CONTENTS

1. List of Maps
2. Series Editor's Preface
3. Acknowledgments
4. Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia
5. PART I INNER EURASIA IN THE AGRARIAN ERA: 1260–1850
   1. 1 Inner Eurasia in the Late Thirteenth Century: The Mongol Empire at its Height
      1. The World in 1250
      2. Karakorum: The Mongol Empire at its Apogee, and a Puzzle
      3. Some Rules of Mobilization in Inner Eurasia
      4. The Final Years of the Mongol Empire
      5. Notes
      6. References
   2. 2 1260–1350: Unraveling and the Building of New Polities
      1. The Breakup of the Unified Mongol Empire: 1260
      2. The Left Wing: Mongolia and Yuan China
      3. The Center: Central Asia and Xinjiang
      4. The West and the Golden Horde
      5. Conclusion
      6. Notes
      7. References
   3. 3 1350–1500: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia
      1. The Crisis of the Mid-Fourteenth Century and the Fragmentation of the Golden Horde
      2. Central Asia and Timur
      3. Mobilization in the Kazakh and Mongolian Steppes
      4. Notes
      5. References
   4. 4 1350–1500: Western Inner Eurasia
      1. Picking the Bones of the Golden Horde
      2. Pastoralist Successor States
      3. The West: Agrarian Successor States and the Agrarian Smychka
      4. Notes
      5. References
   5. 5 1500–1600: Pastoralist and Oasis Societies of Inner Eurasia
      1. The First Global World System
      2. Mongolia in the Sixteenth Century
      3. The Kazakh Steppes
      4. Oasis Polities of Central Asia and the Tarim Basin
      5. The Pontic Steppes
      6. Notes
      7. References
   6. 6 1500–1600: Agrarian Societies West of the Volga
      1. Outer Eurasian or Borderland Polities
      2. Muscovy in the Sixteenth Century
      3. Notes
      4. References
   7. 7 1600–1750: A Tipping Point: Building a Russian Empire
      1. Global Processes and Impacts: The Little Ice Age and Globalization
      2. Breakdown and Recovery of the Muscovite Mobilization Machine
      3. Renovating the Mobilization Machine in the Seventeenth Century
      4. Expansion in the Seventeenth Century
      5. The Early Eighteenth Century: The Russian Empire as a Great Power
      6. Expansion in the Early Eighteenth Century
      7. Notes
      8. References
   8. 8 1600–1750: A Tipping Point: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia between Russia and China
      1. Muscovite Expansion into Siberia and First Contacts with China
      2. Mongolia: Qing Hegemony and the Defeat of the Zunghar Empire
      3. Central Inner Eurasia: The Urals and the Kazakh Steppes
      4. Notes
      5. References
   9. 9 1750–1850: Evolution and Expansion of the Russian Empire
      1. Introduction: Global Processes and Impacts
      2. Reunifying Inner Eurasia
      3. The Russian Heartland: A Mobilizational Plateau
      4. Notes
      5. References
6. PART II INNER EURASIA IN THE ERA OF FOSSIL FUELS: 1850–2000
   1. 10 1850–1914: The Heartland: Continued Expansion and the Shock of Industrialization
      1. A New Energy Regime: The Fossil Fuels Revolution
      2. The Fossil Fuels Revolution in Inner Eurasia: New Challenges and Possibilities
