Eat Me

Prologue

p. ix	in 2003, the American Film Institute … This information appears on AFI’s website, www.afi.com/100years/handv.aspx.
p. ix	Stefano’s screenplay for Psycho … Robert Bloch, Psycho (New York: Random House, 1958).
p. x	‘She isn’t missing,’ Gein told them … House of Horror Stuns the Nation, Life, 43(23) (2 December 1957): 24–32. Quote from p. 28.
p. xi	and a two-page spread in Time … Portrait of a Killer, Time, 70(23) (2 December 1957): 32–33.
p. xi	‘I had a compulsion to do it …’ Moira Martingale, Cannibal Killers (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1993), p. 81.
p. xiii	‘Polar bears are now eating their own young …’ Marsha Walton, Polar bears resort to cannibalism as Arctic ice shrinks, CNN, 5 December 2008, http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/09/23/arctic.ice/index.html?iref=24hours

1 Animal the Cannibal: Nature’s Way?

p. 6	‘cannibalism was also a consistent part …’ Laurel Fox, personal communication.
p. 6	By the time Fox’s review paper … L. Fox, Cannibalism in natural populations, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 6 (1975): 87–106.
p. 7	some that were long considered to be herbivores … ibid., p. 88.
p. 7	In 1980 ecologist and scorpion expert … G. Polis, The evolution and dynamics of intraspecific predation, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 12 (1981): 225–251.
p. 8	In 1992 zoologists Mark Elgar and Bernard Crespi … M. A. Elgar and B. J. Crespi (eds), Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
p. 8	‘the killing and consumption of …’ ibid., p. 2.
p. 12	David Pfennig and his colleagues proposed … D. W. Pfennig, The adaptive significance of an environmentally cued developmental switch in an anuran tadpole, Oecologia, 85 (1990): 101–107.
p. 12	Pfennig hypothesised that iodine-containing … D. W. Pfennig, Proximate and functional causes of polyphenism in an anuran tadpole, Functional Ecology, 6 (1992): 167–174.
p. 13	Pfennig and his co-workers have previously … D. W. Pfennig, P. W. Sherman and J. P. Collins, Kin recognition and cannibalism in polyphenic salamanders, Behavioral Ecology, 5 (1994): 225–232.
p. 15	In species like the flour beetle … F. K. Ho and P. Dawson, Egg cannibalism by Tribolium larvae, Ecology, 47 (1966): 318–322.
p. 16	questions related to kin recognition … D. W. Pfennig, Kinship and cannibalism, BioScience, 47(10) (1997): 667–675.
p. 18	This idea originated with the German/American geneticist Richard Goldschmidt … Richard Goldschmidt, The Material Basis of Evolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1940).

2 It’s All Relative: Filial and Sibling Cannibalism

p. 21	a phenomenon exemplified by the rock snail … T. M. Spight, On a snail’s chances of becoming a year old, Oikos, 26 (1975): 9–14.
p. 21	In the black lace-weaver spider … K. W. Kim and C. Roland, Trophic egg laying in the spider, Amaurobius ferox; mother-offspring interactions and functional value, Behavioral Processes, 50(1) (2000): 31–42.
p. 21	The ravenous larva of the elephant mosquito … P. S. Corbett and A. Griffiths, Observations of the aquatic stages of two species of Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae) in Uganda, Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London A, 38 (1963): 125–135.
p. 22	Certain snail species … B. Baur, Effects of early feeding experience and age on the cannibalistic propensity of the land snail Arianta arbustorum, Canadian Journal of Zoology, 65 (1987): 3068–70.
pp. 22–3	specifically in mammals, filial cannibalism … R. Elwood, Pup-cannibalism in rodents: causes and consequences, in Elgar and Crespi (eds), Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa, pp. 299–322.
p. 23	for fish, by far the largest … G. FitzGerald and F. Whoriskey, Empirical studies of cannibalism in fish, in Elgar and Crespi (eds), Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa, p. 251.
p. 24	Even in the ninety or so … ibid., pp. 244–245.
p. 26	When researchers set out to determine … Noboru Okuda and Yasunobu Yanagisawa, Filial cannibalism by mouthbrooding males of the cardinal fish, Apogon doederleini, in relation to their physical condition, Environmental Biology of Fishes, 45 (1996): 397–404.
p. 26	goes to sand tiger sharks … R. G. Gilmore, J. W. Dodrill and P. A. Linley, Reproduction and embryonic development of the sand tiger shark, Odontapsis taurus (Rafinesque), Fishery Bulletin, 8(2) (1983): 201–225.
p. 26	These embryos (averaging nineteen in number) … Polis, The evolution and dynamics of intraspecific predation: 241.
p. 27	Springer, the first to study the phenomenon … Stewart Springer, Oviphagous embryos of the sand shark, Carcharias taurus, Copeia (1948): 153–157.
p. 28	Cannibalism of the young also occurs … Polis and Myers, A survey of intraspecific predation among reptiles and amphibians: 99.
p. 28	significant juvenile mortality in the American alligator … M. Delany, A. Woodward, R. Kiltie and C. Moore, Mortality of American alligators attributed to cannibalism, Herpetologica, 67(2) (2011): 174–185.
p. 28	Among birds, such behaviour is comparatively … D. Mock, Infanticide, siblicide, and avian nestling mortality, in Glenn Hausfater and Sarah Blaffer Hrdy (eds), Infanticide (Hawthorne, NY: Aldine, 1984), p. 6.
p. 28	Cornell ornithologist Walter Koenig … Walter Koenig, personal communication.
p. 29	In one study of a colony of 900 herring gulls … J. Parsons, Cannibalism in herring gulls, British Birds, 64 (1971): 528–537.
p. 29	Sibling cannibalism is best known … M. T. Stanback and W. D. Koenig, Cannibalism in birds, in Elgar and Crespi (eds), Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa, pp. 285–286.
p. 30	filial cannibalism in birds … ibid., pp. 285–287.

