; Einstein and, 323, 326–27, 331, 337, 339, 341, 345–46; electromagnetism and, 330; electrons and, 324; energy density and, 327, 340, 344; event horizon and, 337–38, 340, 344; Flatland and, 340; four-dimensional universe and, 324, 326; general relativity and, 283, 321, 323, 327, 331, 334, 339, 341, 345–46; geometry and, 327, 329–30, 332–33, 343; grandmother paradox and, 324–26; gravity and, 331, 339, 341, 345; Hawking and, 336, 340, 344–45; inflation and, 396–97; information and, 323; jinn particles and, 322–24; mass and, 323–24, 329–30, 334, 336–38, 341–44; Newton’s laws and, 283–84, 286, 345; Padalka and, 283; photons and, 284–86, 327, 338–39, 341; quantum theory and, 322, 325–27, 337, 339–41, 344–46; shortcuts and, 327, 330–32, 342, 344–45; singularities and, 337–40, 344; spacelike separation and, 332; spacetime and, 300–304, 309–17, 322–28, 331–45; spaghettification and, 339; special relativity and, 276–84, 326; speed of light and, 276–86, 324, 326–27, 330–33, 336, 342–43; Sun and, 324, 330; tidal forces and, 337, 339; time machines and, 205, 249, 321–46, 396–97; vacuum energy and, 327–28; warp drives and, 185, 336, 342, 344–45; worldlines and, 322–27, 334–35, 364–69; wormholes and, 327, 336, 341–44
Time Travel in Einstein’s Universe (Gott), 346
Tipler, Frank, 341
Tombaugh, Clyde, 130, 138, 144
Tombaugh Regio, 145
Truman, Harry S., 287–88
Trumpler, R., 299
Turner, Ed, 331
Twin Paradox, 280–83
Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS), 176, 188
Tyson, Neil de Grasse, 12; Hayden Planetarium and, 11; Levy on, 137; lives of stars and, 93–110; Newton’s laws and, 26–41; Pluto and, 126–45; The Pluto Files: the Rise and Fall of America’s Favorite Planet and, 144; radiation and, 54–80; scale of universe and, 17–25; search for life and, 146–69; signature sayings of, 11; Space Chronicles and, 423; spectra and, 81–92; Sykes debate and, 136; undergraduate course of, 12
ultraviolet catastrophe, 74
ultraviolet (UV) light, 62–69, 74, 86, 91, 107, 119–20, 179, 263
uncertainty principle, 316–17, 381, 385, 393, 401, 403, 407
uniform velocity, 43–45
United Nations, 436n5
universal law of gravitation, 40–41, 48–49
University of California, Santa Cruz, 182
uranium, 102–3, 114, 139, 181, 287, 384–85
Uranus: as gas planet, 131; gravity and, 53; Herschel and, 138, 183; historical perspective on, 138–39; Lowell’s time and, 130; Map of the Universe and, 355; mass of, 131; moons of, 139, 142; Newton’s laws and, 53, 130; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; Planet X and, 131; relative size of, 133; rings of, 133; Rose Center display and, 129, 135; Standish and, 131; statistics of, 135
Urtsever, Ulvi, 341
U.S. Declaration of Independence, 138
U.S. Naval Observatory, 131
vacuum energy: future of universe and, 408–9; inflation and, 377–92; phantom energy and, 409–10; quantum theory and, 327–28, 364, 377–78, 381–82, 408–9; shape of universe and, 364; time travel and, 327–28
vague (Jeffreys) Bayesian prior, 436n5
Vanderbei, Bob, 354
van der Meer, Simon, 351
van de Walle, Nicholas, 436n5
variable stars, 189–90, 198, 200, 209–11, 213–15
vector fields, 350
Venus, 25; atmosphere of, 132; AU measurement and, 213; clouds of, 132; Frigga and, 40; historical perspective on, 138–39; Kepler’s time and, 39–40; Map of the Universe and, 355; Newton’s laws and, 130; official IAU listing of planets and, 144; relative size of, 132; Rose Center display and, 129; statistics of, 135; temperature of, 132, 135; terrestrial family and, 132, 141; worldline of, 271–72