      3. The Imperial Heartland: 1850–1900
      4. Destabilization and Restabilization: 1900–1914
      5. Notes
      6. References
   2. 11 1750–1900: Beyond the Heartlands: Inner Eurasian Empires, Russian and Chinese
      1. Introduction
      2. The Changing Nature of Russian Empire Building
      3. The Kazakh Steppes
      4. Transoxiana
      5. Russia in Siberia and the Far East
      6. China's Inner Eurasian Empire
      7. Conclusions
      8. Notes
      9. References
   3. 12 1914–1921: Unraveling and Rebuilding
      1. Introduction
      2. War: 1914–February 1917
      3. 1917: February to October
      4. A Contest to Build a New Order: Civil War, 1918–1921
      5. Conclusion: The Return of the Past
      6. Notes
      7. References
   4. 13 1921–1930: New Paths to Modernity
      1. Introduction: The Soviet Union in the 1920s: Alternative Futures
      2. The New Economic Policy
      3. Building a New Mobilization Machine
      4. Notes
      5. References
   5. 14 1930–1950: The Stalinist Industrialization Drive and the Test of War
      1. Introduction
      2. The Left Turn and Collectivization: 1929–
      3. Industrialization and the Building of a New Military Apparatus
      4. The Stalinist Mobilizational Machine
      5. Benefits and Costs: Mobilization v. Efficiency
      6. The “Great Patriotic War” and its Aftermath: 1941–1953
      7. After the War: 1945–1953
      8. Conclusions
      9. Notes
      10. References
   6. 15 1900–1950: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia
      1. Beyond the Heartland
      2. Central Inner Eurasia: Kazakhstan and Transoxiana
      3. Siberia, 1900–1950
      4. The Former Chinese Zone: Mongolia and Xinjiang (Western Central Asia)
      5. Conclusions: The Early Twentieth Century in Eastern Inner Eurasia
      6. Notes
      7. References
   7. 16 1950–1991: The Heartland: A Plateau, Decline, and Collapse
      1. Introduction: Global Processes
      2. The Soviet Heartland, 1953–1991: A Mobilizational Plateau
      3. Perestroika and Collapse: 1985–1991
      4. Notes
      5. References
   8. 17 1950–1991: Beyond the Heartlands: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century
      1. Kazakhstan and Central Asia
      2. Siberia
      3. Mongolia
      4. Xinjiang within a Reviving Chinese Empire
      5. Notes
      6. References
   9. 18 1991–2000: Building New States: General Trends and the Russian Federation
      1. Introduction: After the Breakup: The World and Inner Eurasia
      2. The Challenge
      3. Some General Trends
      4. The Russian Federation: A Diminished Heartland
      5. Stability and a Return to Centralist Traditions
      6. Notes
      7. References
   10. 19 1991–2000: Building New States: Beyond the Heartlands
       1. The Slavic Republics: Ukraine and Belarus
       2. Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and Azerbaijan: 1991–2000
       3. Xinjiang
       4. Mongolia, 1985–2000: Reform and Independence
       5. Notes
       6. References
7. Epilogue: After 2000: The End of Inner Eurasia?
8. Chronology
9. Index
10. EULA

