4:3 A plowshare was an iron point mounted on a wooden beam (ancient plows did not include what we know as a plowshare).
The pruning hook, an agricultural tool used in the cultivation of the vine, had a sharp, knifelike end for pruning (see also Isa 2:4; Joel 3:10).

4:4 To sit under one’s own vine and fig tree was a proverbial picture of peace, security and contentment.

4:6 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.

4:9–5:15 This section has as its background the wars of Hezekiah’s day (see “Hezekiah Against the Assyrians”). The Assyrians under Sennacherib captured 40 cities of Judah and received tribute from Hezekiah (cf. 2Ki 18:13–16).

4:12–13 Threshing was done in one of two ways: (1) by beating the sheaves with a rod or flail or (2) by trampling them under the feet of oxen that pulled a wooden sled around the threshing floor (Isa 28:27). Threshing was done out-of-doors on a hard surface of the ground. The word “threshing” also was used figuratively to describe God’s judgment (see Isa 21:10; 41:15; 1Co 9:10; “The Threshing Floor”; and the note on Ruth 2:7).

5:1 This prophecy was fulfilled when Jerusalem was besieged and her kings seized and taken to Babylon (Judah’s last king, Zedekiah, was blinded). See “The Last Days of Jerusalem.”

5:2 Against the Babylonian danger to Judah, God held out Messianic hope. The mention of Bethlehem Ephrathah (see “Bethlehem”) identifies the Messiah as belonging to David’s line (cf. Isa 11:1; Jer 23:5; Eze 37:24). The “clans of Judah” is read as the “rulers of Judah” in Matthew 2:6 by using different (and probably correct) vowels with the Hebrew consonants. “You, Bethlehem,” is masculine and is therefore most likely a direct reference to the Messiah from Bethlehem (the gender would be feminine if the city alone were being addressed).

5:5 Assyria here represents all of the enemies of God’s people in every age.
“Seven … even eight” is figurative for “an indefinite number.”

5:6 Nimrod refers to Assyria (see Ge 10:8–12).

5:10 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.

5:14 For “Asherah poles,” see the note on 1 Kings 14:15.

6:1–7:6 The condemnations of this section include several references to the Pentateuch and to other historical books (6:5–16; cf. also 5:6 with Ge 10:8–9). The response of Micah 6:8 is famous. Some have argued that it teaches salvation apart from sacrifice, but it actually alludes to Deuteronomy 10:12 and involves Israel’s duty to obey all of the Mosaic injunctions. Jesus probably referred to this verse in his condemnation of the formalistic Pharisees (Mt 23:23; see “The Pharisees”).

6:5 See “Shittim” and “The Camp at Gilgal.”

6:9–16 These verses follow the outline of a divine covenant lawsuit: (1) an opening statement (v. 9); (2) a listing of commercial and social sins (vv. 10–12); (3) an announcement of divine punishment (vv. 13–15); and (4) a summary statement (v. 16).

6:10 An ephah was about half a bushel.

6:11 For “dishonest scales” and “false weights,” see the notes on Proverbs 11:1 and 16:11; see also “Weights and Measures.” A Hebrew balance consisted of a horizontal bar, either suspended from a cord that was held in the hand or pivoted on a perpendicular rod. Scales were suspended from the ends of the bar, one for the object to be weighed and the other for the weight. At first the weights were of stone. Weighing with such balances could be accurately done, but the system was liable to fraud.

6:14–15 This was a curse for disobedience (see Dt 28:38–39).

6:15 In the Bible oil is almost always olive oil, perhaps the only exception being Esther 2:12, where it is oil of myrrh. The olives were sometimes beaten (Lev 24:2), sometimes trodden (Mic 6:15), but generally crushed in a mill designed for that purpose.

6:16 Omri reigned from about 886 to 874 B.C. After he had prevailed over Tibni, he transferred the capital of the northern kingdom to Samaria, a location that was easily defended. This was perhaps his most significant accomplishment (v. 24). Although Omri is dismissed by one Hebrew historian as an evil influence (1Ki 16:25–26), he is the first Hebrew monarch to be mentioned in nonbiblical records, implying that he was a highly regarded king in his day. Mesha included Omri’s name in the Mesha Stele (c. 847 B.C.), reflecting the fact that Omri subdued Moab. Sargon II (c. 721 B.C.; see “The Annals of Sargon II”) referred to Israel as “Omri-Land,” and Tiglath-Pileser III spoke in his annals of the “house of Omri” (see “Omri and Samaria”).
Omri and Ahab together committed more evil than all the other kings who had preceded them, cumulatively (see 1Ki 16:25, 30; see also “Ahab and the Battle of Qarqar”).

7:4 The prophets were likened to watchmen assigned to warn of approaching danger—in this case, impending judgment (see Eze 3:17; Hos 9:8 and their notes).

7:7 A hopeful element is actually quite common in laments (see “Ancient Near Eastern Laments”).

7:12 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.

7:14 Throughout the ancient Near East the term “shepherd” was often applied to rulers (see 2Sa 5:2; Jer 23:2; see also “Shepherding in the Ancient World”).
Bashan and Gilead were fertile areas with rich pasturelands (for Bashan, see the note on Eze 39:18).

1:1 See “Oracles of the Ancient World”, as well as “Nineveh.” Here the capital city stands for the entire Assyrian Empire.
Nahum is called the Elkoshite. The third- and fourth-century A.D. theologian Jerome stated that a town in Galilee named Elkosh had been shown to him. The Nestorians locate the town and the tomb of the prophet near the Tigris, north of Mosul, Iraq. Another tradition places Elkosh “beyond Jordan,” but emendations of that text and other considerations lead some to believe that Elkosh was actually located in southern Judah.

1:3–6 It was common practice for peoples in the ancient world to identify their deities with observable, awe-inspiring natural phenomena (see “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany”).

1:4 Bashan, Carmel and Lebanon were known for their fertility, including their vineyards, trees and animals (see the notes on SS 7:5; Isa 2:13; 33:9; Eze 39:18).

1:11 The “one” may refer to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669–627 B.C.), the last great Assyrian king, whose western expeditions succeeded in subduing Egypt and to whom King Manasseh had to submit as a vassal (see 2Ch 33:11–13; Ezr 4:9–10; see also “The Seal of Manasseh”).

1:13 The yoke was a common ancient Near Eastern symbol of political submission. Here it symbolizes Judah’s submission as Assyria’s vassal.

1:14–15 God used the Babylonians and Medes to destroy Nineveh in 612 B.C. For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see Ezekiel 32:22–23.

2:1–3:9 Nabopolassar was the first ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–605 B.C.). Allied with Medes and Scythians, he overthrew the Assyrian Empire, destroying Nineveh in 612, as prophesied in this passage and in Zephaniah 2:13–15.

2:1 The “attacker” refers to the alliance of the Medes under Cyaxares and the Babylonians under Nabopolassar.

2:5 The pronoun “he” refers either to the king of Assyria or to Nabopolassar.
Nineveh’s wall, which was almost 8 miles (13 km) long with 15 gates, was surrounded by a moat 150 feet (nearly 46 m) wide. The moat had to be filled in before attackers could reach the city’s wall, after which battering rams could be moved up (see “Siege Warfare”). The “protective shield” refers to a large, defensive framework covered with hides to deflect stones and arrows.

2:6 “River gates” may be a reference to the dams on the Khoser River, which ran through the city to the Tigris River (see “The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers”). The dams were either already in place or quickly built to back up the river water; they were then suddenly released to ensure that the flooding would damage the city’s walls. One ancient historian (the author of the Babylonian Chronicles) spoke of a flood that washed away some of the wall, making it easier for invaders to enter the city.

2:7 Slave girls occupied the lowest rung of the social order (see “Slavery and Labor Law in the Ancient Near East”).

2:8 Some think that this verse refers to the Tigris and the smaller rivers that may have encircled and run through parts of the city, as well as to a system of dams that may have been used to make the city more secure (see the note on v. 6).

2:10 That a great quantity of plunder was carried off is confirmed in the Babylonian Chronicles.

2:11 The lion is an appropriate image for Assyria, known for its viciousness (see the notes on 3:1, 3). Nineveh itself contained numerous lion sculptures.

2:12 Nineveh was filled with the spoils of war from numerous conquered nations.

3:1 The Assyrians were noted for their ruthlessness, brutality and terrible atrocities. Many of their victims were beheaded, impaled or burned.

3:3 The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III boasted of erecting a pyramid of chopped-off heads in front of an enemy’s city. Other Assyrian kings stacked corpses like cordwood by the gates of defeated cities.

3:4 Nineveh was a city of luxury, wealth and witchcraft (see “Akkadian Divination”).

3:5 Public disgrace and humiliation constituted a common punishment for prostitutes and adulteresses.

3:8 “No Amon” (see the NIV text note), better known by its Greek name, Thebes, was the great capital of Upper (southern) Egypt. The city was destroyed by the Assyrians in 663 B.C. (see “Thebes”). Located 450 miles (726 km) south of Cairo, it is now known by the names Karnak and Luxor and is famed for its huge necropolis (large, elaborate cemetery) on the western side of the Nile. Amon, an Egyptian deity, appears in the Old Testament linked with this city. During the period of the Theban Dynasties (from 1991 B.C.), Amon became the state god of the Egyptian empire. His city and priesthood came to such glory that Nahum was able to recall its downfall as evidence to great Nineveh that its time of desolation would surely come as well.

3:9 For “Cush” and “Put,” see the note on Jeremiah 46:9.

3:10 Atrocities against civilians were common in ancient warfare (see the note on Ps 137:9; see also “Warfare in the Ancient World” and “Siege Warfare”): Infants were routinely killed (see the note on Isa 13:16), leaders were often put in chains and lots were cast to determine which prisoners of war would be taken into exile and distributed to other lands (see “Casting Lots”). The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal gave this description of his treatment of a captured leader: “I … put a dog chain on him and made him occupy a kennel at the eastern gate of Nineveh.”

3:13 Comparing troops to women was an insult, implying that the soldiers were weak and unable to stand against the invading armies.
“Bars” refers to the bars of the city gates.

3:14 Drawing water was a normal practice in preparation for a siege (see “Siege Warfare”).

3:15 History and archaeology confirm that Nineveh was burned. Assyria’s king (see v. 18) died in the flames of his own palace.

3:16 Assyria at the time boasted vast trading and commercial enterprises.

3:17 Farmers of the ancient Near East feared locusts, because they came in huge swarms and devoured everything in their path (see “Locusts in the Ancient Near East”).
For centuries no one knew where ancient Nineveh lay buried. Its remains were finally uncovered by archaeologists in 1845.

3:18 Sin-Shar-Ishkun was the king of Assyria at the time of Nineveh’s fall.

3:19 Nineveh’s destruction was so complete that the city was never rebuilt. Within a few centuries it was covered with windblown sand, leaving no trace but a mound that is known today as Tell Kuyunjik, “the mound of many sheep.”