3 Size Matters: Sexual Cannibalism

p. 32	Back then, several authors claimed … Two examples are: L. O. Howard, The excessive voracity of the female mantis, Science, 8 (1886): 326; J. H. Fabre, Souvenirs Entomologiques, vol. 5 (Paris: De Lagrave, 1897).
p. 33	One hypothesis reasoned that … K. D. Roeder, An experimental analysis of the sexual behavior of the praying mantis (Mantis religiosa), Biological Bulletin, 69 (1935): 203–220.
p. 33	Researchers … now believe that, rather than acting as a stimulus … E. Liske and W. J. Davis, Courtship and mating behavior of the Chinese praying mantis, Tenodera sinensis, Animal Behavior, 35 (1987): 1524–1537.
p. 34	After several papers in the thirties and forties … Two examples are: W. B. Herms, S. F. Baily and B. McIvor, The black widow spider, California Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin, 59 (1935): 1–29; R. N. Smithers, Contribution to our knowledge of the genus Latrodectus in South Africa, Annals of the South African Museum, 36 (1944): 263–312.
p. 35	They determined not only that most male spiders … R. F. Foelix, Biology of Spiders (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982).
p. 35	sexual cannibalism has been reported in sixteen … M. Elgar, Sexual cannibalism in spiders and other invertebrates, in Elgar and Crespi (eds), Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa, pp. 129–143.
p. 37	The next phase of redback courtship begins … L. M. Forster, The stereotypical behavior of sexual cannibalism in Latrodectus hasselti (Araneae: Theridiidae), the Australian redback spider, Australian Journal of Zoology, 40 (1992): 1–11.
p. 38	Mark Elgar and zoologist David Nash worked with this species … M. Elgar and D. Nash, Sexual cannibalism in the garden spider, Araneus diadematus, Animal Behavior, 36 (1988): 1511–1571.
p. 39	To determine why, arachnologist Anita Aisenberg … A. Aisenberg, F. Costa and M. Gonzalez, Male sexual cannibalism in a sand-dwelling wolf spider with sex role reversal, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 103(1) (2011): 68–75.
p. 39	Cannibalism by males also occurs in water spiders … D. Schütz and M. Taborsky, Mate choice and sexual conflicts in the size dimorphic water spider Argyroneta aquatica (Araneae, Argyronetidae), Journal of Arachnology, 33 (2005): 767–775.
p. 41	Even more shocking are banana slugs … H. Reise and J. Hutchinson, Penis-biting slugs: wild claims and confusions, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17(4) (2002): 163.
pp. 42–3	Chase and his colleagues showed … R. Chase and K. Blanchard, The snail’s love-dart delivers mucus to increase paternity, Proceeding of the Royal Society B, 273 (2006): 1471–1475.
p. 43	A 2013 study by Japanese researchers … K. Kimura, K. Shibuya and S. Chiba, The mucus of a land snail love-dart suppresses subsequent matings in darted individuals, Animal Behavior, 85 (2013): 631–635.

4 Under Pressure: Stress-Related Cannibalism

p. 44	According to biologist and Mormon cricket expert … S. J. Simpson, G. Sword, P. Lorch and I. Couzin, Cannibal crickets on a forced march for protein and salt, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(11) (2006): 4152–4156.
p. 45	Simpson and his co-workers conducted food-preference tests … ibid.
p. 46	Initially, cannibalism on poultry farms … R. Trudelle-Schwarz, Cannibalism: Chicken Little meets Hannibal Lector [sic]? Behave: Stories of Applied Animal Behavior, www.webpages.uidaho.edu/range556/appl_behave/projects/chicken_cannibalism.html
p. 46	researchers now believe that it’s actually misdirected foraging … B. Huber-Eicher and B. Wechsler, The effect of quality and availability of foraging materials on feather pecking in laying hen chicks, Animal Behaviour, 55 (1998): 861–873.
p. 47	The results of a study on golden hamsters … R. Gattermann, R. Johnston, N. Yigit, P. Fritzsche, S. Larimer, S. Özkurt, K. Neumann, Z. Song, E. Colak, J. Johnson and M. McPhee, Golden hamsters are nocturnal in captivity but diurnal in nature, Biology Letters, 4 (2008): 253–255.
p. 48	As a result of this catalogue … Elwood, Pup-cannibalism in rodents: causes and consequences.
p. 49	the hamster has the shortest gestation period … Encyclopedia of Life. http://eol.org/pages/1179513/details
p. 49	When non-human primates are compared … M. Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, Cannibalism among non-human primates, in Elgar and Crespi (eds), Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa, pp. 323–338.
p. 49	Initially, reports of chimpanzee cannibalism … ibid., pp. 324–325.
p. 49	‘A female who loses her infant …’ J. Goodall, Infant killing and cannibalism in free-living chimpanzees, Folia primatologica, 28 (1977): 271.
p. 50	Other attacks by male chimps on infant-bearing females … ibid., p. 260.
p. 50	Goodall believes that the attacks … ibid., p. 269.
p. 51	A team led by comparative psychologist … S. Anitei, Female chimps practice heavily infanticide and cannibalism. Softpedia, 15 May 2007. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Female-Chimps-Practice-Heavily-Infanticide-and-Cannibalism-54687.shtml

5 Carnivore Cannibals: From Dinosaurs to Polar Bears

p. 52	Personally, I suspect … N. R. Longrich, J. R. Horner, Gregory M. Erickson and Philip J. Currie, Cannibalism in Tyrannosaurus rex, PLoS ONE 5(10): e13419.
p. 52	‘Polar bears are turning to cannibalism …’ B. Johnson, Polar bears are turning to cannibalism as Arctic ice disappears, ThinkProgress, 8 December 2011. http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/12/08/385037/polar-bears-are-turning-tocannibalism-as-arctic-ice-disappears/
p. 52	‘Is global warming driving polar bears …’ N. Wolchover, Is global warming driving polar bears to cannibalism?, Live Science, 15 December 2011. www.livescience.com/17500-global-warming-driving-polar-bears-cannibalism.html
p. 52	‘Polar bear cannibalism linked to …’ O. Grigoras, Polar bear cannibalism linked to climate change, Softpedia, 9 December 2011. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Polar-Bear-Cannibalism-Linked-to-Climate-Change-239585.shtml
p. 53	Cannibalism has been recorded in at least fourteen … Polis, The evolution and dynamics of intraspecific predation: 231.
p. 53	Heterocannibalism – in this case, eating cubs … B. Bertram, Social factors influencing reproduction in wild lions, Journal of Zoology, 177 (1975): 463–482.
p. 54	polar bears will readily eat other polar bears … M. Taylor, T. Larsen and R. Schweinsburg, Observations of intraspecific aggression and cannibalism in polar bears (Ursus maritimus), Arctic, 38(4) (1985): 303.
p. 54	In the mid-noughties … S. C. Amstrup, I. Stirling, T. Smith, C. Perham and G. Thiemann, Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea, Polar Biology, 29 (2006): 997–1002.
p. 55	‘The underlying causes for our cannibalism …’, ‘chance observations of previously unobserved …’, ‘the first population segment to show …’ ibid., p. 1001.
p. 55	the first published report surfacing in 1897 … F. Nansen, Farthest North. London: Macmillan, 1897), vol. 2, pp. 254–256.
p. 56	Edwin Colbert made the dramatic announcement … Edwin H. Colbert, The Triassic dinosaur Coelophysis, Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin 57 (1989).
p. 56	Led by palaeontologists Sterling Nesbitt … S. Nesbitt, A. Turner, G. Erickson and M. Norell, Prey choice and cannibalistic behavior in the theropod Coelophysis, Biological Letters, 2 (2006): 611–614.
p. 57	the only compelling evidence … R. Rogers, D. Krause and K. Curry Rogers, Cannibalism in the Madagascan dinosaur, Majungatholus atropus, Nature, 422 (2003): 515–518.

6 Skin Deep: The Weird World of Caecilian Cannibalism

p. 61	All caecilians do share one characteristic … M. Wake, Fetal maintenance and its evolutionary significance in the Amphibia: Gymnophiona, Journal of Herpetology, 11(4) (1977): 384.
p. 62	she referred to as ‘secretory beds’ … ibid., p. 380
p. 62	Parker had previously labelled ‘uterine milk’ … ibid.
p. 62	‘a thick white creamy material …’ ibid.
p. 62	Wake proposed that foetal caecilians … ibid.
p. 63	In 2006 … A. Kupfer, H. Müller, M. Antoniazzi, C. Jared, H. Greven, R. Nussbaum and M. Wilkinson, Parental investment by skin feeding in a caecilian amphibian, Nature, 440 (2006): 926–929.
p. 64	‘The outer layer is what they eat,’ … J. Owen, Flesh-eating baby ‘worm’ feasts on mom’s skin, National Geographic News, 12 April 2006.
p. 64	It also explained why mothers … Kupfer et al., Parental investment by skin feeding in a caecilian amphibian, p. 927.
p. 64	Scientists now believe … ibid., p. 928.

7 Us and Them: Early Humans and Neanderthals

p. 68	These anatomical differences led him to conclude … Roger Lewin and Robert Foley, Principles of Human Evolution (Blackwell: Oxford, 2004), p. 395.
p. 69	Huxley announced that Homo sapiens had descended … T. H. Huxley, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature (London: Williams & Norgate, 1864), p. 159.
p. 69	The anthropologist also claimed … Ian Tattersall, The Fossil Trail (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 47.
p. 70	In ‘The Grisly Folk’ … H. G. Wells, The Grisly Folk, Storyteller Magazine, April 1921. www.trussel.com/prehist/grisly.htm
p. 70	‘Every feature that Boule stressed …’ N. Eldredge and I. Tattersall, The Myths of Human Evolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), p. 76.
pp. 70–1	what is known as the Regional Continuity hypothesis … M. H. Wolpoff, J. Hawks and R. Caspari, Multiregional, not multiple origins, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 112 (2000): 129–136.
p. 72	briefly argued in 1866 … Ian Tattersall, The Last Neanderthal: The Rise, Success, and Mysterious Extinction of Our Closest Human Relative (New York: Macmillan, 1995), p. 88.
p. 72	researchers now believe that a hyena … T. White, N. Toth, P. Chase, G. Clark, N. Conrad, J. Cook, F. d’Errico, R. Donahue, R. Gargett, G. Giacobini, A. Pike-Tay and A. Turner, The Question of Ritual Cannibalism at Grotta Guattari [and Comments and Replies], Current Anthropology, 32 (2) (1991): 118–138.
p. 72	multiple sites in northern Spain, south-eastern France and Croatia … T. White, Once were cannibals, Scientific American, August 2001, pp. 58–65.
p. 73	‘Bodies may be buried, burned, placed …’ ibid., p. 61.
p. 73	Archaeologists now consider this type … ibid., p. 62.
p. 73	An excavation begun there in 1991 … A. Defleur, T. White, P. Valensi, L. Slimak and E. Crégut-Bonnoure, Neanderthal cannibalism at Moula-Guercy, Ardèche, France, Science, 286 (1999): 128–131.
p. 74	In 2000, researchers working … R. Marlar, B. Leonard, B. Billman, P. Lambert and J. Marlar, Biochemical evidence of cannibalism at a prehistoric Puebloan site in south-western Colorado, Nature, 401 (2000): 74–78.
p. 75	It is a finding that has been … K. Dongoske, D. Martin and T. Ferguson, Critique of the claim of cannibalism at Cowboy Wash, American Antiquity, 65(1) (2000): 179–190.
p. 76	One instance in which the evidence … Y. Fernández-Jalvo, J. Diez, I. Cáceres and J. Rosell, Human cannibalism in the early Pleistocene of Europe (Gran Dolina), Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain, Journal of Human Evolution, 37 (1999): 591–622.
p. 76	The first fossils of this species … Tattersall, The Fossil Trail, p. 228.
p. 76	Excavation of the pit … ibid., p. 229.
p. 76	the site has yielded over 5,000 bone fragments … ibid.
p. 76	including a large pelvis … ibid., p. 230.
p. 77	tool-induced surface modification … Fernández-Jalvo et al., Human cannibalism in the early Pleistocene of Europe (Gran Dolina), Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain, p. 599.
p. 77	‘the victims of other humans …’ ibid., p. 620.

8 Myths of the Other: Columbus, Caribs and Cannibalism

p. 79	The captain … took two parrots … P. Hulme, Introduction: The cannibal scene, in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme and Margaret Iversen (eds), Cannibalism and the Colonial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 16.
p. 80	‘[The Arawaks] are fitted to be ruled …’ U. Bitterli and R. Robertson, Cultures in Conflict: Encounters Between European and Non-European Cultures, 1492–1800 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 75.
p. 80	these warrior women lived on their own island … C. Sauer, The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 23.
p. 81	preparing their viands by smoking them … R. Tannahill, Flesh and Blood: A History of the Cannibal Complex (London: Little, Brown, 1975; repr. 1996), p. 108.
p. 82	some Caribs had dog-like faces … F. Lestringant, Cannibals: The Discovery and Representation of the Cannibal from Columbus to Jules Verne, trans. Rosemarie Morris (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 15–19.
p. 82	the transition from Carib to Canib … D. Korn, M. Radice and C. Hawes, Cannibal – The History of the People-Eaters (London: Channel 4 Books, 2001), p. 11.
p. 84	‘…why God Our Lord …’ Sauer, The Early Spanish Main, p. 98.
p. 84	‘…if such cannibals continue to resist …’ N. Whitehead, Carib cannibalism: the historical evidence, Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 70 (1984): 70.
p. 85	Pope Innocent IV decreed in 1510 … ibid., p. 72.
p. 85	On islands where no cannibalism had been reported … W. Arens, The Man-Eating Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 51.
p. 85	Rodrigo de Figueroa, the former Governor … Whitehead, Carib cannibalism, p. 71.
p. 86	According to historian David Stannard … D. E. Stannard, American Holocaust: Conquest of the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 69.
p. 86	The diseases the Spaniards carried … ibid., p. 68.
p. 86	Stannard believes that, by the end … ibid., p. 95.