List of Tables

1. Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia
   1. Table 0.1
2. 14
   1. Table 14.1
3. 16
   1. Table 16.1
   2. Table 16.2
4. 18
   1. Table 18.1
   2. Table 18.2
   3. Table 18.3a, b

List of Illustrations

1. Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia
   1. Figure 0.1 Populations of Inner and Outer Eurasia: same area, different demography. Data from McEvedy and Jones, Atlas of World Population History, 78–82, 158–165.
   2. Figure 0.2 Largest world empires. Taagepera, “Overview of the Growth of the Russian Empire,” 5.
   3. Figure 0.3 A mobilization pump, from a Red Cross cartoon produced during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Money to support wounded soldiers is squeezed from the peasantry and accepted in the form of donations; that money is tapped legally and illegally as it is piped to the government, various sections of which take significant shares of it, before the reduced flow travels through Siberia, where more is tapped, leaving very little at the end for wounded soldiers. Christian, “Living Water,” 4. Reproduced with permission of Oxford University Press.
2. 1
   1. Figure 1.1 Global populations over 1,800 years. Brooke, Climate Change, 259. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
   2. Figure 1.2 Climate change 1 CE to 2000 CE. Brooke, Climate Change, 250. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
   3. Figure 1.3 Karakorum. Reconstruction of Ogodei's palace, from a University of Washington site. Courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh.
   4. Figure 1.4 Diagrammatic representation of the smychka.
3. 2
   1. Figure 2.1 Photograph of part of Baldugin Sharav's painting, One Day in Mongolia. Courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh.
   2. Figure 2.2 Genealogy of Chinggis Khan's family (shading = Supreme Khans).
4. 3
   1. Figure 3.1 Little Ice Age and the Black Death. Brooke, Climate Change, Figure III.10, 258. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
   2. Figure 3.2 Global population estimates to 1700 CE. Brooke, Climate Change, Table III.1a, 259. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
   3. Figure 3.3 Biraben: populations of Inner Eurasia, 1000 to 1700 CE. Data from Biraben “Essai.”
   4. Figure 3.4 Biraben: populations of Outer Eurasia, 1000 to 1700 CE. Data from Biraben “Essai.”
   5. Figure 3.5 Possible routes for the spread of bubonic plague during three pandemics, in the 6th–8th, 14th–17th, and 19th–20th centuries. Wagner et al., “Yersinia pestis.” Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
5. 4
   1. Figure 4.1a,b Two forms of the agrarian smychka.
6. 5
   1. Figure 5.1 Erdeni Zuu Monastery today. Bouette, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Erdene_Zuu_Monastery#/media/File:Monast%C3%A8re_d%27Erdene_Zuu_2.jpg. Used under CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/.
7. 6
   1. Figure 6.1 Growth of Muscovy's population as a proportion of Inner Eurasia's population. Data from McEvedy and Jones, Atlas of World Population History, 78–82, 158–165.
   2. Figure 6.2 Chart showing expansion of Russia on a logistic curve. Rywkin, Russian Colonial Expansion to 1917, xvii.
   3. Figure 6.3 Three Russian cavalrymen, published in Sigismund von Herberstein, 1556. Dunning, Russia's First Civil War, 41.
8. 8
   1. Figure 8.1 Kiakhta today. Arkady Zarubin, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiakhta#/media/File:Kyahta.s_gory.JPG. Used under CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/.
   2. Figure 8.2 Giovanni Castiglione, War Against the Oirat. Reproduced from Golden, Central Asia in World History.
9. 10
   1. Figure 10.1 Increasing energy consumption in early modern England and Wales. Wrigley, Energy and the English Industrial Revolution. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
   2. Figure 10.2 Hockey sticks: accelerating growth rates for population, life expectancy, GDP, and impacts on the climate system and biosphere. Brooke, Climate Change, Figure IV.3. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
   3. Figure 10.3 Increasing global energy supplies, 1850–2000, adapted from Crosby, Children of the Sun, 162.
   4. Figure 10.4 The Russian railway network, 1861–1913. Adapted from Christian, Imperial and Soviet Russia, 437. Reproduced with permission of Palgrave Macmillan.
   5. Figure 10.5 John Hughes's home in Yuzovka.
   6. Figure 10.6 Chart of coal and oil production, 1859–1917. Data from D'iakonova, Neft’ i ugol’ v energetike tsarskoi Rossii, 165–167.
10. 11
    1. Figure 11.1 Vasilii Vasilievich Vereshchagin, They Triumph, 1872, shows Samarkand's central square, the Registan, after a battle during the Russian conquest of Central Asia. Vereshchagin traveled in Central Asia during the years of Russia's conquest of the region. This depicts the impaled heads of Russian troops in what was still part of the Bukharan emirate. It is an imperialist and orientalist vision, but was painted by an artist who did know the region. Courtesy of Tretyakov Gallery.
    2. Figure 11.2 Sharav's portrait of the eighth Jebtsundamba. N. Tsultem, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sharav_bogd_khan.jpg.
11. 14
    1. Figure 14.1 Two charts showing the meaning of collectivization. Data from Christian, Imperial and Soviet Russia, 273. Reproduced with permission of Palgrave Macmillan.
    2. Figure 14.2 Two charts showing total Soviet energy production, 1928–1980, and relative contribution of different fuels. Based on Campbell, based on Soviet Energy Technologies, 10. Reproduced with permission of Indiana University Press.