1:1–2:20 One of the more interesting finds at Qumran (origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls) was a commentary on chapters 1 and 2 of Habakkuk. Unfortunately, it casts little light on the meaning of these chapters, although it does provide a glimpse of how the Essene community living there in the first century B.C. understood the book. See “The Zealots and the Essenes”, “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis” and “Qumran and the New Testament.”

1:1 For “oracle,” see the note on Isaiah 13:1 and “Oracles of the Ancient World.”
Habakkuk is probably a Babylonian name, referring to a kind of garden plant. As indicated in the introduction, of the man Habakkuk nothing is known outside of the book that bears his name. Legendary references to Habakkuk (in the Apocryphal Bel and the Dragon and elsewhere) appear to have no historical value. The musical references in chapter 3 have led some to believe that the prophet was a member of a Levitical musical guild, but even this is uncertain.

1:2–4 Habakkuk’s complaint began like a lament (see “Ancient Near Eastern Laments”), with injustice as its theme. The likely historical context was the corruption of Judah’s government under the cruel and oppressive King Jehoiakim (cf. 2Ki 23:34–37; Jer 22:18–19). Justice was perverted because the rich controlled the courts through bribery (cf. Mic 3:11; 7:3).

1:6 God would punish the apostate nation of Judah by an invasion of the Babylonians, a powerful people who would regain their independence from Assyria in 626 B.C., destroy Assyrian power completely in 612–605 and flourish until 539. In this context the Chaldeans (see the NIV text note and “The Chaldeans”) are synonymous with the Babylonians.

1:8 The speed with which Babylonia conquered her enemies had by this time become proverbial.

1:9 The cruelty of the Babylonians was well known. Like their Assyrian predecessors, they deported conquered peoples as a matter of deliberate national policy (see the notes on 2Ki 17:24–41; 24:10–12; see also “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East”).

1:10 For “earthen ramps,” see “Siege Warfare.”

1:11 The Babylonians were so proud and confident of their military might that it had virtually become their god (see v. 16).

1:15 For “hooks,” see the note on Amos 4:2. Babylonia’s victims were as powerless as fish swimming into a net. Mesopotamian reliefs symbolically portray conquerors capturing their enemies in fishnets.

2:1 For “watch,” see the note on Micah 7:4. “Ramparts” refer to the walls of Jerusalem.

2:2–20 Habakkuk 2 recounts the Lord’s revelation of the fall of Babylon. The foolishness of puffed-up desire (v. 4) led to five “woes” from the mouths of Babylon’s captives or threatened victims—Judah in particular. These woes condemned the Babylonians’ (1) greed for conquest (vv. 6–8); (2) pride in their building projects accomplished at others’ expense (vv. 9–11); (3) self-centered injustice (vv. 12–13); (4) violence in stripping others of their possessions and dignity (vv. 15–17); and (5) idol worship (vv. 18–19).

2:2–3 The Hebrew for “revelation” refers specifically to a prophet’s vision (see “Oracles of the Ancient World”).

2:3 The message that follows deals with the fall of Babylon to take place in 539 B.C., about 66 years after Habakkuk’s prophecy.

2:4 The pronoun “he” in this context is used collectively of the Babylonians.

2:5 The “grave” as used here is a reference to the shadowy world of the dead. For commentary on its insatiable appetite, see the notes on Job 18:13–14 and Psalm 6:5; 49:14; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

2:17 The timbers of the highly prized cedars of Lebanon (see “Cedars of Lebanon”) had been ravaged for centuries by the kings of Assyria and Babylon to adorn their temples and palaces. Assyrian inscriptions record hunting expeditions in the Lebanon range, and the invading Babylonians may have engaged in such sport as well.

3:1 Shigionoth is probably a literary or musical term. This chapter may have been a hymn that existed independently and was added at a later time.

3:3 Teman, meaning “southland,” was a village in Edom, south of the Dead Sea.
Mount Paran, often associated with Mount Sinai and Mount Seir and the giving of the Law (see Dt 33:2), was probably northwest of the Gulf of Aqaba and south of Kadesh Barnea, between Edom and Sinai.
It was common practice for peoples in the ancient world to identify their deities with observable, awe-inspiring natural phenomena (see vv. 3–15; see also “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany”). Old Testament writers frequently combined recollections of the mighty acts of God with conventional images of a fearsome manifestation of his power: He is depicted as riding on the mighty thunderstorm as his chariot, his arrows flying in all directions, a cloudburst of rain descending upon the earth and the mountains quaking before him (see Jdg 5:4–5; Ps 18:7–15; 68:7–10; 77:16–19; Mic 1:3).
Selah is thought to be a literary or musical term (see the note on v. 1).

3:5 “Plague” was one of the elements of the characteristic triad of divine punishment: “sword, famine and plague” (Jer 14:12; cf. Lev 26:25–26).

3:6 See the note on verse 3.

3:7 Cushan and Midian were Arab tribes living near Edom.

3:8–11 See the note on verse 3, as well as those on Psalms 32:6, 68:4 and 135:7.

3:12 “Threshing” is often used in the prophetic books as a term for judgment. For information on the harvesting process, see the note on Ruth 1:22; see also “The Threshing Floor.”

3:19 “Director” probably refers to the conductor of the temple musicians. This chapter may have formed part of the temple prayers that were chanted with the accompaniment of instruments, including the harp and lyre (see the note on v. 1; see also “Ancient Musical Instruments”).

1:1 Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of King Josiah (640–609 B.C.), making him a contemporary of Jeremiah, Nahum and perhaps Habakkuk. His prophecy is probably to be dated relatively early in Josiah’s reign, before that king’s attempt at reform.
This prophet was very probably related to the kings of Judah as follows: Amariah and King Manasseh were brothers; Gedaliah and King Amon were cousins; Cushi and King Josiah were second cousins; and Zephaniah was third cousin of the three kings Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim and Zechariah, thus putting the prophet into familiar relationship with the court, to which his message seems to have been specifically directed (e.g., v. 8). His principal work seems to have been early in Josiah’s reign, like that of his contemporaries Nahum and (perhaps) Habakkuk, and before the greater prophecies of his other contemporary, Jeremiah.

1:5 Incense to pagan deities was often burned on rooftops (see Isa 15:3; Jer 1:16), and the kings of Judah had erected pagan altars on the roof of the palace in Jerusalem (see 2Ki 23:12). The Ugaritic Epic of Kirta from the fourteenth century B.C. (see “The Kirta Epic”) describes a similar practice: “Go to the top of a tower, bestride the top of the wall … Honor Baal with your sacrifice … Then descend … from the housetops.”
Even though it was prohibited, worship of the sun, moon and stars was common in Judah throughout much of the later history of the monarchy (see 2Ki 17:16; 21:3, 5; 23:4–5).
The god Molech, whose rituals sometimes involved child sacrifice (see “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East”), was worshiped by the Ammonites. Although Molech worship was forbidden to the Israelites (see Lev 18:21; 20:1–5), Solomon set up an altar to Molech on the Mount of Olives (1Ki 11:7) and Manasseh established Molech rituals in the Valley of Ben Hinnom (see 2Ch 33:6; Jer 7:31; 32:35).

1:8 “Foreign clothes” refers to dress that indicated conformity to Babylonian, Egyptian or Assyrian ways (see “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry”).

1:9 Apparently there was a general and relatively widespread pagan idea that the threshold was the dwelling place of spirits. This notion had developed during the time of Samuel, when the Philistine god Dagon had been found broken and lying on the threshold of its temple after the Philistines had placed the ark of the covenant next to their idol in Dagon’s temple (see 1Sa 5:1–5).

1:10 The Fish Gate was located in the northern wall of Jerusalem, in the northwestern corner. Jerusalem was particularly vulnerable to attacks from the north (see the note on Ne 2:13).
The “New Quarter,” also called the “Second District” (see Ne 11:9), was probably a suburb west of the temple area.

1:11 The “market district” may have been an area in the Tyropoeon Valley, just south of Mount Moriah.

1:12 People would later try to escape the Babylonians by hiding in houses, streets, sewers and tombs.
The phrase “left on its dregs” refers to the winemaking process (see “The Winepress”). The best wine was aged while being left on its dregs, a reference to its being allowed to thicken and congeal at the bottom of a container. The implication is that the people were complacent, indifferent and unmoved by prophetic warnings—that they were like thick, syrupy wine.

2:2 For “like chaff,” see the note on Psalm 1:4.

2:4 Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon and Ekron were four of the five major Philistine cities (see “The Archaeology of Philistia”), all located west of Judah “by the sea” (v. 6). Gath, the fifth major city, may already have been subdued by Uzziah (see 2Ch 26:6). Philistia was eventually destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (see “Nebuchadnezzar”).

2:5 Caphtor is the place from which the Philistines originally came (Am 9:7). Jeremiah (Jer 47:4) called it an island. There are a number of theories regarding the matter, but the one most widely accepted is that the Philistines originated on the isle of Crete in the Mediterranean. There is evidence of ancient connection between Crete and Philistia (here and in Eze 25:16; the Septuagint renders Kerethites “Cretans,” indicating the belief that the Kerethites came from Crete), and the Philistines are called Kerethites. It is possible that Caphtor includes along with Crete the other islands in the vicinity, among them Cyprus and Rhodes.
Canaan means “land of purple” (as does Phoenicia, the Greek name for the same general region)—so called because Canaan was a major producer and exporter of purple dye, highly prized by ancient royalty. The territory was much later called Palestine after the Philistines. (see “Canaan”, “Phoenicia” and “The Archaeology of Philistia.”)

2:8 The Moabites and Ammonites were peoples living east of Judah (see “Moab” and “Ammon”). Although Israel’s “cousins” through Abraham’s nephew Lot (Ge 19:30–38), they were longtime enemies of Israel (Nu 22:1–6; Jdg 3:12–14; 11:12–33; Eze 25:2–7).

2:9 Sodom and Gomorrah had long since become proverbial for their wickedness and for divine judgment upon sin (see “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah”).

2:13–15 Nabopolassar was the first ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, (626–605 B.C.). Allied with Medes and Scythians, he overthrew the Assyrian Empire, destroying Nineveh in 612, as prophesied in Nahum 2:1–3:9 and Zephaniah 2:13–15.

2:13 Although Nineveh (see “Nineveh”) lay east of Judah, Assyrian armies ordinarily invaded Canaan from the north (see the note on Ne 2:13), having first marched west along the Euphrates instead of through the Arabian desert. Nineveh was destroyed in 612 B.C. and its location was later forgotten—until it was discovered by archaeologists in 1845 (see the note on Na 3:19).

2:15 This verse anticipates Nineveh’s impending destruction.

3:10 For “Cush,” see the note on Isaiah 18:1 and “Cush.” In this context it represents the most distant area imaginable, the implication being that even the most widely dispersed would be restored.

3:11 “My holy hill” is Mount Zion, the site of the Jerusalem temple (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God”).

1:1 The date was August 29, 520 B.C. “King Darius” refers to Darius Hystaspes, also called Darius I or Darius the Great (see “Darius I”), who ruled Persia from 521 to 486 B.C. Archaeologically, Darius is most famous for his Behistun Inscription, a trilingual inscription emblazoned high on a cliff face in western Iran, through which cuneiform inscriptions were deciphered and the culture and history of ancient Mesopotamia were brought to light.
The “first day” was the New Moon, the day on which prophets were sometimes consulted. New Moon festivals included special sacrifices and feasts, as well as a cessation from work.
For “Zerubbabel,” see the note on Ezra 1:8 and for “Joshua” the note on Ezra 2:2. Jehozadak had been taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar (1Ch 6:15).

1:2 After the foundation of the temple had been laid in 536 B.C. (see Ezr 3:8–10), the people became discouraged and halted the work until 520 (see Ezr 4:1–5, 24).

1:3 During a four-month period in 520 B.C., Haggai received a series of prophetic messages (see “Prophets in the Bible and Pagan Nations” and “Oracles of the Ancient World”). Haggai’s call to rebuild the temple did not represent the first initiative to restore this structure. According to Ezra 5:13–16 the project had begun immediately following the decree of Cyrus in 538 B.C. (cf. Ezr 1). Although the returned exiles had rebuilt the foundation shortly thereafter (Ezr 3:8–11), they had allowed opposition to prevent them from making further progress on the temple itself (Ezr 4:23–24).

1:4 “Paneled houses” is usually a reference to royal dwellings, which boasted cedar paneling (see 1Ki 7:3, 7; Jer 22:14–15).

1:10 In the arid climate of this region, dew is typically abundant during the growing season and is often as valuable as rain.

1:11 Drought, which was often a precursor to famine (see “Famine in the Ancient Near East”), affected the “mountains” because the hills were cultivated, especially through terracing. Grain, wine and oil were the three basic crops of the land (see “Food and Agriculture”), and olive oil was used as food, ointment and medicine.

1:13 “Messenger” is often synonymous with “prophet” (see “Prophets in the Bible and Pagan Nations”).

1:15 The date was September 21, 520 B.C.

2:1 The date was October 17, 520 B.C., the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles. Even though the crops in this instance were meager, this was a time set aside for celebrating the summer harvest (see “The Festivals of Israel”).

2:3 Some of the older exiles had seen Solomon’s temple (see “Solomon’s Temple and Other Ancient Temples”) before its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. This verse makes reference to the “former glory” of “this house” because Zerubbabel’s temple was considered a continuation of Solomon’s. Ezra 3:12 describes the reaction of the older returnees when the foundation of the temple was completed.

2:7 The phrase “desired of all nations” occurs only here in the entire Bible. Again, when the temple was erected in Ezra’s time, the prophet was directed to encourage the older men who had seen the more magnificent temple of Solomon and were disappointed with what they saw now, by assuring them that God was with them; that in a little while he would shake the heavens, the earth, the sea, the dry land and the nations; and that “the desired of all nations” would come to fill the house with his glory. Many expositors refer the prophecy to Christ’s first advent, and others to his coming second advent, while others deny a Messianic application altogether, translating “the desired of all nations” as “the desirable things of all nations”—their precious gifts (cf. Isa 60:5, 11; 61:6).

2:8 Silver and gold had earlier been provided for Solomon’s temple (1Ch 29:2,7), as they were provided now for Zerubbabel’s (Ezr 6:5).

2:10 The date was December 18, 520 B.C.

2:11 One of the responsibilities of the priests was to teach and interpret the Law of Moses (see the note on Jer 18:18; see also “The Levites and the Priests”).

2:12–13 A garment coming into contact with “consecrated meat” (meat from an animal set apart for a sacrifice) became “holy” (see Lev 6:27) but could not pass along that holiness to a third object. Ceremonial uncleanness was transmitted much more easily than holiness, since anything touched by an unclean person became unclean (see Nu 19:11–13, 22; see also “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East” and “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East.”)

2:16 For “wine vat,” see “The Winepress.”

2:17 The blight was probably caused by a scorching east wind (the sirocco), which blows in from the desert in late spring and early fall, often withering vegetation.

2:19 Grapes, figs and pomegranates ripened in August and September; olives, from September to November (see “Food and Agriculture”). These harvests, like the earlier grain crops, in this instance had produced little (see 1:11 and its note).

2:23 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.
A signet was a kind of seal, the impression of which in clay or wax functioned as a signature (see Est 8:8). A signet, worn on one’s finger (as here and in Est 3:10) or on a cord around one’s neck (see “Signet Rings”), could be used as a pledge or guarantee of full payment. Its mention here apparently reversed the curse placed upon King Jehoiachin in Jeremiah 22:24. Zerubbabel was himself a guarantee that the future glory of the temple would be realized.

1:1 The date was October—November 520 B.C. Zechariah was not only a prophet but also a member of a priestly family. Born in Babylonia, he was among those who returned to Judah in 538/537 B.C. under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua. Zechariah was a contemporary of Haggai but continued his ministry long after him.
See “Prophets in the Bible and Pagan Nations.”

1:4 The “earlier prophets” included Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

1:7–6:15 Zechariah was the grandson of Iddo, the head of one of the priestly families that returned from the exile (Ne 12:4, 16; see also the introduction to Zechariah and the note on 1:1). Twenty years after the return the temple still lay a blackened ruin, and the discouraged populace could not imagine how it could be restored. At this critical moment God raised up the prophets Haggai and Zechariah to encourage the Jews to rebuild the temple. The prophecies of the two men were delivered at almost the same time. Haggai appeared first, in August of 520 B.C., and within a month of his appeal the foundation of the temple was laid. Soon afterward Zechariah uttered his first prophecy (1:1–6). Haggai finished his recorded prophecies in the same year. The following year Zechariah delivered a message consisting of eight symbolic visions, along with an appendix (1:7–6:15). Two years later he gave a third message in answer to an inquiry by the men of Bethel regarding the observance of a fast. The two prophecies in chapters 9–14 are not dated but were probably given at a much later period (see the introduction).

1:7 The date was February 15, 519 B.C., about three months after that of verse 1.

1:8–17 The purpose of this first of eight symbolic night visions was to assure the Israelites of God’s special care for and interest in them. See also the notes on 1:18–21, 2:1–13, 3:1–10, 4:1–14, 5:1–4, 5:5–11 and 6:1–8.

1:8 Zechariah experienced all eight visions (1:7–6:8) during the course of one night. They were not dreams (see 4:1), for the prophet was fully awake.

1:11 For “angel of the LORD,” see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

1:12 See “The 70 Years of Captivity.”

1:15 While the Persian Empire as a whole was secure at this time, the Israelites in Judah were oppressed and still under foreign domination.

1:18–21 The four horns and the four craftsmen taught the Israelites that, with their enemies destroyed, there was no longer any opposition to the building of God’s house.

1:18 Zechariah’s second vision was a vivid picture of the destruction of the nations that had devastated Israel (v. 19). If the number four is to be taken literally, the reference is probably to Assyria, Egypt, Babylonia and Persia.

1:20 If the number four is to be understood literally, the reference here, unlike that in verse 18, may be to Egypt, Babylonia, Persia and Greece.

2:1–13 The man with the measuring line taught the Israelites that Jerusalem would expand until it outgrew its walls and that God would be its only sure defense.

2:6 The “land of the north” was Babylonia, which in fact lay to the east. But since a desert separated Assyria and Babylonia from Israel/Judah, invading armies regularly attacked from the north.

2:8 For “the apple of his eye,” see “Early Scribal Emendation.”

2:11 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.

2:12 The land was rendered holy chiefly because it was the site of the earthly throne and sanctuary of the holy King (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God”).

3:1–10 In this fourth vision Joshua, the high priest, clad in filthy garments that represented his own sins and those of the people, was cleansed and given charge of the temple. He is depicted here as a type or representation of the future Messiah-Branch who would take away all iniquity.

3:1 The names Joshua and Jeshua were common in ancient times. The Greek equivalent is spelled “Jesus” in English.

3:4–5 Taking off his filthy clothing deprived Joshua of his priestly office but was also symbolic of the removal of sin. Putting a clean turban on his head reinstated him to his high-priestly function, so that Israel once again had a divinely authorized priestly mediator.

3:8 The word “branch” represents eighteen different Hebrew and four different Greek words in the Bible and is most notably used as a title applied to the Messiah as the offspring of David (here; see also Jer 23:5; 33:15).

3:10 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15 and for “sit under his vine and fig tree” the note on Micah 4:4.

4:1–14 The fifth of Zechariah’s night visions—of a seven-branched lampstand fed by two olive trees—assured the returnees that the people of God would receive his grace through their spiritual and temporal leaders, through whose efforts the prosperity of the nation would be accomplished.

4:1–3 The bowl providing fuel for the lampstand signified an abundant supply of oil, thus symbolizing the fullness of God’s power through his Spirit. On either side of the bowl stood an olive tree, together representing two men chosen by God to serve him—Joshua the priest (3:1–10) and Zerubbabel, the governor of Judah (Hag 1:1). Zerubbabel, the heir to David’s throne (Hag 2:20–23; Mt 1:13), is not referred to as a king. The roles of priest and prince (king) melded together here, and the New Testament depicts Jesus as the fulfillment of this priest-king ideal.

4:8 This verse introduces a prophetic oracle (see “Oracles of the Ancient World”).

5:1–4 The vision of the flying scroll taught the people that the land would be purified from wickedness when the temple was built and God’s law taught.

5:3 Although theft and perjury may have been the most common forms of lawbreaking at the time, they are probably intended here as representative sins. The people of Judah were guilty of infractions against the whole law.

5:5–11 A woman (typifying the flagrant sins of Israel) was carried off in this vision in a basket to the land of Babylon—a lesson to the returnees that God not only forgives the sins of his people but carries those sins away from their land.

5:8 “Wickedness” is a general word denoting moral, religious and civil evil—frequently used as an antonym of “righteousness” (e.g., Pr 13:6; Eze 33:12).

5:9 The two women were agents of God (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

6:1–8 In this final of Zechariah’s night visions, four war chariots went forth to protect God’s people, confirming God’s protective providence.

6:1 The “two mountains” may have been Mount Zion and the Mount of Olives, with the Kidron Valley between them. (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God” and “The Mount of Olives.”)

6:11 The Hebrew word here translated “crown” is not the same as that used for the high priest’s turban but refers instead to an ornate crown (cf. Rev 19:12).

6:12–13 Zerubbabel and Joshua represent, respectively, the two separate offices of king and priest (see the note on 4:1–3). The “Branch” (6:12) would hold both offices (v. 13). According to the Aramaic Targum (a paraphrase), the Jerusalem Talmud (a collection of religious instructions) and the Midrash (practical exposition), Jews early on regarded this verse as Messianic.

7:1–7 After the return from captivity, four annual fasts were held in memory of the national calamities through which the nation had passed. They are mentioned only in this passage and in 8:19. These fasts, established during the captivity, were held during the fourth, fifth, seventh and tenth months. The Mishnah (Taarith, iv, 6) and Jerome (Zachariam, viii) provide information on the historical events that these fasts were intended to commemorate (see the notes on 7:5; 8:19). By the time of Christ these fasts had fallen into disuse and were not revived until after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 70.

7:1 The date was December 7, 518 B.C., not quite two years after Zechariah’s eight visions (see the note on 1:7).