9 Bones of Contention: Ritual Cannibalism

p. 88	he never actually saw the scene … P. Hulme, Making sense of the native Caribbean, New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 67(3–4) (1993): 207.
p. 89	It would become a blueprint … For example: F. MacNutt, De Orbe Novo; The Eight Decades of Peter Martyr D’Anghera, vol. 1 (New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1912), p. 72; J. Blaine, J. Buel, J. Ridpath and B. Butterworth, Columbus and Columbia: A Pictorial History of the Man and the Nation (Richmond, VA: B. F. Johnson and Co., 1892), p. 172; J. Cummins, Cannibals (Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 2001), p. x; Korn, Radice and Hawes, Cannibal – The History of the People-Eaters, p. 11.
p. 89	In 1828, author and historian Washington Irving … W. Irving, The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus [Orig. 1828], in The Complete Works of Washington Irving, ed. John Harmon McElroy, vol. 11 (Boston, MA: Twayne, 1981), p. 192.
p. 89	Anthropologist Neil Whitehead suggests … Whitehead, Carib cannibalism, pp. 69–88.
p. 90	‘The ordinary food of the Caribs …’ ibid., p. 77.
p. 90	ritualised cannibalism can be differentiated … L. R. Goldman, From Pot to Polemic: Uses and Abuses of Cannibalism, in Laurence R. Goldman (ed.), The Anthropology of Cannibalism (Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1999), p. 44.
p. 91	in the Pacific Theatre during World War II … C. Hearn, Sorties Into Hell: The Hidden War on Chichi Jima (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003).
p. 91	The lucky man’s name was Lt. George H. W. Bush … C. Laurence, George Bush’s comrades eaten by their Japanese PoW guards, The Telegraph, 26 October 2003.
p. 92	Anthropologist Beth Conklin studied the Wari’ … B. A. Conklin, Consuming Grief: Compassionate Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001).
p. 92	Wari’ were keenly aware that prolonged grieving … ibid., p. xxi.
p. 92	‘cold, wet and polluting …’ ibid., p. xviii.
p. 93	Whitehead offers accounts … Whitehead, Carib cannibalism, pp. 78–80.
p. 93	‘very difficult to track’ … W. Raleigh, The Discovery of the Large, Rich and Beautiful Empire of Guiana, ed. R. Schomburgk (London: Hakluyt Society, 1868), p. 85.
p. 94	Arens argued that … Arens, The Man-Eating Myth.
p. 94	The reaction to Arens’s incendiary book … I. Brady, Review of The Man-Eating Myth, American Anthropologist, 84(3) (1982): 595–611; P. G. Riviere, Review of The Man-Eating Myth, Man, 15 (1) (1980): 203–205; J. W. Springer, Review of The Man-Eating Myth, Anthropological Quarterly, 53 (2) (1980): 148–150; William W. Arens, with a reply by M. Sahlins, Cannibalism: an exchange, New York Review of Books, 26(4) (22 March 1979): 46–47; G. Obeyesekere, Cannibal Talk: The Man-Eating Myth and Human Sacrifice in the South Seas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 2.

10 Take, Eat, This is My Body: Cannibalism and the Bible

p. 98	‘His body and blood are truly contained …’ Legion of Mary, Tidewater, VA, 4th Lateran Council (1215), www.legionofmarytidewater.com/faith/ECUM12.HTM
p. 98	In October 1520, though … Martin Luther, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, pdf. amazingdiscoveries.org/eBooks/BABYLONIAN_CAPTIVITY_OF_THE_CHURCH.pdf
p. 99	In their entertaining book … D. Diehl and M. Donnelly, Eat Thy Neighbor: A History of Cannibalism (Stroud: Sutton, 2006), p. 22.
p. 99	‘In the celebration of [the Eucharist] …’ J. H. Leith (ed.), Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine, from the Bible to the Present (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1982), pp. 502–503.
p. 100	Even as recently as 1965 … Mysterium Fidei. Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Holy Eucharist, 3 September, 1965. www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_03091965_mysterium_en.html
p. 102	In 1994 Dr Johanna Cullen … J. Cullen, The Miracle of Bolsena, ASM News, 60 (1994): 187–191.
p. 102	The work of another researcher … L. Garlaschelli, Starch and hemoglobin: the miracle of Bolsena, Chemistry and Industry, 80 (1998): 1201.
p. 103	‘We were hungry, we were cold …’ T. Taylor, The Buried Soul (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2002), p. 74.

11 Sieges, Strandings and Starvation: Survival Cannibalism

p. 110	‘Prolonged hunger carves the body …’ S. A. Russell, Hunger: An Unnatural History (New York: Basic Books, 2005), p. 120.
p. 112	In 1980 anthropologist Robert Dirks wrote … R. Dirks, Social responses during severe food shortages and famine, Current Anthropology, 21(1) (1980): 21–44.
p. 112	In The Cannibal Within … L. Petrinovich, The Cannibal Within (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Books, 2000), p. 36.
p. 113	which came to be called the Minnesota Experiment … L. Kalm and R. Semba, They starved so that others be better fed: remembering Ancel Keys and the Minnesota Experiment, Journal of Nutrition, 135 (2005): 1347–1352.
p. 113	‘All offers of surrender from Leningrad …’ M. Jones, Leningrad: State of Siege (New York: Basic Books, 2008), Hitler quote from inside cover.
p. 113	‘Leningrad must die of starvation …’ D. King, Red Star Over Russia: A Visual History of the Soviet Union from the Revolution to the Death of Stalin (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2009), p. 318.
p. 114	In a system designed to maximise … M. Jones, Leningrad: State of Siege (New York: Basic Books, 2008), pp. xxi–xxii.
p. 114	Rations were reduced a total of five times … David M. Glantz, The Siege of Leningrad (London: Cassell Military Paperbacks, 2001), p. 83.
p. 114	According to historian David Glantz … ibid., p. 89.
p. 114	Archivist Nadezhda Cherepenina reported … Nadezhda Cherepenina, Assessing the scale of famine and death in the besieged city, in John Barber and Andrei Dzeniskevich (eds), Life and Death in Besieged Leningrad, 1941–44 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2005), p. 44.
p. 114	Pulitzer Prize-winning … Harrison Salisbury, The 900 Days: The Siege of Leningrad (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), pp. 478–479.
p. 114	‘because their flesh was so much more tender’ … ibid., p. 479.
p. 114	‘In the worst period of the siege …’ ibid., p. 478.
pp. 114–5	According to numerous survivor accounts … Jones, Leningrad, pp. 242–244.
p. 115	‘[the men] noticed as they piled …’ H. Askenasy, Cannibalism – From Sacrifice to Survival (New York: Prometheus Books, 1994), p. 75.
p. 115	‘You will look in vain …’ Salisbury, The 900 Days, p. 474.
p. 116	‘the official reports made right after the war …’ Korn, Radice and Hawes, Cannibal – The History of the People-Eaters, pp. 83–86.
p. 118	Although the ‘poor Ethiopian’ begged … E. Leslie, The Ownership of the Plank: David Harrison on the Wreck of the Peggy, in Joseph S. Cummins (ed.), Cannibals: Shocking True Tales of the Last Taboo on Land and Sea (Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 2001), p. 50.
p. 118	Someone suggested that two of the men … K. Johnson, J. Quinn Thornton (1810–1888), in Kristin Johnson (ed.), ‘Unfortunate Emigrants’: Narratives of the Donner Party (Logan: Utah State University Press, 1996), p. 52.
p. 119	‘his miserable companions cut the flesh …’ ibid., p. 53.
p. 119	‘Being nearly out of provisions …’ Edwin Bryant, What I Saw in California (repr. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985[1848]), part 3, chapter 20: The Donner Party, www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Bryant3.htm
p. 119	Foster, who survived the ordeal … K. Johnson, New Light on the Donner Family: The Murphy Family, www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Murphy.htm#William%20McFadden%20Foster
p. 120	‘We looked all around but no living thing …’ Esarey-Esrey & Rhoads-Esrey letters: records of a 19th century American migration, www.esarey.us/reunion/1873.htm
p. 122	‘[Reed’s] party immediately commenced distributing …’ J. Merryman, ‘Adventures in California—Narrative of J. F. Reed—Life in the Wilderness—Sufferings of the Emigrants’, Illinois State Register, 19 November 1847, p. 1, cc. 6–7, p. 2, c. 1; 26 November 1847, p. 1, c. 2. Also published as Narrative of the sufferings of a company of emigrants in the mountains of California, in the winter of ’46 and ’7 by J. F. Reed, late of Sangamon County, Illinois, Illinois Journal, 8 December 1847, p. 1, cc. 2–4.
p. 123	‘The mutilated body of a friend …’ in Johnson, ‘Unfortunate Emigrants’, p. 90.
p. 123	‘They had consumed four bodies …’ ibid., p. 91.
p. 124	‘No traces of her person could be found …’ Dale Lowell Morton (ed.), Overland in 1846: Diaries and Letters of the California–Oregon Trail, vol. 1 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), p. 362.
p. 124	‘human skeletons … in every variety …’ E. Rarick, Desperate Passage (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 229.
p. 125	‘Analysis finally clears Donner Party …’ R. Preidt, Analysis finally clears Donner Party of rumored cannibalism. MedicineNet, 19 April 2010. www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=115529
p. 125	Even The New York Times got into the act … S. Dubner, No cannibalism among the Donner Party? Freakonomics, 16 April 2010. http://freakonomics.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/16/no-cannibalism-among-the-donner-party/
p. 125	‘Science crashes Donner Party …’ Science crashes Donner Party. The Rat, 13 January 2006. http://therat.blogspot.com/2006_01_01_archive.html
p. 128	The analysis by Gwen Robbins … Professor’s research demonstrates starvation diet at the Donner Party’s Alder Creek camp. Appalachian State University News, 23 April 2010. www.news.appstate.edu/2010/04/23/professor%E2%80%99s-research-demonstrates-starvation-diet-at-the-donner-party%E2%80%99s-alder-creek-camp/
p. 129	In 1990, anthropologist Donald Grayson … D. K. Grayson, Donner Party deaths: a demographic assessment, Journal of Anthropological Research, 46(3) (1990): 223–242.
p. 130	Grayson later suggested a scenario … D. Grayson, The timing of Donner Party deaths, appendix 3, in Donald Hardesty (ed.), The Archaeology of the Donner Party (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1997), p. 125.
p. 131	In a 2010 study … D. Maestripieri, N. Baran, P. Sapienza and L. Zingales, Between- and within-sex variation in hormonal responses to psychological stress in a large sample of college students, Stress, 13(5) (2010): 413–424.

12 Culture is King: Origins of the Western Cannibalism Taboo

p. 133	‘Baby, baby, naughty baby …’ The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, ed. Iona Opie and Peter Opie (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951), p. 59.
p. 134	‘They immediately shewed as much horror …’ G. Obeyesekere, British cannibals: contemplation of an event in the death and resurrection of James Cook, explorer, in Gilles Bibeau and Ellen Corin (eds), Beyond Textuality: Asceticism and Violence in Anthropological Interpretation (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994), p. 146.
p. 134	‘belief that a man needed his body after death …’ Tannahill, Flesh and Blood, p. 45.
p. 134	‘an unprecedented and almost pathological …’ ibid., p. 47.
p. 134	‘you are what you eat’ … M. Kilgore, The function of cannibalism at the present time, in F. Baker, P. Hulme and M. Iversen (eds), Cannibalism and the Colonial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 239.
p. 135	Homer’s epic poem … Homer, The Odyssey, trans. Robert Fagles (New York: Penguin Books, 1996).
p. 136	In Theogony, Homer’s fellow poet Hesiod … Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica, trans. Hugh G. Evelyn-White (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press/William Heinemann, 1914); www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/theogony.htm
p. 136	According to classicist Mary Knight … Mary Knight, personal communication.
p. 137	In his Histories … Herodotus, The History, trans. David Grene (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 228.
p. 137	Herodotus was also the first writer … C. Avramescu, An Intellectual History of Cannibalism, trans. Alister Ian Blyth (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2009), p. 33.
p. 138	‘some of them did something dreadful …’ Herodotus, The History, p. 222.
p. 138	The Father of History also wrote extensively about the Scythians … ibid., pp. 303–304.
p. 138	the story of Astyages … ibid., pp. 84–90.
p. 140	Seneca’s first-century Roman tragedy Thyestes … Seneca. Tragedies, trans. F. J. Miller (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press/William Heinemann, 1917); www.theoi.com/Text/SenecaThyestes.html
p. 142	as translated by Paul Larue … J. Zipes, Trials and Tribulations of Little Red Riding Hood (New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 348.
p. 142	In Perrault’s ‘Hop o’ My Thumb’ … Charles Perrault, Little Thumb, in The Tales of Mother Goose, trans. Charles Welsh (Boston, MA: D. C. Heath and Co., 1901), pp. 29–44.
p. 143	The Brothers Grimm revisited a similar plot … The Brothers Grimm, Hansel and Gretel and Other Tales (London: Sovereign, 2013).
p. 143	In his rendition, Jack is … The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales, ed. and trans. Maria Tatar (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2002).
p. 144	In Joseph Jacob’s revised epilogue … ibid., p. 143.
p. 145	The plot of Robinson Crusoe … Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (New York: Paperview, 2004).
p. 147	‘Defoe’s work is an effective contribution …’ Lestringant, Cannibals, p. 141.
p. 148	‘judging the savage by the standard …’ J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1922), p. 342.
p. 148	‘the custom of tearing in pieces …’ ibid., p. 454.
p. 149	‘The natives are superficially agreeable …’ H. Lapsley, M. Mead and R. Benedict, The Kinship of Women (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), p. 217.
p. 149	‘Cannibal savages as they were …’ Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1950).
p. 149	‘mankind’s earliest festival’ … ibid., pp. x, 142.

13 China: Beyond the Western Taboo

p. 152	‘an institutionalized practice of consuming certain …’ Key Ray Chong, Cannibalism in China (Wakefield, NH: Longwood Academic, 1990), p. 2.
p. 152	publicly and culturally sanctioned … ibid.
p. 153	Chong’s investigation provides three examples of siege-related … ibid., pp. 45–46.
p. 153	153 and 177 occurrences of cannibalism … ibid., pp. 160, 161.
p. 155	Mao decided to install an ‘improved’ version … J. Becker, Hungry Ghosts: Mao’s Secret Famine (New York: The Free Press, 1996), pp. 64–70.
p. 155	Another of Mao’s brainstorms … ibid., pp. 76–77.
p. 155	in Mubei (Tombstone) … J. Yang, Mubei (Tombstone), 8th edn (Hong King: Tiandi chubanshe, 2010[2008]).
p. 155	‘people ate tree bark, weeds, bird droppings …’ Yang cited in China: from famine to Oslo, The New York Times Review of Books, 58(1) (13 January 2011), p. 52.
p. 156	also believes that 36 million deaths … Yang cited in R. MacFarquhar, The worst man-made catastrophe, ever, The New York Review of Books, 10 February 2011, p. 28.
p. 156	‘Travelling around the region over thirty years later …’ Becker, Hungry Ghosts, pp. 118–119.
p. 156	‘hate, love, loyalty, filial piety …’ Chong, Cannibalism in China, p. 2.
p. 157	Maggie Kilgore pointed out in 1998 … Kilgore, The function of cannibalism at the present time, p. 239.
p. 157	‘Methods of Cooking Human Flesh …’ Chong, Cannibalism in China, pp. 145–157.
p. 157	‘children’s meat was the best food of all …’ cited ibid., p. 137.
p. 157	In Shui Hu Chuan (Outlaws of the Marsh) … Becker, Hungry Ghosts, p. 216.
p. 157	‘five regional cuisines …’ Chong, Cannibalism in China, p. 145.
p. 157	‘many examples of steaming or boiling …’ ibid., p. 153. pp. 157–8 Prisoners of war were preferred ingredients … ibid.
p. 158	‘Once victims had been subjected to criticism …’ Zheng Yi, The Slaughter at Wuxuan, from Scarlet Memorial … Tales of Cannibalism in Modern China, in Cummins (ed.), Cannibals, p. 210.
p. 158	‘children would cut off parts of their body …’ Chong, Cannibalism in China, p. 154.
p. 159	a total of 766 documented cases … ibid., pp. 100–101.