    3. Figure 14.3 The Soviet Union enters the fossil fuels era: coal and oil production in Russia, 1859–1987. Note that measuring by total weight underestimates the increasing importance of oil, which is a more concentrated source of energy. Table 14.1 shows oil overtaking coal by 1970 because it gives standardized measures of energy production. Data from D'iakonova, Neft’ i ugol’ v energetike tsarskoi Rossii, 165–167.
    4. Figure 14.4 Tent city, with Magnetic Mountain in the background: Magnitogorsk, winter 1930. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain. Reproduced with permission of University of California Press.
12. 15
    1. Figure 15.1 Photo of Sharav's painting of Ulaanbaatar (Urga/Khuriye) early in the twentieth century. Courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh.
13. 16
    1. Figure 16.1 Global GDP, 1500–1998, based on figures from Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy, 261.
    2. Figure 16.2 Global GDP per person, 1500–1998, based on figures from Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy, 264.
    3. Figure 16.3 Growth in GDP per person over two millennia, based on figures from Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy, 264.
    4. Figure 16.4 Soviet electricity generation, 1921–1989 (milliard kWh). Based on Christian, Imperial and Soviet Russia, 437. Reproduced with permission of Palgrave Macmillan.
    5. Figure 16.5 Average annual rates of growth, USSR, 1951–1985, based on Table 16.1.
    6. Figure 16.6 Various estimates of Soviet economic growth rates (%), 1959–1991. Data from White, Understanding Russian Politics, Table 4.1, 119.
    7. Figure 16.7 Boris Yeltsin speaking from on top of a tank during the August 1991 “putsch.” In the background is the “White House,” the building that housed the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation. Courtesy of TASS-ITAR.
14. 17
    1. Figure 17.1 The Mongolian national emblem changed as the country industrialized. Jam123, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_People%27s_republic_of_Mongolia.svg. Used under CC0 1.0 https://creativecommons .org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en.
    2. Figure 17.2 Mongolian ger. Courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh.
15. 18
    1. Figure 18.1 Democracy and market reform in the PSIERs: the curved line separates PSIERs from other post-Soviet states. Based on Aslund, How Capitalism was Built, 246. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
    2. Figure 18.2 Democracy and privatization in the PSIERs: the curved line separates PSIERs from other post-Soviet states. Based on Aslund, How Capitalism was Built, 192. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
    3. Figure 18.3 The rule of law in post-Soviet countries: World Bank data on confidence in the rule of law, based on expert assessments, and focusing mainly on property rights, contract enforcement, the police and courts, and the pervasiveness of crime and violence. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 136. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    4. Figure 18.4 GDP as % of 1989 level in post-Soviet countries. CEEC = Central–Eastern European Countries; SEEC = South-Eastern European Countries; B3 = Baltic republics; CIS = Commonwealth of Independent States (most former Soviet republics, excluding Baltic republics). Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 50. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    5. Figure 18.5 GNI per capita as % of 1989 level, 1989–2000. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    6. Figure 18.6 GNI per capita as % of 1989 level, 1989–2008. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    7. Figure 18.7 Private sector as share of GDP in different groups of post-Soviet societies: the “non-reformers” among the PSIERs were Turkmenistan, Belarus, and Uzbekistan. Aslund, How Capitalism was Built, 191. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press.
    8. Figure 18.8 Changing GDP in poorer post-Soviet countries as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 52. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    9. Figure 18.9 Gini coefficients for selected post-Soviet republics, 1988–2006. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 349, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    10. Figure 18.10 Tanks firing on the “White House,” the home of the Russian Supreme Soviet, October 4, 1993. Courtesy of Peter Turnley. Reproduced with permission of Getty Images.
16. 19
    1. Figure 19.1 Changing GNI of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, 1989–2000 as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    2. Figure 19.2 Changing GNI of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, 1989–2008 as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    3. Figure 19.3 Changing GNI of Central Asian republics, 1989–2000 as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    4. Figure 19.4 Changing GNI of Central Asian republics, 1989–2008 as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    5. Figure 19.5 Changing GNI of Mongolia and Central Asian republics, 1989–2000 as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.
    6. Figure 19.6 Changing GNI of Mongolia and Central Asian republics, 1989–2008 as % of 1989 level. Based on Myant and Drahokoupil, Transition Economies, 333, from World Bank figures. With permission of John Wiley & Sons.

Guide

1. Cover
2. Table of Contents
3. Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia