NIV Archaeological Study Bible

1:1–31 The length of the creative days of Genesis 1 is not specified in the Bible. The Hebrew word for “day” may mean a period of light between two periods of darkness, a period of light together with the preceding period of darkness or a prolonged period of time. All three usages occur in the Bible. No one of them equates to exactly 24 hours, although the second one is near it. There is no indisputable indication as to which of the three is meant in Genesis 1. The Bible provides no specific statement as to how long ago matter was created, when the first day or creation began or when the sixth day ended.

1:1–2 Some scholars hold that there is a long gap between verses 1 and 2, during which God’s perfect creation came into a period of chaos through a great catastrophe. Hebrew syntax, however, leaves no room for such a view.

1:5 In ancient times, when a king named something or someone, he was thereby claiming dominion or ownership over that possession or individual (see 17:5, 15; 41:45; 2Ki 23:34; 24:17; Da 1:7).

1:12 There is much discussion about the question of “evolution” with relation to the creation, but the word evolution may be used in several different ways. If taken in the historical sense (the theory that everything now existing has come into its present condition as a result of natural development, all of it having proceeded by natural causes from one rudimentary beginning), such a theory is sharply contradicted by the divine facts revealed in Genesis 1–2. It is explicitly stated several times that plants and animals are to reproduce “according to their kinds.” Moses nowhere stated how large a “kind” is, and there is no ground for equating it with any particular modern definition of “species.” Yet Genesis teaches that there are a number (perhaps a large number) of “kinds” of plants and animals, which cannot reproduce in such a way as to evolve from one into another. Nothing in the Bible denies the possibility, however, of change and development within the limits of a particular “kind.”
Moreover, the creation of Adam is sharply distinguished from other aspects of creation, and the creation of Eve is described as a distinct act of God. Genesis 2:7 (in the Hebrew) clearly teaches that Adam did not exist as an animate being before he was a man, created after the image of God.

1:21 The phrase “creatures of the sea” refers to the name of a dreaded sea monster in Canaanite mythology (see “The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation”). Old Testament poetry often refers to him as one of God’s most powerful opponents. In Genesis, however, the creatures of the sea are portrayed as part of God’s good creation, all of which is to be appreciated.

2:2–3 On the seventh day God ceased from his labors, later referring to this as an example for Israel to follow six days of labor with one of rest (Ex 20:11). No end to the rest of the seventh day is mentioned. As far as what the Bible tells us is concerned, God’s rest from creating still continues.

2:4–25 While Genesis 1 describes the creation of the universe as a whole, 2:4–25 covers one special segment of that creation. The linking word (v. 4) is translated in the NIV as “account,” but it means more—something like “subsequent/emergent account”: The Hebrew tôledôth, both in its individual meaning and in its Old Testament use, tells how something emerges from what has preceded. Genesis 2:4, then, steps back into Genesis 1 to begin the study of what happened next, how out of God’s creative work there came the beginnings of human life and creation on Earth. This explains the often-alleged differences and supposed contradictions between the chapters. It is reasonable that chapter 2 gives a more detailed account of the creation of man while saying nothing about that of matter, light, heavenly bodies, plants and other animals. See “The Documentary Hypothesis.”

2:8 At the site of Eridu, situated near what was considered to be an ancient shoreline at the head of the Persian Gulf, clay tablets have been found that tell of a garden in the neighborhood in which grew a sacred palm tree. Further upstream, a short distance north of ancient Babylon, the Tigris and Euphrates flow close together so that canals connect them. Some consider this area to be the location of ancient Eden. See “The Location of Eden.”

2:9 Adam and Eve possessed from God’s hand both life and moral discernment. While ancient pagans believed that the gods intended for human beings to remain mortal, Adam and Eve’s access to the tree of life revealed that God’s will and intention for them was life. See “The Tree of Life in Jewish Imagery.”

2:18–22 This is the only full account of the creation of woman in all of ancient Near Eastern literature.

3:20 When God named what he had made, he described for man the essence of each thing (1:5, 8, 10; 2:11–14). By allowing Adam to assign names, God enabled him to express his relationships to his fellow creatures: Adam named the animals (2:19–20) and the woman (2:23). Eve’s personal name stems from her function as mother of all “living” (human) beings (3:20).
In Hebrew adam is both a personal name and a general noun, standing for “mankind” or “humankind.” The latter meaning is found over 500 times in the Old Testament. Both usages occur in Genesis 1–3, where Adam as a personal name appears at 2:20 (cf. 3:17, 21; 4:25; 5:2–5; 1Ch 1:1).

3:24 This description of the cherubim is similar to that of the winged sphinxes that adorned the armrests of royal thrones in many parts of the ancient Near East, as well as of the statues of winged, human-headed bulls or lions that guarded the entrances to palaces and temples in ancient Mesopotamia (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

4:4–5 The origin of sacrifice is a matter of dispute. The question is, Did sacrifice arise from the natural religious instinct of humankind, whether or not guided by the Spirit of God, or did it originate in a distinct divine appointment? Genesis records the first sacrifice, by Cain and Abel, but gives no account of the origin of the practice. The custom was clearly approved by God, and in the Mosaic Law it was adopted and elaborately developed. The view that the rite was initiated by an expressed command of God is based primarily on Genesis 4:4–5, which states that Abel offered God an acceptable sacrifice, as well as on Hebrews 11:4, which clarifies that Abel’s sacrifice was acceptable to God because of his faith. It is argued that Abel’s faith was based upon a specific command of God in the past, without which the sacrifice would have been a response to mere superstition.

4:7 The Hebrew word translated “crouching” is the same as an ancient Babylonian word used to describe a demon lurking behind a door, threatening the people inside. On the other hand, the term can simply mean to lie down.

4:21–22 It is difficult to date the beginnings of art. If some human being found pleasure in the shape of a stone axe or flint sickle, this might be described as an awakening of aesthetic sensitivity. For many reasons it seems reasonable to date the beginnings of art in historical cultures to some point during the mid-fourth millennium. The origin of the arts may be intended in verses 21–22, where Jubal and Tubal-Cain are mentioned.

5:5 It is uncertain whether the large numbers describing human longevity in the early chapters of Genesis are literal, serve a literary function, or both. The fact that there are exactly ten names in the list (as in the genealogy of 11:10–26) indicates that it almost certainly contains gaps, the lengths of which are summarized in the large numbers. Other ancient genealogies outside the Bible exhibit similarly unrealistic figures and also contain exactly ten names (see “The Sumerian King List”).

5:24 Abram would later walk “before” God (17:1), but of Enoch and Noah alone it is written that they walked “with God” (5:24; 6:9; emphasis added). Walking with God is a relic of the first Paradise when people walked and talked with God in holy familiarity, and it anticipates a new paradise (Rev 21:3; 22:3–4).

7:11 To attribute volcanic activity to verse 11 is highly speculative. The fact that igneous rock (rock formed by the cooling of molten rock materials) is found between layers of sedimentary rock is not good evidence in and of itself for volcanic activity at the time of the flood. Sediments that have been laid down during historic time have been cut by lava from present-day volcanoes, and it has been observed that the oldest layers are also cut by igneous rocks. It is impossible to designate any particular rock body as being coincident with the flood.

7:19 Arguments for a universal flood have cited the inclusive language of verses 19 and 21 (“all the high mountains”; “every living thing”; emphasis added). Today, for various reasons, many conservative scholars defend a local flood. The crux of their arguments centers in the covenant relationship of God to people. Noah was not a preacher of righteousness (2Pe 2:5) to peoples of other areas but was concerned with the culture from which Abraham would eventually come. In addition, physical arguments have been raised against a universal flood: origin and disposal of the amount of water necessary to form a layer six miles (ten km) thick over the whole world; the effect on plant life of being covered for a year; the effect on fresh water life of a sea that contained salt from the ocean; and the fact that many topographical features of the earth (such as cinder cones) show no evidence of erosion by a flood and are thought to be much more ancient than the flood could possibly have been.

8:1 This verse implies that God did not leave the task of caring for the creatures aboard the ark entirely to Noah.

8:4 The name Ararat is related to the Assyrian region of Urartu, which became an extensive and mountainous kingdom (see Isa 37:38; Jer 51:27). It included much of the territory north of Mesopotamia and east of modern Turkey. The ark probably came to rest in southern Urartu.

8:13–14 The length of the flood is generally agreed upon within a few days. The Hebrews used a solar calendar, in contrast to the Babylonian lunar month and the Egyptian arbitrary 365-day year (see “The Jewish Calendar”). Most authorities would put the number of days from the time the rain started (7:11) to the time Noah left the ark (8:14) between 371 and 376.

9:1–17 The rainbow feature in the Biblical flood account is unique in that none of the stories from Babylon or elsewhere make mention of this covenantal sign. In the Bible the rainbow is the first of the covenant signs and provides the key to understanding all of them, including those of baptism and the Lord’s Supper in the new covenant. The rainbow in the clouds speaks to humankind from God. God allowed Noah to understand what the bow meant to him: a visible declaration that the Lord will never again destroy the earth by flood. The rainbow, then, is God’s promise made visible. Covenant signs express covenant promises to covenant people.

9:2–4 From now on animals would fear people and were given to be food for them, except for their blood.

9:5–6 Human government was instituted by the provision of capital punishment for murderers.

9:8–17 The sacrifices of Cain and Abel (4:4–5) demonstrate that the rite of sacrifice goes back almost to the beginnings of the human race. No priest was needed in these early sacrifices. The sacrifice of Noah after the flood (8:20–21) is called a burnt offering and is closely connected with the covenant of God described in 9:8–17. In the sacrifices of Abraham, several of which are mentioned (12:7–8; 13:4, 18; 15:4ff), he acted as his own priest, making offerings to express his adoration of God and probably to atone for sin. In Genesis 22 God revealed to Abraham that he did not desire human sacrifices, a common practice in those days (see “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East”).

9:18–19 The term Semite is derived from Noah’s son Shem (vv. 18–19; 10:21–31) and is used to identify a diverse group of ancient peoples whose languages were related. It is not certain, however, that they themselves were related by blood. See “The Hyksos and the Old Testament” for a discussion of a particular Semitic people who settled in Egypt.

9:27 A tent was the typical dwelling of nomadic peoples. Tents in ancient times were of various shapes—round and tapering, flat and oblong. All of a nomadic family’s belongings could normally be carried on one pack animal. A sheik would have had several tents. “Tent” in the Old Testament is often a reference to any habitation (v. 27; Job 8:22; Ps 84:10) and is frequently used figuratively as well (Isa 13:20; 54:2; Jer 10:20).

10:1 The list of Noah’s descendants contains 70 names—a number that symbolized for the ancients totality and completion. It should be noted that the list is incomplete and apparently representative. The author penetrated selectively into various lines in order to achieve his final number.
Knowledge of the peoples and countries of the world was considered just as much an indication of wisdom for the ancients as knowledge of plants and animals. The “wisdom” represented by this catalog of known peoples was more than just academic. The point was that all these people groups had resulted from God’s early blessing.

10:8–9 Nimrod is an enigma. Claims that he is to be equated with Gilgamesh or Hercules or other figures, or that he built the Tower of Babel (11:1–9), are without historical foundation. Some have suggested that Nimrod was a Mesopotamian god (such as Marduk) or king (such as Sargon), but this is pure speculation.

10:21 “Eber” is thought by some to be the origin of the word for “Hebrew.” Although Eber was a distant descendant of Shem (see vv. 24–25; 11:14–17), his importance as the ancestor of the Hebrews is hinted at here. The Ebla tablets—(see “Ebla”)—frequently refer to a king named Ebrium, who ruled Ebla for 28 years.

10:32 The text accounts only for people groups of which the Israelites were aware, with no hint at a world beyond the ancient Near East. The author made no attempt to provide a comprehensive list of all the peoples descended from Noah but addressed only how the known groups and nations of his day were related to Israel.

11:3 While stone and mortar were common building materials in Canaan, stone was scarce in Mesopotamia. Archaeological excavations indicate that mud brick and tar were more frequently utilized there.

11:4 Ancient cities were dominated by a temple complex, including a tower. The typical Mesopotamian temple tower, known as a ziggurat, was square at the base and had sloping, stepped sides that led upward to a small shrine at the top. Ziggurats were dedicated to particular deities. Their design made it convenient for a god to “come down” to his temple, receive worship from his people and bless them. In this case God did come down—and he was not pleased!
Mesopotamian ziggurats were given names demonstrating that they were intended to serve as staircases from Earth to heaven: The House of the Link between Heaven and Earth (at Larsa), The House of the Seven Guides of Heaven and Earth (at Borsippa), The House of the Foundation-Platform of Heaven and Earth (at Babylon) and The House of the Mountain of the Universe (at Asshur).

11:10–26 Pre-flood and post-flood genealogies seem to be schematic and incomplete. If 11:10–26 has no gaps, Shem outlived Abraham, but no other hint of this is given in the Biblical picture (see “Genealogies in Ancient Israel”).
In general, the time period from Adam to Abraham appears to have been extensive, and the genealogical lists in Genesis hardly serve as a timetable.

12:5 At a normal caravan pace of 20 miles (32 km) per day, the trip from Haran to Canaan (about 500 miles or 800 km) would have taken the better part of a month. Shechem and Bethel, located in the central hill country, were often rest stops along the way. They became major sacred sites in later Israelite history. See “Haran”, “Bethel” and “Shechem.”

12:6 A large tree was often a prominent feature at a sacred place, and the “great tree of Moreh” was located at a famous pagan sanctuary at Shechem in central Canaan. Abram built an altar to the true God there.

12:10 Famine was common in Canaan, since the region’s productivity depended on rainfall. Egypt was less susceptible to drought and famine because of its dependence on the annual flooding of the Nile. Modern archaeologists and geologists have found evidence of a massive, 300-year drought cycle that occurred during the end of the third millennium B.C. and the beginning of the second—the time period to which Abram/Abraham traditionally is dated. See “Famine in the Ancient Near East.” See also the note on Ruth 1:1.

12:11 Sarai’s beauty is praised in the Genesis Apocryphon (one of the Dead Sea Scrolls). The criteria for beauty, particularly in the case of older women, may have been substantially different in the ancient Near East from the standards we value today.

12:19 Absolute truthfulness was an important feature of Egyptian ethics.

13:2 Cattle are mentioned already in the first chapter of the Bible (1:24–26; “livestock” in the NIV), symbolic of their importance to the well-being of the human race. Eleven Hebrew and two Greek words are translated to indicate cattle, the species descended from wild members of the family Bovidae.

13:10 Already in these ancient times the names of Sodom and Gomorrah had become synonymous with vile wickedness and divine judgment on sin. Archaeological evidence has confirmed that the now dry area east and southeast of the Dead Sea enjoyed an ample water supply and was well populated prior to this catastrophe. See “The Cities of the Plain.”

13:18 Regarding “great trees,” see the note on 12:6.

14:10 Even today lumps of asphalt are often seen floating in the southern end of the Dead Sea. Flanked by hills on both sides, the Dead Sea is the lowest body of water on Earth (about 1,300 ft—396 m—below sea level).

14:13 Abram, the father of the Hebrew people, was the first Biblical character to be called a Hebrew (see the note on 10:21). Usually an ethnic term in the Bible, it was normally used by non-Israelites in a disparaging sense (see, e.g., 39:17). Outside the Bible, people known as the Habiru/Apiru (a word probably related to “Hebrew”) are referred to as a property-less, dependent, immigrant (foreign) social class rather than as a specific ethnic group. The Amarna Letters (clay tablets found in Egypt) contain negative descriptions of them. See “The Amarna Tablets and the Habiru.”

14:14 The home was the first and most effective agency for religious training. During the nomadic life of the patriarchs education was purely a domestic activity, and the parents were the teachers. God called Abraham as the father of the chosen people and put upon him the responsibility of training his children and his household to walk in the ways of the Lord (18:19; cf. Ps 78:5–7). The reference in Genesis 14:14 to Abram’s “trained men” implies a definite training program supervised by him. This is the only occurrence of the Hebrew term for “trained men” in the Bible. A related word used elsewhere in very ancient texts means “armed retainers.”

14:19 In ancient times the chief Canaanite deity was frequently referred to as the “most high,” “lord of heaven” and “creator of earth.” Based upon the terminology and location (Jerusalem was in central Canaan), Melchizedek was probably a Canaanite king-priest. By identifying Melchizedek’s “God Most High” with “the LORD” (v. 22), Abram bore testimony to the one true God, whom Melchizedek also had come to know.

14:22 In ancient times raising one’s hand was a standard oath-taking practice (see Dt 32:40; Rev 10:5–6).

15:2 The term servant in ancient times applied to anyone under the authority of another, implying that not all servants were domestics or slaves. In some passages of Scripture the word properly means “young man” or “minister.” It is applied to the relationship of men to others occupying high position—men such as Eliezer, whose place in the household of Abraham compared with that of a prime minister (v. 2; 24:2; Pr 14:35; Jn 18:20).

15:3 Ancient Nuzi law permitted a childless man to adopt one of his own male servants to be heir and guardian of his estate. It also allowed inheritance rights to be transferred to a son born to the primary wife after she had adopted her surrogate’s son. See “Custom and Law in Ancient Mesopotamia”, “The Rights of the Firstborn” and “Nuzi.”

15:7 Ancient royal covenants often began with the self-identification of the king and a brief historical prologue.

15:17 In ancient times parties solemnized a covenant by walking down an aisle flanked by the pieces of slaughtered animals (see Jer 34:18–19), perhaps signifying a self-maledictory oath.

16:1–2 The privilege of childbearing was appropriately viewed to be in God’s hands. Conversely, the inability to bear children was seen as his punishment. Ancient people often considered a barren woman accursed, and in some cases her condition served as ground for divorce. Marriage contracts of the time were based on the Code of Hammurabi (an ancient Babylonian law code) and stipulated that an infertile wife should provide her husband with a surrogate child-bearer. See “Custom and Law in Ancient Mesopotamia” and “Nuzi.”

17:5 Ancient Near Eastern peoples attached a deep significance to names, and Israelite parents tended to select a child’s name based upon circumstances surrounding the birth or words spoken near the time of birth. By giving Abram a new name God marked him in a special way as his servant. See “Naming of Children.”

17:10 Although circumcision was practiced elsewhere in antiquity (see Jer 9:25–26; Eze 32:18–19), infant circumcision seems to have been unique. It was to be a sign of both the material and the spiritual aspects of God’s covenant with Abraham (see “Circumcision in the Ancient World”).

18:1–33 In the early days of humanity, before people had the written Word, before the incarnation and before the Holy Spirit had come to make his abode in human hearts, God sometimes appeared and talked with people. One of the loveliest and most instructive of the theophanies (visible appearances of God) is found in Genesis 18. From Abraham’s time on theophanies generally occurred when recipients were asleep, as in Jacob’s vision at Bethel (28:10–17). But God addressed Moses “face to face” (Ex 33:11). There is good reason to believe that theophanies before the incarnation of Christ were visible manifestations of the pre-incarnate Son of God.

18:1–8 Hospitality was one of the most highly regarded virtues of the ancient world. Social protocol required an actual meal to exceed what was first offered. Thus Abraham ordered fresh bread, a calf and a mixture of milk and yogurt. The fresh meat was particularly generous—not a normal staple in the ancients’ daily diet.

18:27 The expression “dust and ashes” is a play on words (aphar and epher) that signifies the origin of the human body from the ordinary chemical elements, contrasting the lowliness of a human being with the dignity of God.

19:1 The city gateway served as the administrative and judicial center where legal matters were discussed and prosecuted (see Ru 4:1–12; Pr 31:23; see also “The City Gate”). Treaties witnessed by the city elders at the gate were as legally binding as written contracts are today.

19:2 The square was a large, open space near the main city gateway used for public gatherings. Important cities could have two or more squares (see Ne 8:16).

19:5 A sodomite was one who practiced that unnatural vice for which Sodom became noted. Although not named as such, the practice is referred to in Romans 1:27, and God strictly forbade it (Dt 23:17). Usually the practice was in connection with heathen worship, and its presence was a sign of departure from the Lord (1Ki 14:24).

19:8 In ancient times a host was obliged to protect his guests in every situation.

19:31–38 Entirely unsupported is the critical view held by some scholars that this infamous incident in the cave was “created” by a later writer to justify the inferior position of the Moabites and Ammonites in their relationship with Israel (see “Moab” and “Ammon”). At any rate, the almost buried faith of Lot reappeared much later in Ruth, the Moabitess who was also the great-grandmother of David and thus a member of the Messianic line (Ru 1:16–18; 4:13–21).

20:12 The word for “sister” (Hebrew ’âhôth, Greek adelphem) is used in the Bible with varying meanings. In the Old Testament it refers to females having the same parents, females having one parent in common, a female relative or a woman of the same country (v. 12; Lev 18:18; Nu 25:18; Job 42:11). In the New Testament it is used of girls belonging to the same family or simply of female blood relatives (Mt 13:56; Mk 6:3; Lk 10:39). The word is also used figuratively in Scripture (Eze 16:45; Ro 16:1; 2Jn 13).
In this case Sarah was Abraham’s half sister, the daughter of his father but not of his mother. Marriage to half sisters was not uncommon in ancient times.

20:16 The word “shekels,” though not included in the Hebrew text, is correctly supplied here as the most common unit of weight in ancient times. Originally the shekel was only a weight, not a coin, since coinage was not invented until the seventh century B.C.

21:8 In the ancient Near East many children died before they reached the age of two or three (the usual age for a child to be weaned), so a child’s weaning was a celebrated rite of passage.

21:11 Abraham’s distress was due not only to love but also to legal custom. The tradition of his day, illustrated later in the Nuzi tablets, prohibited the arbitrary expulsion of a servant girl’s son (whose legal status was relatively weak in any case). See “Custom and Law in Ancient Mesopotamia”, “The Rights of the Firstborn” and “Nuzi.”

21:25–30 In a land of seasonal rainfall, wells were extremely important to the welfare of the human population and of their flocks and herds. The area in which Abraham had dug a well was under Abimelech’s political control but was owned by no one. Abraham was claiming ownership not of the land but of the right to the water in the well. Such squatter’s rights were available to a resident alien. See “The Negev: Its Climate and Features” and “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World.”

21:31 Beersheba, an important town in the northern Negev, marked the southernmost boundary of the Israelite monarchy in later times (see, e.g., 2Sa 17:11; see also “Beersheba”). Though its authenticity is uncertain, there is an ancient well there called “Abraham’s well” (see Ge. 21:25).

21:32 Abimelech is a Semitic, not a Philistine name. So it may be that the reference to the “land of the Philistines” is anachronistic and merely intended to indicate the location, not the race of Abimelech.

22:2 The author of Chronicles identified the “region of Moriah” as the temple mount in Jerusalem (2Ch 3:1). Today Mount Moriah is occupied by the Dome of the Rock, an impressive Muslim structure erected in A.D. 691. A large outcropping of rock inside the building is still pointed to as the traditional site of the intended sacrifice of Isaac. See “Mount Moriah.”

22:20–24 Abraham’s brother Nahor (11:26) fathered eight sons by his wife and four by his concubine. They would become the ancestors of 12 Aramean tribes, just as Abraham’s son Ishmael would become the ancestor of 12 tribes (17:20; 25:12–16) and his grandson Jacob the ancestor of the 12 tribes of Israel (35:22–26; 49:28). See “Evidence for Serug, Nahor and Terah.”

23:4 Land suitable for farming was so precious in the ancient world that owners typically refused to sell it outside the family. But Abraham was not trying to buy farmland, only a burial site.
Village cultures used burial chambers (see “The Cave of Machpelah”). A family tomb was used by several generations. A body was laid on a shelf along with grave goods (food, pottery, trinkets, weapons, tools). Later the skeletal remains were placed in another chamber or box to accommodate another burial.

23:9 Abraham wanted to buy only a small part of the field because purchasing the entire field would have entailed certain additional financial and social obligations. Hittite laws stipulated that if a property owner sold only part of his property, he (the original and principal landowner) was still required to pay all dues (taxes) on the land. But if he sold the entire tract, the new owner had to pay the dues.

24:2 One of the most frequently used words in Scripture, occurring over 1,600 times, is “hand.” Besides its literal use, it occurs in numerous figurative senses as well. To put one’s hand under another’s thigh as in verses 2, 9 and 47:29 meant to take a solemn oath, evidently related to covenant obligations.

24:10 Naharaim was the northern part of the area later called Mesopotamia by the Greeks (lit., “between the rivers”). Perhaps named after Abraham’s brother (see v. 15; 11:26), the town of Nahor is mentioned in clay tablets excavated by the French beginning in 1933 at the ancient city of Mari on the Euphrates River. Nahor was located in the Haran district and was ruled by an Amorite prince in the eighteenth century B.C. See “Evidence for Serug, Nahor and Terah”, “Haran” and “Mari.”

24:14 An oracle posed a yes/no question to a deity, and a mechanism (cf. Jdg 6:36–40; 1Sa 6:7–12) was provided so that the deity could answer.
A camel (see “Camels”) that has gone a few days without water can drink as much as 25 gallons (23.7 l; up to 100 drawings from the well for all the servant’s camels). It is evident that Abraham’s servant intentionally selected an extreme action as a sign to avoid any doubt that God was controlling the situation.

25:5 The law of primogeniture provided that a double share of a father’s property be given to the firstborn son when the father died (Dt 21:15–17). Parallels to this practice come from Nuzi, from Larsa in the Old Babylonian period and from Assyria in the Middle Assyrian period. Isaac was Abraham’s firstborn son according to law. See “Custom and Law in Ancient Mesopotamia”, “The Rights of the Firstborn” and “Nuzi.”

25:6 A concubine in Old Testament times was not a paramour or illicit lover but a woman lawfully united in marriage to a man in a relationship inferior to that of a regular wife. No moral stigma was attached to this status, which was considered a natural part of a polygamous social system. Concubines enjoyed no other right than that of lawful cohabitation. They exercised no authority within the family or in household affairs, and their husbands could send them away at any time with a small present. Their children as well, by means of small presents, could be excluded from the family heritage (v. 6), even though they were regarded as legitimate. In patriarchal times, at least, the immediate cause of concubinage was often the barrenness of the lawful wife, who would herself suggest that her husband have children by her maidservant (chs. 16; 30).

25:12–18 Many of the names of Ishmael’s sons are Arabic, giving credence to the Arab tradition that Ishmael was their ancestor.

25:23 The ancient law of primogeniture (see note on v. 5) also provided that, under ordinary circumstances, the younger of two sons would be subservient to the older. See also the note on verse 5.

25:26 Jacob’s name was an old one among the Semitic people. As early as 2000 B.C. it occurs among writings of Hammurabi as Yakibula. That it was a well-known name among the Canaanites of pre-Abrahamic days is attested by records in the temple at Karnak. The name of a city captured by Thutmose III is similar to the Hebrew word: Jakob-el.

25:31 The birthright was the oldest son’s share of the family’s estate. In the ancient world the firstborn typically received a double share of the inheritance (see the note on v. 5). See “Custom and Law in Ancient Mesopotamia”, “The Rights of the Firstborn” and “Nuzi.”

25:34 A lentil is a small, pea-like, annual plant that grows well even in nutrient-poor soil. Its pods turn reddish-brown when boiled. It has provided an important source of nourishment in the Near East since ancient times (see 2Sa 17:28; 23:11; Eze 4:9).

27:1 Blindness and near-blindness were common conditions among elderly persons in ancient times (see 48:10; 1Sa 4:15).

27:4 Oral statements, including deathbed bequests (see 49:28–33), were legally enforceable by ancient Near Eastern law.

27:33 Peoples of the ancient world believed that blessings and curses had a kind of magical power to accomplish what they pronounced (see “Curses and Imprecations.” But Isaac, as heir and steward of God’s covenant blessing, acknowledged that he had solemnly transmitted that heritage to Jacob by way of a legally binding bequest (see the note on v. 4). See “The Rights of the Firstborn” and “The Tale of Appu’s Two Sons.”

27:45 Because the nostrils quiver in anger, the word for nostril is rendered in 171 Old Testament instances as “anger,” almost akin to “snorting.” This applies not only to Esau (v. 45) but also to Moses (Ex 32:19) and even to the Lord (Nu 11:1, 10). A tempestuous wind is described poetically in the Old Testament as “the blast of [God’s] nostrils” (Ex 15:8; cf. 2Sa 22:16).

28:11 In ancient times people were accustomed to sleeping on the ground. Their headrests were often quite hard and were sometimes made of metal.

28:12 This “stairway” was probably not a ladder with rungs but was more likely similar to the steps mounting the sloping side of a ziggurat (see the note on 11:4).

28:18 In ancient times memorials of worship or of communion with God were common.

29:24 This wedding custom is well documented in Old Babylonian marriage contracts. See “Nuzi.”

30:14 Mandrakes were thought to induce pregnancy when eaten (see SS 7:13).

30:32 Ancient shepherding contracts provided for a share of between 10 and 20 percent of the flock, along with a percentage of the wool and milk by-products. Dark and spotted animals typically represented a smaller proportion, ostensibly giving Laban the better deal. Jacob proposed to remove the designated sheep from Laban’s flock for his wages, so Laban’s actions (vv. 35–36) appeared to violate the agreement.

31:14–16 In ancient times contracts for marriages were formal business transactions. The groom usually paid the father of the bride the bride price, which was supposed to be held in trust to provide for the wife if she were abandoned or widowed. In this case Jacob had given no bride price, so Laban should have set aside the equivalent of his wages for the women. If their father’s house held no economic security for them, Laban’s daughters had no reason to stay.

31:19 These “household gods” were small, portable idols, probably images of either ancestors or the patron gods of ancestors, believed to bring prosperity and protection. Such gods had no temples but were likely provided with a shrine area in the home. Rachel may have wanted something tangible to worship on the long journey ahead, a practice referred to much later in the writings of Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian. A family’s household idols were considered highly important in Nuzi and were handed down to the principal heir. If the inheritance were disputed in court, possession of the family idols could be accepted as proof that the deceased had intended the possessor to be his heir (see “Nuzi”).

31:30–31 It appears that according to Nuzian customs (see “Nuzi”), Jacob had become Laban’s male heir after Laban had adopted him as his son. Laban had then given Jacob both Leah and her sister Rachel as his wives. After having become prosperous, Jacob took his departure (v. 21). One reason “Laban’s attitude toward him was not what it had been” (v. 2) is that Laban by now apparently had sons by birth, who regarded Jacob as an interloper (v. 1). Thus arose the dispute over the right of the possession of the teraphim, the household gods that Rachel concealed in the baggage as she, together with her husband and Jacob’s extended family, fled (vv. 30–31). These household deities, about the size of miniature dolls, were regarded as indisputable evidence of the rights and privileges of family ownership and inheritance. Note Laban’s indignant query, “But why did you steal my gods?” (v. 30).

31:47 A western Semitic language, Aramaic is closely related to Hebrew and developed various dialects. Verse 47, while not explicitly stating Laban’s use of Aramaic, calls attention to the fact that he used different wording than Jacob did.

33:3 Bowing down to the ground seven times was a sign of total submission, documented also in texts found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt and dating to the fourteenth century B.C.

33:19 Modern Bir Ya‘kub is doubtless the well mentioned in John 4:6 as the well of Jacob. For many centuries Samaritans and Jews have believed this to be the case. The ground mentioned by John had been purchased by Jacob (v. 19). The area was later wrested by force from the Amorites (48:22). The well is near the base of Mount Gerizim, whose bluffs may have been intended in Jesus’ phrase “this mountain” (Jn 4:21). A narrow opening 4 feet (1.2 m) long led from the floor of the vault into the well, which had been dug through limestone. The depth of the well has not been determined. For centuries tourists cast pebbles into it, until Greek Catholics purchased the site and put it under guard.

34:20 See the note on 19:1.

35:22 Slaves, servants and concubines were considered part of the inheritance passed along from father to son. The oldest son would inherit with his birthright the human members of the household. When inheritance was seized prior to a father’s death, the father’s role was usurped (cf. e.g., 49:3–4 with 35:22).

36:8 Seir is another name for Edom (see “Edom”).

37:25 The caravan was made up of Midianites and Ishmaelites. Midianites were descendants of Abraham through Keturah, Ishmaelites his descendants through Hagar. The forebears of these two peoples were Jacob’s uncles, making these traders second or third cousins to Joseph and his brothers. See “Caravan Trading and Routes in the Ancient Near East.”
The “balm” was an oil or gum used for its healing properties. The balm of Gilead was especially effective (see Jer 8:22; 46:11). See “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”

38:3–4 Mesopotamian documents of this time include the tribal names Er and Onan.

38:6–10 If a man died childless, his brother was duty bound to raise heirs to him by his widow (the Levirate law of Dt 25:5; see also “Levirate Marriage”). Onan’s action and resulting punishment had nothing to do with contraception or masturbation but everything to do with rightful inheritance.

38:11–14 A Hittite law stipulated that when a widow married her late husband’s brother and he died, she was to marry his father. This was apparently the procedure Tamar was following. See the note on verses 6–10; see also “Nuzi” and “Levirate Marriage.”

38:17–18 When Tamar accepted as guarantee of payment Judah’s seal, cord and staff, she held symbols of his individual and corporate identity—the equivalent of an I.D. card or signature.