Vilenkin, Alex, 327, 384, 394, 408
Virgo Supercluster, 127
virtual pairs, 317–18
visible light: interstellar medium and, 176; lives of stars and, 114, 117, 125; Maxwell and, 263; Milky Way and, 186; night sky and, 29; radiation and, 65–71, 77–78; search for life and, 406; spectra and, 84, 86, 90; telescopes and, 241 (see also telescopes); wavelength and, 263
warp drives, 185, 336, 342, 344–45
water: abundance of, 81–82; boiling point of, 69, 154–155; density of, 22, 113, 141; early universe and, 222; entropy and, 315–16; Europa and, 140; freezing point of, 69, 154–155; Mars and, 129, 133, 422; microwaves and, 65; nonuniform distribution in boiling, 382; search for life and, 146, 149, 154–61
Watson, James, 352
wattage, 78
wavelength: black holes and, 318; blueshift and, 209, 217, 231, 245, 339, 341, 429; color and, 208–9; early universe and, 225, 228–29, 231, 250–53; expansion and, 250; frequency and, 65–67, 84, 208, 259, 284–85, 400–401, 427–29; Gibbons and Hawking radiation and, 406; inflation and, 375; Kaluza–Klein dimension and, 350; Maxwell and, 263; Milky Way observations and, 188; photons and, 66; Planck and, 73–74; quasars and, 241–42, 245, 253; radiation and, 64–68, 71–75, 87–90, 113, 125, 176–79, 188, 207–9, 225, 228–29, 231, 241–42, 245, 250–53, 258, 263, 285, 318, 350, 375, 400, 406, 428; radio and, 67; redshift and, 207–11, 213, 215, 225, 228, 231, 237–38, 242–53, 284, 318, 353, 375, 379, 389, 393, 405, 428; relativity and, 285; spectra and, 87–90, 113, 125; temperature and, 74–75; thermal emission and, 68–72; ultraviolet catastrophe and, 74; visible light and, 263; Wien’s Law and, 75
wavicles, 63
waxing gibbous Moon, 35
Weak Anthropic Principle, 410
weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), 234
weak nuclear force, 351, 402–3
Weinberg, Nevin, 409
Weinberg, Steven, 351, 398, 408
Wheeler, John Archibald, 314–15, 317
white dwarfs: black holes and, 303; expansion and, 242; future of universe and, 403, 405, 407; HR diagram and, 94; lives of stars and, 94, 95, 100, 119–23; Milky Way and, 189; scale of universe and, 22, 24; spectra and, 242; Sun becoming a, 403, 405
Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer, 117
Wien, Wilhelm, 74–75
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 13, 235–38, 240, 353, 373, 387, 391–92
Wilson, E. O., 19
Wilson, Robert, 71, 229–30, 373, 375, 415
Witten, Ed, 351
Wordsworth, William, 258
worldlines: astronaut time (AT) and, 276–82; black holes and, 309–13; depiction of, 272, 273, 281, 309, 323, 325, 328, 335, 368, 377, 378, 383; de Sitter space and, 378, 380, 382–85, 393–99, 405–6; inflation and, 378, 379–81; personal, 272–73; relativity and, 271–74, 278–86, 294–95, 297, 309–13, 322–27, 334–35, 364, 365, 367–69, 378, 379–81, 427; symmetry and, 427; time travel and, 322–27, 334–35, 364–69
wormholes: black holes and, 311–12, 319–20; speed of light and, 341–43; time travel and, 327, 336, 341–44; traversable, 341
X-rays, 63, 65–68, 113–14, 263
Yahil, Amos, 243
Zeldovich, Hakov, 317
Zipf’s law, 168–69
zodiac constellations, 32–33
Zubrin, Robert, 422–23
Zwicky, Fritz, 196, 243–44, 244
ZZ Ceti stars, 190