7:5 The fast of the fifth month commemorated the burning of the temple and the other important buildings (2Ki 25:8–10), while that of the seventh month marked the anniversary of Gedaliah’s assassination (2Ki 25:22–25; Jer 39:14; 40:5–16; 41:1–18; 43:6; see detail in the paragraph to follow). Since these fasts commemorated events related to the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, the 70 years here are to be reckoned from 586 B.C. (see “The 70 Years of Captivity”). Strictly speaking, 68 years had transpired; 70 is a round number.
Gedaliah—a son of Shaphan, King Josiah’s secretary and the governor of Mizpah—had shared Jeremiah’s views and protected him from the anti-Chaldeans. Nebuchadnezzar had made Gedaliah governor, but he had ruled for only two months before his treacherous murder. See “Gedaliah, Governor of Judah, and Baalis, King of Ammon.”

7:7 For “earlier prophets,” see the note on 1:4.
For “the Negev,” see “The Negev: Its Climate and Features.”

7:10 In the ancient Near East the ideal king was expected to protect the oppressed and needy members of society. For commentary on the Biblical concern for such people, see “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

8:1 See the note on 4:8.

8:3 For “the Holy Mountain,” see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God.”

8:9 The “prophets” include Haggai (1:1) and Zechariah (1:1; see also Ezr 5:1–2).

8:16 “Courts” is literally “gates” (see the note on Pr 24:7; see also “The City Gate”).

8:17 To “swear falsely” was to commit perjury (see the note on 5:3).

8:18 See the note on 4:8.

8:19 The fast of the fourth month lamented the breaching of the walls of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (2Ki 25:3–4; Jer 39:2), while that of the tenth month mourned the beginning of Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem (2Ki 25:1; Jer 39:1; Eze 24:1–2). For the fasts of the fifth and seventh months, see the note on Zechariah 7:5.

8:23 In Hebrew, the number ten is used to indicate a large or complete number.
For “Jew,” see the note on Jeremiah 34:9.

9:1–8 As history shows, the agent of God’s judgment was Alexander the Great (333–332 B.C.).

9:1–2 Hadrach is Hatarikka, north of Hamath (see the note on Isa 10:9) on the Orontes River. Damascus was the capital city of Aram (see “Damascus”), and Tyre and Sidon were Phoenician (modern Lebanese) coastal cities (see “The Downfall of Tyre” and “Sidon”).

9:3–4 Tyre was a center of trade and commerce, and her wealth—much of which was gained through exploitation of commercial sea lanes in the Mediterranean—was proverbial. Tyre consisted of both a mainland city and an island city one half mile (.8 km) offshore, both well fortified. Tyre fell to Alexander the Great in July of 332 B.C., following a seven-month siege (see “The Downfall of Tyre”).

9:5 Ashkelon, Gaza and Ekron were three of the five major Philistine cities (see “The Archaeology of Philistia”). As the northernmost city of Philistia, Ekron would be the first to suffer. Her hope that Tyre would stem the tide would meet with disappointment. Detail regarding the subsequent history of each of these cities follows:
Zechariah prophesied that Ashkelon would see the destruction of Tyre and that the city itself would be destroyed. Apparently, however, it was rebuilt, for Herod the Great (see “Herod the Great”) was born there, and Roman ruins have been excavated. During the Crusades it came to life again, and Richard Coeur de Lion held court there. Later still, the town reverted to the Saracens. Archaeological remains are sparse: a ruined and overgrown Byzantine church; a quadrangle with some preserved columns and foundation walls of an odium (tiered council chamber), attributed by the excavators to Herod the Great; some statues belonging to the facade of the odium; and a third-century A.D. painted tomb. The oldest evidence of occupation there, from the area near the beach, dates to approximately 2000 B.C.
The predictions that Gaza would be forsaken (Zep 2:5) and that its king would perish (Zec 9:4; i.e., its Persian satrap, or petty king subordinate to the great king of Persia) were fulfilled by Alexander the Great, who took the city in 332 B.C., after it had resisted his siege for two months. He bound Betis the satrap to a chariot and dragged him around the city, and he killed 10,000 of its inhabitants and sold the rest as slaves. The town was desolated again by fire and sword by the Maccabees in 96 B.C. In turn, Gaza passed under the control of Syria and Rome.
Philip would centuries later meet the Ethiopian eunuch on “the road—the desert road—that goes down from Jerusalem to Gaza” (Ac 8:26). Once Gaza was the seat of a Christian church and bishop in the midst of Greek culture and temples, but most of its inhabitants turned to Islam in A.D. 634. Today of its 20,000 residents only a few hundred are Christians. Modern Ghuzzeh, the metropolis of the Gaza Strip, is crowded with Arab refugees today. North of Ghuzzeh lies an extensive olive grove whose fruit is used to make soap. The city’s trade in grain is considerable, the grain still being ground by millstones such as Samson was forced to work at in his prison house at Gaza (Jdg 16:21). The tel el Muntar, or “hill of the watchman” (“watchtower” is mentioned in 2Ki 18:8), southeast of Gaza, is the hill up which Samson carried the gates of the city (Jdg 16:3).
In Assyrian inscriptions Ekron appears as Amquarruna. Sennacherib assaulted the city and killed its officials because of their disloyalty to Assyria. Esarhaddon called on 22 cities that paid tribute to him (Ekron being one) to help transport building supplies for his palace. Ashurbanipal included Ekron in his listing of cities that paid him tribute. The Greek form of Ekron, Accaron, appears in 1 Maccabees 10:89 (an Apocryphal book) and in accounts of the Crusades. Its modern site is ’Agir or Catrah, both on the Wadi Surar.

9:6 “Foreigners” is a reference to people of mixed nationality; they characterized Israel during the postexilic period (Ne 13:23–24).
Ashdod was the fourth remaining city in the Philistine group (see the note on Zep 2:5). At one time the Philistines’ control of Canaan (see “Canaan” and “The Archaeology of Philistia”) was so extensive that the land was eventually named after them (“Palestine”).
In the Septuagint and in the New Testament Ashdod is Azotus. Philip the evangelist found himself there after the Holy Spirit had taken him away from the Ethiopian eunuch (Ac 8:40).

9:7 The Philistines offered idolatrous sacrifices and ate food that was forbidden because it was ceremonially unclean (see Lev 11; see also “Clean and Unclean Foods in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).
The Jebusites were ancient inhabitants of Jerusalem (see “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament” and “The Jebusites”).

9:8 After his conquest of the region Alexander the Great spared the temple and the city of Jerusalem.

9:9 A donkey was a lowly animal of peace (contrast the war-horse of v. 10), as well as a princely mount. The royal mount used by David and his sons was the mule (see 2Sa 13:29). This verse, quoted in the New Testament as Messianic, refers ultimately to the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem as King (Mt 21:5; Jn 12:15).

9:10 For “chariots” and “war-horses,” see “Horses and Chariots in Ancient Warfare.”

9:11 “Waterless pit” refers to an empty cistern, sometimes used as a detention cell (see “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World”).

9:13 The initial fulfillment of this verse is evidently found in the conflict in the second century B.C. between the Maccabees (“Zion”) and the Seleucids of Syria (“Greece” after the breakup of Alexander’s empire). But the complete fulfillment looks beyond that to the future, when God’s people will gain the victory over their enemies. (see “The Seleucids” and “The Intertestamental Period.”)

9:15–16 Although the book of 1 Maccabees (an Apocryphal work never accepted into the standard Protestant canon) likely records an initial fulfillment of verse 15, the phrase “on that day” (v. 16; see the note on Joel 1:15) gives the passage an eschatological, or end times, tone.

10:1 The Lord, not the Canaanite god Baal, controls the weather, conferring life and fertility upon the land (see the note on Jdg 2:13; see also “Baal and the Fertility Cults”).

10:2 “Idols” refers to household gods that were used for divination during the period of the judges (see Jdg 17:5; see also “Akkadian Divination”). Resorting to such sources for information and guidance was expressly forbidden to God’s people (Dt 18:9–14).
It was common practice in the ancient Near East to refer to leaders as “shepherds” and to the people as their “sheep” or “flock” (see “Shepherding in the Ancient World”).

10:4 The Targum (ancient Aramaic paraphrase) indicates that this verse is Messianic.

10:5 This verse was partly fulfilled in the Maccabean victories (see “The Intertestamental Period”).

10:8 The use of the word “signal” (lit., “whistle”) is a continuation of the shepherd metaphor (see the note on v. 2).
The Hebrew for “redeem” is often used of ransoming from slavery or captivity (see the note on Hos 3:2; see also “Slavery and Labor Law in the Ancient Near East” and “The Kinsman-Redeemer”).

10:10 Egypt and Assyria probably represent all the countries to which the Israelites had been dispersed.
Gilead, a region southeast of the Sea of Galilee, was known for its fertile pasturelands.
Lebanon was famed for its great trees, particularly its cedars (see “Cedars of Lebanon”), as well as for its hordes of birds and alpine animals. It was a beautiful and majestic region.

10:11 A scepter was a rod held in the hand of a king as a token of authority. It indicated sovereignty in general, and perhaps even conquest (see also Nu 24:17; Isa 14:5; Am 1:5, 8). God’s kingship is also represented in this way (Ps 45:6). The use of the scepter by an oriental monarch is illustrated by the account of King Xerxes, who held out his scepter to Esther as a mark of favor (Est 5:1–2). The scepter of Xerxes was fashioned of gold, but Ezekiel referred to scepters made from vine branches (Eze 19:11, 14). When Jesus was mocked as a king, a reed or staff was placed in his hand as a scepter (Mt 27:29).

11:2 For “Bashan,” see the note on Ezekiel 39:18. The Israelites had taken this region from the Amorite king Og at the time of the conquest of Canaan (Nu 21:33–35), and it had later been allotted to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:29–30; 17:5).

11:3 Lions used the thickets for their lairs (see “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel”).

11:4–5 The “flock” refers to Israel (see the note on 10:2)—the sheep (the Jews) had been bought as slaves by outsiders. This prophecy was partly fulfilled in A.D. 70, when Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed, and the following years. “Those who sell them” refers, on the other hand, to their own shepherds (i.e., their rulers or leaders).

11:8 The three shepherds cannot be specifically identified.

11:9 According to the ancient Jewish historian Josephus (see “Historians in the Ancient World”), cannibalism occurred during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (see the note on Jer 19:9; see also “Josephus and the Fall of Jerusalem”).

11:14 The breaking up of the nation into parties hostile to each other was characteristic of later Jewish history. This trend greatly hindered the popular cause in the war against Rome (cf. Jn 11:48).

11:16 A selfish, greedy, corrupt leader would arise and afflict the flock (the people of Israel).

11:17 The prophecy of “the worthless shepherd” may have found partial historical fulfillment in such leaders as Simeon Bar Kokhba, who led the Jewish revolt against the Romans in A.D. 132–135 and who was hailed as the Messiah by Rabbi Akiba (see “The Intertestamental Period”). But it would seem that the final stage of the progressive fulfillment of this prophecy awaits the rise of the ultimate antichrist (cf. Eze 34:2–4; Da 11:36–39; Jn 5:43; 2Th 2:3–10; Rev 13:1–8).