40:8 In the ancient Near East great significance was given to dreams, and dream interpretations were sought from experts trained in the techniques and methods of the day. Both the Egyptians and the Babylonians compiled “dream books,” which contained sample dreams with a key to their interpretation. These books preserved the data concerning past dreams and interpretations, providing the security of “scientific” documentation. Joseph consulted God, but his interpretation followed the way Egyptian dream literature interpreted comparable symbols. See “Dream Oracles in the Ancient World.”

40:20 The date of one’s birth is, in a sense, the most important day of one’s life, for without it the individual would not have experienced life in the world. So the celebration of birthdays goes back to very ancient times (cf. Mt 14:6).

41:14 Egyptians were normally smooth-shaven, while Hebrews/Israelites wore beards (see 2Sa 10:5; Jer 41:5). See “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”

41:30 The Nile was the lifeline of Egypt; its annual flooding provided essential water and produced the only fertile soil there. Long famines were therefore rare in Egypt, but not uncommon elsewhere. See “Famine in the Ancient Near East.”

41:40–43 There were three symbols of power in the ancient Near East: the signet ring (Est 3:10), the robe (Est 6:11) and the gold chain (Da 5:7, 16, 29).

41:41–57 In the years that followed, Joseph brought about a permanent change in the Egyptian system of land tenure because of the famine and the consequent poverty of the people: Almost all the land became the property of the pharaoh, and the previous owners became his tenants.

41:56 See the note on famine at Ruth 1:1. Also see “Famine in the Ancient Near East.”

42:9 The custom of sending secret agents to discover facts about an enemy is age-old. The Hebrew word for a spy is suggested by the secrecy with which such an individual did his work. In this verse Joseph accused his brothers of being spies.

43:29 For a discussion of salutations in the Bible, see the note at Ruth 2:4.

43:32 The taboo against eating with Hebrews was probably based upon ritual or religious reasons (see Ex 8:26), unlike the Egyptian refusal to associate with shepherds (see Ge 46:34), which was more likely tied to social custom.

45:19 Ancient wagons or carts were crude, with wheels made of wood. They were covered or uncovered, usually drawn by oxen but sometimes by horses. Carts are first mentioned in 45:19–46:5, when Pharaoh sent them to help move Jacob and his family.

46:32 The shepherd’s equipment consisted of a bag made of goat’s skin with legs tied, in which food and other articles were placed; a sling for protection against wild animals; a rod (stick) about 30 inches (77 cm) in length with a knob on one end; a staff, usually with a crook on one end; a flute made of reeds for entertainment and for calming the sheep; and a cloak used for bedding at night.

47:5–6 The district of Goshen is not large, covering an area of some 900 square miles (2,368 sq km), but because of irrigation it is considered some of the best land in Egypt, excellent for grazing and for certain types of agriculture.

48:5 Jacob “adopted” Ephraim and Manasseh, in a sense replacing Reuben and Simeon (his oldest sons). A literal translation of the final Hebrew clause in this verse might read: “Like Reuben and Simeon they will be to me.” Joseph’s sons “became” Jacob’s firstborn sons.

49:13 The territory of Zebulun, though landlocked by the tribes of Asher and Manasseh, was within 10 miles (16 km) of the Mediterranean.

49:19 Gad was located east of the Jordan River (see Jos 13:24–27). The Mesha (see 2Ki 3:4) Stele (a Moabite inscription dating from the late ninth century B.C.) describes the vulnerability of the descendants of Gad to raids by the Moabites to the south.

50:2–3 Although it was common practice in Egypt, embalming of Israelites is found only in this chapter. The philosophy behind the Egyptian practice of embalming was a belief that the body was to be preserved as a repository for the soul after death. See “The Khu-Sebek Inscription and the Burial of Jacob.”

50:24–26 Joseph died at age one hundred ten. Egyptians considered this an ideal length of life, even though mummies have demonstrated that the average life expectancy in Egypt was between 40 and 50 years. To the Egyptians, Joseph’s ripe old age would have been a witness of divine blessing.

1:11–14 Ancient bricks were generally square instead of oblong and were much larger than ours, about 13 x 13 x 3.5 inches (33 x 33 x 9 cm). Before being baked they were often stamped with the name of the monarch (e.g., Sargon or Nebuchadnezzar). Much ancient brickwork was comprised of bricks merely baked in the sun, especially in Egypt, but in Babylon the bricks were thoroughly burned.

2:3 Bitumen, a mineral pitch widely scattered over the earth, is one of the best waterproofing substances known. It was used with tar to cover Moses’ papyrus basket (v. 3) and to waterproof Noah’s ark (Ge 6:14). It was also used for mortar in the tower of Babel (Ge 11:3) and to represent a curse on Edom (Isa 34:9). There were great deposits near the Dead Sea and at different places in Mesopotamia. The principal modern source is a great lake of pitch on the islands of Trinidad.