12:3 For “that day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.

12:6 See the note on hearths and home heating at Psalm 102:3.

12:11 Hadad Rimmon (today called Rummaneh, “place of pomegranates”) probably refers in this context to a site in the valley of Megiddo (see “Megiddo”) where the people mourned the death of Judah’s last good king, Josiah (2Ch 35:20–27). Alternatively, it may refer to a Semitic storm god (see 2Ki 5:18), whose name means “Hadad the thunderer” in Babylonian (as in the Epic of Gilgamesh). (see “Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh” and “Syria/Aram.”) See also Ezekiel 8:14 for an example of the practice of weeping for a Babylonian deity (see “Mourning for Tammuz”).

13:2 “Prophets” refers here to false prophets. False prophecy was still a problem during the postexilic period (see Ne 6:12–14) and would again be so in the future (see Mt 24:4–5, 11, 23–24; 2Th 2:2–4).

13:4 Matthew 3:4 and Mark 1:6 state that John the Baptist wore a garment of camel’s hair. It is probable, however, that this article of clothing was not actually made of the relatively expensive woven camel’s hair but of dressed camel’s skin. Such garments are still used in the Near East. Some scholars suspect that Elijah’s mantle was made of camel’s hair (2Ki 1:8).

13:6 Apparently the accuser suspected that the false prophet’s wounds were self-inflicted to arouse his prophetic ecstasy in idolatrous rites (as in 1Ki 18:28; see also “Tattoos and Self-Laceration in Ancient Religion”).

13:7 “My shepherd” is a reference to the royal (Messianic) Good Shepherd. Jesus quoted phrases from this verse (regarding the striking of the shepherd and the scattering of the sheep) not long before his arrest (Mt 26:31; Mk 14:27). He applied the scattering of the sheep to the dispersal of the apostles (Mt 26:56; Mk 14:49–50), who in turn are probably typological of the dispersion of the Jews in A.D. 70 and subsequent years.

14:4 For commentary on the Mount of Olives, see the note on Ezekiel 11:23 and “The Mount of Olives.”

14:5 Four earthquakes are recorded in Scripture: the one that occurred at Mount Horeb for Elijah’s benefit (1Ki 19:11); the one referred to by Amos (Am 1:1) and Zechariah (here) as occurring in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah; the one that happened at the resurrection of Jesus (Mt 28:2); and the one that freed Paul and Silas from prison (Ac 16:26). An earthquake is mentioned in Isaiah 29:6 as a form of judgment from the Lord on the enemies of his people. This is in line with the steady Biblical testimony that all natural phenomena—earthquake, wind, storm, rain, hail and the rest—are under divine, sovereign control and are part of God’s armory for ruling the world in righteousness.

14:8 The Dead Sea is alternately called in Scripture the Salt Sea (Ge 14:3), the Sea of the Arabah (Dt 3:17) or the eastern sea (here and in Joel 2:20). It has the earth’s lowest surface, 1,300 feet (400 m) below sea level. Occupying a geologic fault that extends from Syria through the Red Sea into Africa, it measures 47 by 10 miles (76 x 16 km). Its cliffs rise 1,500–2,500 feet (457–762 m) on either shore. North of Lisan, “the tongue,” the water’s depth attains 1,300 feet (400 m), although southward it averages less than 10 feet (3 m). The Dead Sea is slowly expanding, as the muddy Jordan extends its northern delta. Salt concentration reaches 25 percent, four times that of ocean water. Magnesium bromide prevents organic life, and the climate is arid and the heat extreme.

14:10 This verse describes the entire city of, as well as the area around, Jerusalem: Geba was located about 6 miles (10 km) north-northeast of Jerusalem at the northern boundary of Judah. Rimmon was about 35 miles (56 km) south-southwest of Jerusalem, where the hill country of Judah slopes away into the Negev. The Arabah runs from the Sea of Galilee to the Gulf of Aqaba, although at times the term Arabah is used to refer specifically to the desert valley extending from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba (see “The Geography of Ezekiel 47”). The Benjamin Gate, the First Gate and the Tower of Hananel were all probably located at the northeastern part of the city wall, while the Corner Gate was at its northwestern corner. The “royal winepresses” were just south of the city.

14:16 See “The Festivals of Israel.”

14:18 The Nile was the lifeline of Egypt; its annual flooding provided essential water and produced the only fertile soil there. Drought in the upper reaches of the Nile would have caused the annual flooding of the Nile to fail.

14:20 The phrase “HOLY TO THE LORD” was engraved upon the golden plate worn on the high priest’s turban (Ex 28:36–38) as a reminder of his consecration to the Lord’s service.

14:21 For “Canaanite,” see “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament.” Here the term represents anyone who was spiritually or morally unclean—anyone not included among the chosen people of God.

1:1–7 The Nabateans, an Arabian tribe named in the Apocrypha but not in the Bible, were nonetheless important to Bible history. Between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C. they moved to Edom and Moab (as alluded to here and in Ob 1–7). During Hellenistic times they were a formidable foe to the Greek successors of Alexander the Great, their capital, Petra, being inaccessible and virtually impregnable. While their king, Aretas I, befriended the early Maccabees, they were in conflict with the later Maccabees. By New Testament times their territory stretched from the Mediterranean Sea south of Gaza and the Red Sea, to the Euphrates, including Damascus. The Nabateans lost Damascus when the Romans came to the aid of the Jews against them, but they later recovered it, so that their king Aretas IV controlled it when Paul was there (2Co 11:32). Aretas IV struggled for power against the Herodian rulers and was victorious over Herod Antipas, who had divorced Aretas’s daughter to marry Herodias. Nabatea was absorbed into the Roman province of Arabia in A.D. 106. (see “Aretas IV or Nabatea and Petra.”)
The Nabateans, a nomadic people influenced by the Aramean, Hellenistic and Roman cultures, developed skill in pottery, fine specimens of which have been recovered. The architecture of Petra, “the rose-red city,” is remarkable; its religious high places, pillars and figures carved out of sandstone cliffs of a canyon are accessible only on foot or muleback. By 100 B.C. the Nabateans developed water storage and irrigation systems in the highlands of Transjordan, the remains of which are still impressive. Yet the Nabateans in the Sinai peninsula and other outlying districts remained nomadic. They were traders between Egypt and Mesopotamia, dealing also in wares from India and China, both overland by caravan and by sea from a port on the Aqaba.

1:1 For “oracle,” see the note on Isaiah 13:1; see also “Oracles of the Ancient World.”

1:2–4 Between about 550 and 400 B.C. the Nabatean Arabs gradually forced the Edomites (descendants of Esau) from their homeland (see the note on vv. 1–7 and “Edom”).

1:7 Since the priests ate from the sacrifices, the altar was also the table from which they received their food (see the note on Lev 3:11; see also “The Levites and the Priests”).

1:8 The “governor” probably refers to the Persian governor.

1:11 See “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East” and “Incense.”

1:14 An animal sacrificed in fulfillment of a vow had to be a male without defect or blemish (see Lev 22:18–23).

2:3 The “offal” was the content of the intestines of a sacrificial animal.

2:4 God’s “covenant with Levi” refers to God’s choice of the tribe of Levi for the priesthood (see Dt 21:5; see also “The Levites and the Priests”).

2:6–7 Priests were responsible for teaching the Law of Moses to the people (see Lev 10:11) and for serving as God’s messengers (see the note on Hag 1:13).

2:11 Marriages to foreign (pagan) women were strictly forbidden in the covenant law, not for ethnic or cultural reasons but because of the danger that they would lead to apostasy (see Ex 34:15–16; Dt 7:2–5; Jos 23:12–13).

2:14 From the earliest times (Ge 39:9), even outside the people of God (Ge 26:10), adultery was regarded as a serious sin. Along with other sexual offenses (e.g., Ge 34:7; Dt 22:21; Jdg 19:23; 2Sa 13:12), adultery was called an “outrageous thing” (Jer 29:23)—the Hebrew word being nebvamlamh (“wicked thing”); that is, behavior lacking moral principle or any recognition of proper obligation. Marriage is a covenant relationship; for this reason it imposes obligations not only on the partners but also on the community within which they have entered into their solemn, mutual vows. See “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel.”

3:2 The “day of his coming” refers to the day of the Lord (see the note on Joel 1:15).
“Launderer’s soap,” called “fuller’s soap” in some versions, was an alkali prepared from the ashes of certain plants and used for cleansing and “fulling” (shrinking or thickening) new woolen cloth. The term is used figuratively here.

3:5 Sorcerers were common in the ancient Near East (see “Akkadian Divination”).
“Perjury” (or “perjurers”) is a word rarely found in our English Bible (but see also Jer 7:9; 1Ti 1:10). It is closely related to several other Biblical words, such as “oath” or “punishment.” For “oaths,” see Leviticus 19:12 and Ezekiel 16:59; see also “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice.”

3:10 “Storehouse” refers to the treasury rooms of the temple, which were used to store provisions and valuable objects.

4:1 For “the day,” see the note on Joel 1:15.

4:3 See “The Winepress.”

4:4 “Horeb” is Mount Sinai (see “The Location of Mount Sinai”).

1:1 The Hebrews kept extensive records of a family’s ancestry (cf. 1Ch 1–9). These were used for practical and legal purposes: to establish a person’s heritage, inheritance, legitimacy and rights (see “Genealogies in Ancient Israel”). Luke followed the traditional approach of tracing lineage through males (Lk 3:23–38), but Matthew included five women (Bathsheba is not named but is described), three of whom were outsiders to Israel.

1:17 In the New Testament the word “generation” translates four Greek words, all having reference to descent: (1) genea, most frequently found in the Synoptic (or parallel) Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke), signifying the lines of descent from an ancestor (e.g., this v.); all the people living in a given period (e.g., 11:16); a class of people characterized by a certain quality (e.g., 12:39); or a period of time (Ac 13:36; Col 1:26); (2) genesis, in Matthew 1:1, in a heading to verses 2–17, used to mean “genealogy;” (3) gennçma, in the phrase “brood of vipers” (3:7; 12:34; 23:33; Lk 3:7); and (4) genos, meaning “race” (1Pe 2:9; KJV “generation”).

1:18 There were no sexual relations during a Jewish betrothal period, but this was a much more binding relationship than a modern engagement—breakable only by divorce. Verse 20 makes it clear that Mary and Joseph were legally bound to each other, though not yet living together as husband and wife. See “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel.”

1:19 In Deuteronomy 22:24 a betrothed woman is called a “wife,” although the preceding verse speaks of her as being “a virgin pledged to be married.” During the betrothal period, sexual unfaithfulness was considered adultery, the penalty for which was death by stoning (Lev 20:10; Dt 22:23–24). Joseph planned to have a private divorce—the only choice that would have allowed him to maintain his personal righteousness according to the Law of Moses and yet save Mary from public disgrace and possible death.

1:20 See “Dream Oracles in the Ancient World.”

1:21 For Jesus as Savior, see the note on Luke 2:11.

2:1–12 The word epiphany, which is not found in the Bible itself, comes from a Greek term meaning “manifestation.” The word originally marked a feast to celebrate the baptism of Jesus (3:16–17)—and still does so in the churches of Eastern Orthodoxy. The Lord had similarly “revealed his glory” at his first miracle in Cana of Galilee (Jn 2:11). From the fourth century, however, Epiphany has been linked with Christ’s manifestation of himself to the Magi, the first Gentiles who believed in him (Mt 2:1–12). In England it has become customary for the monarch to offer gold, myrrh and frankincense in the Chapel Royal every year on January 6, the day the feast is observed.

2:1 Bethlehem, a village about 5 miles (8 km) south of Jerusalem (see “Bethlehem” and “The Birthplace of Jesus”), is called “Bethlehem in Judea” to distinguish it from the town of Bethlehem about 7 miles (11.3 km) northwest of Nazareth.
Originally a religious caste among the Persians, Magi were devoted to astrology, divination and the interpretation of dreams. This led to an extension in the meaning of the word, and by the first century B.C. the terms magi and Chaldean were applied generally to fortune tellers and to the exponents of esoteric religious cults throughout the Mediterranean world. “Magus” or “sorcerer” is the name given to Simon in Acts 8:9, to Bar-Jesus in Acts 13:6 and to Elymas in Acts 13:8. The legend of “the Three Kings” is late and medieval.
The Magi were likely from Persia or southern Arabia, both of which lay east of the Holy Land. Herod (see “Herod the Great”) was “disturbed” (v. 3) by the Magi’s announcement because he knew he was not the rightful heir to Israel’s throne, having usurped power by aligning himself with Rome. The Magi’s visit likely caused him to fear that invading forces from the east might join others within Israel to replace him with a king from the true line of the anticipated Messiah. The religious leaders had aligned themselves politically with Herod. If his power base were threatened, so was theirs.

2:2 The “star” was probably not an ordinary star, planet or comet, though some interpreters have identified it with the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn or with some other astronomical phenomenon.

2:4 The chief priests were in charge of worship in the temple in Jerusalem. They included the ruling high priest, Caiaphas; the former high priest, Annas; and the high priestly families, all of whom were included in the Sanhedrin—the ruling Jewish council (see “The Sanhedrin”).
The teachers of the law were Jewish scholars of the day, professionally trained in the development, teaching and application of Old Testament law. Their authority was strictly human and traditional. They too were members of the Sanhedrin.

2:11 The Magi’s gifts (gold, incense and myrrh) were the most valuable, transportable and marketable items of the day, ideal for sustaining Mary and Joseph in another country (v. 14). Myrrh is probably to be identified with labdanum, an aromatic gum exuded from the leaves of the cistus rose. Its oil was used in beauty treatments and was sometimes mixed with wine and drunk to relieve pain. (see “Incense.”)

2:12 See “Dream Oracles in the Ancient World.”

2:16 The number killed has often been exaggerated as being in the thousands. In so small a village as Bethlehem, the actual number was probably not large—although the act was no less brutal.

2:22 Archelaus, one of the sons of Herod the Great, ruled over Judea and Samaria for only 10 years (4 B.C.–A.D. 6). Unusually cruel and tyrannical, he was deposed, after which Judea became a Roman province, administered by governors appointed by the emperor. See “The Postexilic Period of the Old Testament: the Roman and Herodian Periods”, “Herod’s Successors and Uneasy Relations Between Rome and the Jews” and “The Roman Governor.”

2:23 The word “Nazarene” was derived from Nazareth, the home-town of Jesus, who was often called a Nazarene. Used by his disciples and associates, the term had a friendly meaning (Ac 2:22; 3:6; 10:38). Jesus, in fact, applied it to himself (Ac 22:8). On the lips of his enemies, however, it was a title of scorn (Mt 26:71; Mk 14:67). It is not altogether certain what Matthew intended here. It is generally thought that he was referring to Isaiah 11:1, where the Messiah is called a netser, or shoot, out of the root of Jesse. The name Nazareth may be derived from the same word. Matthew saw a fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy in Jesus’ parents’ taking up their residence in Nazareth. See “Nazareth.”

3:1 The desert of Judea was an area that stretched some 20 miles (32 km) from the Jerusalem-Bethlehem plateau down to the Jordan River and the Dead Sea—perhaps the same region where John the Baptist lived (cf. Lk 1:80). The community of Qumran lived in this area too (see “Qumran and the New Testament” and “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis”).

3:4 Leather belts were used to bind up loose outer garments. Camel’s hair and a leather belt may also have been worn by Elijah and other Old Testament prophets (see 2Ki 1:8; Zec 13:4). It is probable, however, that such articles of clothing were not actually made of the relatively expensive woven camel’s hair but of dressed camel’s skin. Such garments are still used in the Near East.
No one living in the desert hesitated to eat insects, and locusts were among the ceremonially clean foods of which the Jews were free to partake (Lev 11:21–22; see “Clean and Unclean Foods in the Bible and the Ancient Near East” and “Locusts in the Ancient Near East”).

3:6 See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”

3:7 The Pharisees, the party of the synagogue, were a legalistic and separatist group who strictly kept the Law of Moses and the unwritten “tradition of the elders” (see the note on 15:2). Although they were comparatively few in number, the Pharisees enjoyed the support of the people and influenced popular opinion, if not national policy. They were the only party to survive the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70 and were the spiritual progenitors of modern Judaism. See “The Pharisees.”
The Sadducees were a Jewish party that represented the wealthy and sophisticated classes. They were more politically minded than the Pharisees and denied the resurrection, angels and spirits. They were located largely in Jerusalem and made the temple and its administration their primary interest. Though they too were a relatively small group, in Jesus’ day they exerted powerful political and religious influence. See “The Sadducees.”

3:11 See the note on John 1:27.

3:16–17 For commentary on Epiphany, which originally celebrated the event of Jesus’ baptism, see the note on 2:1–12.

4:1 The temptations took place (1) in the desert region of the lower Jordan Valley, (2) on a high mountain (possibly one of the abrupt cliffs near Jericho that present an unsurpassed panorama) and (3) on the highest point of the temple, from which the priests sounded the trumpet to call the city’s attention to important events.

4:5 The temple, including the entire temple area, had been rebuilt by Herod the Great (see “Herod’s Temple”), and during the renovation the courtyard had been greatly enlarged. To accomplish this, a huge platform had been erected to compensate for the sharp falling off of the land to the southeast. An enormous retaining wall constructed of massive stones had been built to support the platform. On the platform stood the temple building, porches and courtyards, flanked by beautiful colonnades.

4:12–16 The northern part of Naphtali was inhabited by a mixed race of Jews and pagans (Jdg 1:33). Its Israelite population had been carried away captive to Assyria and had been replaced by a colony of pagan immigrants (2Ki 15:29; 17:24). Hence the region was called “Galilee of the nations” and its people “Gentiles” (Isa 9:1; Mt 4:13, 15–16). During and after the captivity the predominant mixture of Gentile races impoverished the worship of Judaism, and for the same reason the Galilean accent and dialect were noticeably peculiar (26:73). This caused the southern Jews of “purer” blood and orthodox tradition to despise the Galileans (Jn 1:46; 7:52).
Yet Galilee’s very darkness was the Lord’s reason for granting more of the light of his presence and ministry to this region than to self-satisfied and privileged Judea. Christ was sent for “a light for the Gentiles” (Isa 42:6), as well as to the “lost sheep of Israel” (Mt 15:24). Galilee’s very debasement made some of its people feel more acutely their need of the Savior. This and its comparative freedom from priestly and pharisaical prejudice may have been additional reasons for its receiving the larger share of the Lord’s ministry. See “Galilee in Jesus’ Time.”

4:13 Capernaum was evidently a sizable town in Jesus’ day (see “Capernaum”). Peter’s house there became Jesus’ base of operations during his extended ministry in Galilee. A fifth-century basilica now stands over the supposed site of Peter’s house, and a fourth-century synagogue is located a short distance from it (see “Houses in the Holy Land of the First Century A.D.: Peter’s House in Capernaum; Insulae”).

4:15 The “way to the sea” was the trade route through the tribal territories of Zebulun (including Nazareth) and Naphtali (including Capernaum) to the Mediterranean. Ever since the region had been reduced to an Assyrian province in 732 B.C. (see 2Ki 15:29), it had experienced turmoil and a strong Gentile influence.

4:21 James and John were probably washing, mending and hanging up their nets to dry in preparation for the next day’s work. In 1986 the remains of a 2,000-year-old typical fisherman’s boat were located off the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee. Its discoverers named it the Jesus Boat. See “Fishing in New Testament Times.”

4:23 The synagogues (see “Ancient Synagogues”) provided a place for Jesus to teach on the Sabbath. During the week he preached to larger crowds in the open air.

4:24 Syria is the area north of Galilee and between Damascus and the Mediterranean Sea (see “Syria/Aram”).
The Greek word translated “those having seizures” originally meant “moonstruck” and reflects the ancient superstition that seizures were caused by changes of the moon.

4:25 The Decapolis was a league of free cities characterized by Greek culture. All but one, Scythopolis (Beth Shan), were situated east of the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River. The league stretched from a point northeast of the Sea of Galilee southward to Philadelphia (modern Amman, Jordan).

5:1–7:29 The site of the Sermon on the Mount (see also Lk 6:20–49) is not identified in the Gospels. Tradition has associated it with Karn Hattin, near Capernaum, but with very little factual basis.
The word sermon in this context is misleading to the modern mind. Matthew did not say that Jesus arose, entered the pulpit and delivered a sermon that he had formally prepared in a quiet library. The crowds were following him (Mt 5:1; Lk 6:17) to see his miracles. He went up the mountain a little way so that his immediate followers would be nearer than the rest and then came down with them to a level place (Lk 6:17), still in “the mountain.” Presently he sat down and began to teach, with special attention to the disciples who were nearby.
The Biblical writers, of course, used no quotation marks, and it is important for us to understand that they did not claim to record Jesus’ quotations word for word. Neither did they claim to include all that was spoken on any given occasion. They did assert, however, that their words were a true presentation of the substance of what they quoted. The “sermon,” then, is a student’s (Matthew’s) report of a class lecture and discussion. The fact that there are digressions from a formal outline (Mt 5:25–26, 29–30), in fact, evidences the genuineness of the record.

5:3–11 The word beatitude is not found in the English Bible. It means either (1) the joys of heaven or (2) a declaration of blessedness, especially as made by Christ. Beatitudes occur frequently in the Old Testament (e.g., Ps 32:1–2; 41:1; 65:4), and the Gospels contain isolated beatitudes by Jesus (Mt 11:6; 13:16; 16:17; 24:46 with the Lukan parallels; Jn 13:17; 20:29). But the word is most commonly used of the declarations of blessedness made by Jesus in the discourse recorded here by Matthew, as well as the one recounted by Luke (Lk 6:20–22)—called, respectively, the “Sermon on the Mount” and the “Sermon on the Plain.” Scholars do not agree whether we have here two different records of the same discourse or records of two different but similar speeches/dialogues.

5:8 The heart was considered the center of one’s being, including mind, will and emotions (see the note on Ps 4:7). See also “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”

5:13 Salt was used for flavoring and for preserving (see also the note on Lev 2:13). Most of the salt used in Israel came from the Dead Sea and was full of impurities, causing it to lose some of its flavor.

5:15 In Jesus’ day people used small clay lamps that burned olive oil drawn up by a wick. The common New Testament mention of lamps is in connection with their household usage (5:15; Mk 4:21; Lk 8:16; 11:33; 15:8). Because they gave off only modest light, they were strategically positioned for maximum benefit. Such lamps were generally placed on a “lampstand,” often a niche built into the wall. It appears that the Hebrews were accustomed to burning lamps overnight in their chambers, perhaps because of a dread of darkness but more likely to keep away prowlers. The use of oil-fed lamps in a marriage procession is mentioned in Matthew 25:1. Since such lamps contained only a few spoonfuls of oil, a reserve supply would have been a necessity.

5:18 The Greek word iota (translated here “smallest letter”) is the nearest Greek equivalent to the Hebrew yodh, the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The Greek word translated here as “least stroke of a pen” means “horn” and was used to designate the slight embellishment or extension of certain letters of the Hebrew alphabet (somewhat like the bottom [descender] of the letter j).

5:20 For “teachers of the law” in the New Testament, see the note on Acts 5:34.

5:22 Raca, possibly related to the Aramaic word for “empty,” may thus mean “Empty-headed!”
The Greek word for hell is ge(h)enna, which derives its name from a deep ravine south of Jerusalem, the “Valley of (the Sons of) Hinnom.” During the reigns of the wicked kings Ahaz and Manasseh, human sacrifices to the Ammonite god Molech were offered there. It became a sort of perpetually burning city dump and later a figure for the place of final punishment. See “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East” and “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

5:26 The penny was the smallest Roman copper coin.

5:32 The Greek word translated here as “marital unfaithfulness” refers to illicit sexual activity—in this case, adultery.

5:33–37 See “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice” and “Speech Ethics.”

5:39 Striking someone on the cheek was more an insult than considered an act of violence (see “Bywords and Insults in the Ancient World”).

5:40 The tunic was an undergarment and the cloak a loose outer one. Since the outer garment was wrapped around the individual for sleeping, Old Testament law prohibited anyone from taking it as a pledge overnight (see Ex 22:26–27; Dt 24:12–13; see also “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry” and “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World”).

5:43 Hatred of one’s enemies was an accepted part of the Jewish ethic at that time in some circles.

5:46 Traditionally known as “publicans;” tax collectors were men employed by Roman tax contractors to collect taxes (see “Roman Taxation”). Because they worked for Rome and often demanded unreasonable payments, the tax collectors gained a bad reputation and were generally hated and considered traitors.

6:1–2 In later Judaism the righteousness of almsgiving became somewhat legalistic and professional. The lame man at the gate called Beautiful exemplified professional begging in that he daily “asked … for money” (Ac 3:2–3). Perversion in receiving alms is seen in the beggar’s cry, couching the tacit “bless yourself by giving to me.” Perversion in giving alms, on the other hand, is seen in benefactors who “announce it with trumpets,” probably to be taken figuratively (cf. today’s expression “toot your own horn”). Their desire “to be seen” by people involves the same term from which we derive our word “theater.”
Almsgiving was of two kinds: “alms of the dish” (food and money received daily for distribution) and “alms of the chest” (coins received on the Sabbath for widows, orphans, strangers and the poor).

6:5 Pious Jews prayed publicly at set times—usually morning, afternoon and evening (cf. Ps 55:17; Da 6:10; Ac 3:1).

6:6 The Greek word here translated “room” probably means “storeroom,” because unlike most of the rooms in the house, this one had a door that could be shut.

6:16 “Disfigure” here refers to disguising one’s face to publicize physical hardships endured while fasting (see “Fasting in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”). During the fasting period religious individuals in Jesus’ day might have somehow marked their faces, remained ungroomed and/or sprinkled ashes on their heads and faces. This was a pretentious way of letting others see and appreciate their extensive efforts to increase their godliness.

6:19 Houses in the Holy Land had walls made of mud bricks and could easily be broken into (see “Houses in the Holy Land of the First Century A.D.: Peter’s House in Capernaum; Insulae”).

6:30 Grass was commonly used to heat clay ovens in the Holy Land.

7:6 See “Dogs in the Ancient World.”

7:12 The so-called Golden Rule is found in negative form in Rabbinic Judaism and also in Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. It also occurred in various forms in Greek and Roman ethical teaching. Jesus, in contrast, stated it in positive form.

7:13–14 The image of two paths was common in Judaism. Sometimes the analogy was of separate roads leading in opposite directions—to paradise or to hell. At other times a narrow path of life’s hardships was pictured as ultimately leading to a broad path of eternal blessing.

7:24–27 The Sea of Galilee served as a natural setting for this parable. The sand ringing the lake was rock hard during the hot summer. But a wise builder would dig down, as far as ten feet (three m) below the surface sand to the bedrock, knowing that this was the only way to erect a foundation able to withstand the winter rains, which were notoriously torrential and capable of causing disastrous flooding.

8:1 See the note on 5:1.

8:2 Our picture of leprosy brings to mind the dreaded and debilitating Hansen’s disease, but other skin conditions may have been regarded as leprosy (see the NIV text note; see also “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World”).

8:3 See the note on Mark 1:41.

8:5 For “Capernaum,” see the note on 4:13. A centurion was a Roman military officer who was placed in charge of a centuria, a command that could be as small as 60 men or as large as 160 men, but that was typically comprised of 80 men.

8:12 For the meaning of gnashing with one’s teeth, see the note on Psalm 35:16.

8:14 For “Peter’s house,” see “Houses in the Holy Land of the First Century A.D.: Peter’s House in Capernaum; Insulae.” For “fever,” see “Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World.”

8:24 Crossing the Sea of Galilee after dark was common for fishermen, who used trammel nets through the night (see “Fishing in New Testament Times”). The lake’s setting results in sudden violent storms that produce waves seven feet (two m) or higher (see the note on Mk 4:37). This must have been a powerful storm for these seasoned fishermen to be so afraid.

8:28 The “region of the Gadarenes” was most likely the area around the city of Gadara, 6 miles (9.7 km) southeast of the Sea of Galilee. Mark and Luke identified the region by the capital city Gerasa, located about 35 miles (56 km) southeast of the Sea. See “Gergesenes, Gerasenes or Gadarenes?.”

8:30 Large numbers of Gentiles lived in Galilee (see “Galilee in Jesus’ Time”). Jews did not raise pigs, since they were considered the most ceremonially unclean of all animals.

8:31 The demons’ plea to move into the swine would have been welcome to Jews, who considered “unclean” pigs on a par with demons (see “Clean and Unclean Foods in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”). But this incident took place in Gentile territory; the pigs were most likely being raised commercially.

9:3 For “teachers of the law” in the New Testament, see the note on Acts 2:4.

9:9 Matthew, the son of Alphaeus (Mk 2:14) and a tax collector, was also called Levi (Mk 2:14; Lk 5:27). Since double names were common among the Jews, there can be little doubt that Levi and Matthew were one and the same person. Levi probably changed his name to Matthew (“gift of Yahweh”) when he became a disciple of Jesus.
Matthew may have collected tolls from commercial traffic or taxes for the fish caught on the Sea of Galilee—a heavy toll to extract from struggling Galileans. The Romans imposed tribute or tax (typically a road toll) on all their subjects for the maintenance of their provincial government (see the note on Mt 5:46; see also “Roman Taxation”).
The readiness with which Matthew responded to Jesus’ call seems to indicate that he had previously come into contact with Jesus and his teachings and had already decided to dedicate his life to Jesus’ cause. That Jesus should have chosen as his disciple a Jewish tax collector who was in the employ of the Roman government is indeed remarkable. Tax collectors were bitterly hated by their own countrymen and regarded as little more than traitors. However, Matthew’s background and talents must have been of great value to Jesus. As a tax collector Matthew was skilled at writing and keeping records. Apart from the mention of Matthew in the lists of the apostles (10:3; Mk 3:18; Ac 1:13), no further notices of him are found in the New Testament.

9:10 See “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs.”

9:11 For information on the Pharisees, see the note on 3:7.

9:17 See “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World.” In ancient times goatskins were used to hold wine. As the fresh grape juice fermented, the wine would expand, and the new wineskin would stretch. But a used skin, already stretched, would break.

9:20 The hemorrhaging woman was considered ritually unclean and was excluded from social and religious relations. Jesus’ healing of her removed the public stigma of her condition and smoothed the way for her reentry into social and religious life.

9:23 Musicians were hired to play in mourning ceremonies (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).

9:25 Touching a corpse rendered a person “unclean” (see Nu 19:14–16), but Jesus restored the girl to life, transforming uncleanness to purity.

10:3 For “Bartholomew,” see the note on Luke 6:14.
Thaddaeus is mentioned only twice in Scripture—in two of the four lists of the apostles (here and in Mk 3:18). In Matthew 10:3, the KJV renders this as “Lebbaeus, whose surname was Thaddaeus.” The other two lists (Lk 6:16 and Ac 1:13) insert Judas, the son of James instead of this name. Nothing else is known with certainty about this individual, but he may be mentioned in John 14:22. An unauthentic “Gospel of Thaddaeus” used to exist.

10:4 The label “the Zealot” either describes Simon’s religious zeal or is a reference to his membership in the party of the Zealots, a Jewish revolutionary group violently opposed to Roman rule over the Holy Land (see “The Zealots and the Essenes” below).
The Zealots were members of a Jewish patriotic party started during the time of Quirinius to resist Roman aggression. According to Josephus (Jewish Wars, 4.3.9; 5.1; 7.8.1), the Zealots resorted to violence and assassination in their hatred of the Romans, their fanatical violence eventually provoking the Roman war. Simon the Zealot was distinguished from Simon Peter by this epithet (Lk 6:15; Ac 1:13).

10:5 Samaritans were a mixed-blood race resulting from the intermarriage of Israelites left behind when the people of the northern kingdom were exiled and Gentiles brought into the land by the Assyrians (see the notes on 2Ki 17:24–41; 24:10–12). Bitter hostility existed between Jews and Samaritans in Jesus’ day. See “The Samaritans.”

10:8 See the NIV text note; see also “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World.”

10:9 For “belts,” see the note on Luke 10:4.

10:10 See “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry” and “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World.”

10:12 The Jewish greeting was shalom, meaning “peace.”

10:14 Shaking the dust off one’s feet was a symbolic act practiced by the Pharisees when they left a ceremonially unclean Gentile area. Here it represented an act of solemn warning to those who rejected God’s message.

10:15 See “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.”

10:17 “Local councils” refers to the lower courts, connected with local synagogues (see “Ancient Synagogues”). They tried less serious cases and flogged those found guilty.

10:25 Beelzebub is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Baal-Zebub. It is widely thought to mean “lord of the flies” and to be a parody on and mockery of Baal-Zebul, an ancient name of the god Baal that meant “Prince Baal.” The precise meaning of Beelzebub/Baal-Zebul is unknown, however, nor do we know how it came to be regarded as a name for Satan.

10:40–42 During times of persecution, hospitality was especially important and could entail danger for the host(s).

11:5 For “leprosy,” see the NIV text note; see also “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World.”

11:16–17 The New Testament word for “market” is agora, the civic center where people gathered for recreation (vv. 16–17), where the unemployed loafed (20:3, 6) and where the proud paraded (Mk 12:38; Lk 11:43). The agora was both a courtroom (Ac 16:19) and a forum (Ac 17:17). From a corner shop the market developed into a great urban multipurpose center. See “The Ancient Agora.”

11:21 See “Korazin.”
Tyre and Sidon were cities on the Phoenician coast north of the Holy Land (see “The Downfall of Tyre” and “Sidon”).
For “sackcloth,” see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”

11:23 For “Capernaum,” see the note on 4:13.

11:28 “The Pharisees placed burdens on the people by insisting on a strict adherence to the law (see 23:4; see also “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis”).

11:29–30 The chief work of a carpenter was making roofs, doors, window shutters, lattice squares and divan frames for houses, plows, and yokes. So Jesus knew about yokes, as well as about various other aspects of farm life.
The image of a yoke was commonly used in the Old Testament to describe Israel’s subjection to foreign oppression (Lev 26:13; Isa 10:24–27). By Jesus’ time, it also had become a metaphor in Judaism for the law. Jesus’ invitation was a stark contrast to the military burden of foreign oppressors or to the religious burden imposed by the Pharisees (see “The Pharisees”).

12:1 “Grainfields” included those for wheat and barley, the latter eaten by poorer people.

12:2 To a Pharisee, “what is unlawful” could have referred either to a Scriptural command or to a rabbi’s interpretation of that command (see the note on 3:7; see also “The Pharisees” and “Bible Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis”). The disciples could have been cited for any of several rabbinic taboos.

12:4 Each Sabbath, 12 fresh loaves of bread were to be set out on a table in the Holy Place (Ex 25:30; Lev 24:5–9). The old loaves were to be eaten by the priests.

12:9 For “synagogue,” see the note on Mark 1:21.

12:22–24 Ancient exorcists used a variety of incantations and spells; potions and herbs; and material articles, like rings, to try to manipulate the spirit world. Jesus commanded demons from his own authority, and they immediately submitted. The Pharisees attributed Jesus’ power to Satan. This charge of practicing magic under the influence of Satan was punishable by stoning.

12:38 For “teachers of the law” in the New Testament, see the note on 2:4.

12:40 To count a part of a day as a whole day was a common Jewish reckoning of time.
The Greek word translated here “huge fish” does not necessarily mean “whale” but rather denotes a large “sea creature.”

12:41 See “Nineveh.”

12:42 In 1 Kings 10:1 the “Queen of the South” is called the queen of Sheba, a country in southwestern Arabia (modern Yemen). See “Sheba.”

13:2 Rabbis usually taught from a sitting position.

13:3 For information on sowing seed, see the note on Luke 8:5.

13:5 “Rocky places” refers not to ground covered with small stones but to shallow soil on top of solid rock. Any moisture that fell there soon evaporated, and the germinating seed withered and died.

13:26 Zizanion, a kind of weed referred to as “darnel” or “tares,” has poisonous seeds but looks like wheat in its early stages of growth. Yet it is easily distinguishable at harvest.

13:31–32 The mustard seed is not the smallest seed known today, but it was the smallest used by farmers and gardeners in the Holy Land at that time. Under favorable conditions the mature plant could reach about ten feet (three m) in height. Using the mustard seed as a metaphor for the kingdom no doubt shocked Jesus’ audience, who expected God’s kingdom to be great and expansive.

13:33 Scripture almost always uses yeast as a negative image (see the note on Mk 8:15). But Jesus cited it to symbolize the positive, hidden permeation and growth of the kingdom of heaven within an unsuspecting world.

13:42 For the meaning of gnashing with one’s teeth, see the note on Psalm 35:16.

13:44 People in ancient times commonly hid valuables in fields (e.g., when a marauding army approached), since there were no banks—although there were “bankers” (see 25:27 and its note; see also “Banking and Money in the Ancient World”). These treasures might go hidden and unclaimed for generations.

13:48 See “Fishing in New Testament Times.”

13:54 Jesus’ hometown was Nazareth (see the note on 2:23). For information on teaching in the synagogue, see the note on Mark 1:21.

13:55 For “carpenter’s son,” see the note on Mark 6:3. Apparently Joseph was not living at the time of this incident. See “The Family of Joseph, Mary and Jesus.”

14:1 A tetrarch was the ruler of a fourth part of a region. “Herod the tetrarch” (Herod Antipas) was one of several sons of Herod the Great (see “Herod the Great”). When Herod the Great died, his kingdom was divided among three of his sons (see “Herod’s Successors and Uneasy Relations Between Rome and the Jews”). Herod Antipas ruled over Galilee and Perea (4 B.C.–A.D. 39).

14:3 Herodias was a granddaughter of Herod the Great. First she married her uncle, Herod Philip I (Herod the Great also had another son named Philip, called Philip II, born of a different wife). Philip I lived in Rome and did not rule after the death of his father, Herod the Great. While a guest in the home of Herodias and Philip I, Herod Antipas persuaded Herodias to leave her husband (his half brother) for him. When Herod Antipas married Herodias, John the Baptist publicly condemned him for marrying his half brother’s wife. Such a marriage would have been considered an incestuous affront to God’s law (Lev 18:16; 20:21). John was a threat to Herod politically, so Herod had him arrested to counter his influence with the people. Josephus stated that John was imprisoned at Machaerus, a fortress in Perea on the eastern side of the Dead Sea.

14:6 For Hebrew/Jewish feasting, see the note on 22:2–14.
According to Josephus, the “daughter of Herodias” (and Philip I) was Salome. She later married her granduncle, the other Philip (Philip II).

14:20 The New Testament makes reference to two kinds of baskets. The kophinos (here and in Mk 6:43; Jn 6:13) was a relatively small basket that could be carried on the back to hold provisions. Twelve of these baskets were used to gather the food that remained after the feeding of the five thousand. The spuris was considerably larger, as we know from its use in letting Paul down from the wall at Damascus (Ac 9:25). Seven of these were used to gather the food that was left after the feeding of the four thousand (Mt 16:9–10).

14:21 All four Gospels record this miracle, but only Matthew noted that the number 5,000 resulted from a tally of men only. Jews did not permit women and children to eat with men in public, so they were no doubt fed in a separate area. The total number of people may have stretched to 10,000 or more. The remote region offered no food for the people, but neither would such abundant staples likely have been on hand in the nearby villages.

14:25 The fourth watch was roughly 3:00–6:00 A.M. According to Roman reckoning, the night was divided into four watches: (1) 6:00–9:00 P.M., (2) 9:00 P.M.–midnight, (3) midnight–3:00 A.M. and (4) 3:00–6:00 A.M. The Jews had only three watches during the night: (1) sunset–10:00 P.M., (2) 10:00 P.M.–2:00 A.M. and (3) 2:00 A.M.—sunrise. It is helpful to bear in mind that these times are approximate. The ancient people did not have precise or standardized timekeeping devices (some used a kind of water-clock). Also, nighttime hours were longer in winter, when the nights were longer, and shorter in summer.

14:34 Mentioned only here and in Mark 6:53, Gennesaret is a plain stretching about three miles (five km) along the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee, extending about a mile (almost two km) inland (modern Ghuweir). With a rich, loamy, well-watered soil, it was and still is extraordinarily fertile, the only easily tillable land bordering the Sea of Galilee. Fig, olive, palm and walnut trees, all of which ordinarily require diverse conditions, grow well there.

15:1 For “teachers of the law,” see the note on 2:4.

15:2 After the Babylonian exile, the Jewish rabbis began to make meticulous rules and regulations governing the daily life of the people. These were interpretations and applications of the Law of Moses, handed down from generation to generation. In Jesus’ day this “tradition of the elders” was in oral form. It was not until about A.D. 200 that it was put into writing in the Mishnah. (see “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis.”)

15:21 Tyre was a Gentile city located in Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), which bordered Galilee to the northwest. Sidon was about 25 miles (40 km) north of Tyre. (see “The Downfall of Tyre” and “Sidon.”)

15:22 The term “Canaanite” is found many times in the Old Testament, but only here in the New. In New Testament times there was no country known as Canaan. Some think that this was the Semitic manner of referring to the people of Phoenicia at this time.

15:24 For “the lost sheep of Israel,” see the note on 4:12–16.

15:35 For Hebrew/Jewish feasting, see the note on 22:2–14.

15:39 Magadan was also called Magdala, the home of Mary Magdalene. Mark 8:10 renders this “Dalmanutha.”

16:1 For information on the Pharisees and Sadducees, see the note on 3:7. Normally these two groups were opponents, but they had a common enemy in Jesus.

16:6 For “yeast,” see the notes on 13:33 and Mark 8:15.

16:9–10 For “basket,” see the note on 14:20.

16:13 Caesarea Philippi is to be distinguished from the magnificent city of Caesarea Maritima, which Herod the Great had built on the Mediterranean coast. See “Caesarea Philippi” and “Caesarea Maritima.”

16:18 In the Gospels the word “church” is used only by Matthew (see also 18:17) although in the Septuagint the word is used for the congregation of Israel. In Greek circles of Jesus’ day it indicated the assembly of free, voting citizens in a city.
For “Hades,” see the note on Psalm 6:5; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

17:4 For “three shelters,” see the note on Mark 9:5.

17:5 For God’s shekînâh glory (his visible presence), see the note on Exodus14:19.

17:10 Traditional Jewish eschatology held that Elijah had to appear before the coming of the Messiah (see “Jewish Eschatology in the First Century A.D.”).

17:15 For “seizures,” see the note on 4:24.

17:20 For “mustard seed,” see the note on 13:31–32.

17:24 Unlike Matthew, who had collected taxes for the occupying Roman forces (9:9), these tax collectors represented the Jewish religious establishment in Jerusalem, overseeing the temple and its tax. The two-drachma tax was the annual temple tax required of every male twenty years of age and older (Ex 30:13; 2Ch 24:9; Ne 10:32). It was worth half a shekel (approximately two days’ wages) and was used for the upkeep of the temple.

18:6 The “large millstone” (lit., “millstone of a donkey”) was a millstone (either of two circular stones used for grinding grain) turned by a donkey. As such, it was far larger and heavier than the small millstones used by women each morning for grinding grain.

18:17 “Church” here refers to the local congregation (see the note on 16:18).
For “tax collector,” see the note on 5:46.

18:21 The standard teaching within Judaism (based on Job 33:29–30; Am 1:3; 2:6) was that three instances of forgiveness reflected a forgiving spirit. Peter’s offer to more than double that number was generous, probably reflecting his desire for the completeness the number seven usually represented. Jesus’ response—in essence that Peter was to forgive countless times—was astonishing.

18:28 For “a hundred denarii,” see the note on 20:2.