14 Skull Moss and Mummy Powder: Medicinal Cannibalism

p. 161	The ancients were very eager … cited in Beth Conklin, Consuming Grief.
p. 162	‘the gall bladder, bones, hair …’ Korn, Radice and Hawes, Cannibal – The History of the People-Eaters, p. 92.
p. 162	‘nail, hair, skin, milk …’ Thomas S. Chen and Peter S. Chen, Medical cannibalism in China: the case of ko-ku, The Pharos, 61(2) (1998): 23–25.
p. 163	So popular was this practice … K. Gordon-Grube, Anthropophagy in post-Renaissance Europe: the tradition of medicinal cannibalism, American Anthropologist, 90 (1988): 407.
p. 164	‘human liver … oil distilled from human brains …’ R. Sugg, Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires: The History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians (London and New York: Routledge, 2011).
p. 164	‘One thing we are rarely taught at school …’ cited in Fiona Macrae, British royalty dined on human flesh (but don’t worry it was 300 years ago), Daily Mail, 21 May 2011, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1389142/British-royalty-dined-human-flesh-dont-worry-300-years-ago.html
p. 164	Additional high-profile advocates of medicinal cannibalism included … Richard Sugg, The Aztecs, cannibalism and corpse medicine (1), Mexicolore, www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/home/cannibalism-and-corpse-medicine-1
pp. 164–5	Researcher Paolo Modinesi believes … P. Modinesi, Skull lichens: a curious chapter in the history of phytotherapy, Fitoterapia, 80 (2009): 145–148.
p. 165	Ideally, the moss from the skulls … Gordon-Grube, Anthropophagy in post-Renaissance Europe, p. 406.
p. 165	‘the cranium of a carcass that had been broken …’ Modinesi, Skull lichens, p. 147.
p. 165	a bizarre medical treatment known as hoplochrisma … ibid.
p. 166	‘choose what is of a shining black …’ A. Wootton, Chronicles of Pharmacy, 2 vols (New York: USV Pharmaceutical Corporation, 1972), vol. 2, p. 24.
p. 166	‘[The Paracelsist Oswald] Croll recommended …’ Gordon-Grube, Anthropophagy in post-Renaissance Europe, p. 406.
p. 167	Listed as Mumia vera aegyptica … Modinesi, Skull lichens, p. 148.
p. 168	‘the rise of Enlightenment attitudes …’ Sugg, Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires, pp. 264–265.
p. 168	‘…after having Dad’s ashes …’ K. Richards, Life (New York: Little, Brown, 2010), p. 546.

15 Too Much to Swallow: Placentophagy

p. 169	I read the title of the article … A. A. Abrahamian, The Placenta Cookbook, New York, 29 August 2011, pp. 46–49, 154.
p. 170	A 2013 study … Jodi Selander, Allison Cantor, Sharon M. Young and Daniel C. Benyshek, Human maternal placentophagy: a survey of self-reported motivations and experiences associated with placenta consumption, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 52(2) (2013): 93–115.
p. 173	In 1930, primatologist Otto Tinklepaugh … O. Tinklepaugh and C. Hartman, Behavioral aspects of parturition in the monkey (Macacus rhesus), Journal of Comparative Psychology, 11(1) (1930): 63–98.
p. 173	Kristal and his colleagues initially posited … M. B. Kristal, J. Di Pirro and A. Thompson, Placentophagia in humans and nonhuman mammals: causes and consequences, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 51 (2012): 179.
p. 174	‘voracious carnivorousness …’ ibid.
p. 174	and set out to investigate … M. B. Kristal, A. Thompson and H. Grishkat, Placenta ingestion enhances opiate analgesia in rats, Physiology & Behavior, 35 (1985): 481–486.
p. 175	In 2010, researchers at the University of Nevada … S. Young and D. Benyshek, In search of human placentophagy: a cross-cultural survey of human placenta consumption, disposal practices and cultural beliefs, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 49 (2010): 467–484.
p. 175	the Great Pharmacopoeia of 1596 … W. Ober, Notes on placentophagy, Bulletin of the New York Medical Academy, 55(6) (1979): 596.
p. 176	On a more recent note … S. Benet, Song, Dance and Customs of Peasant Poland (New York: Roy, 1951), pp. 196–197.
p. 179	In a 1954 study, Czech researchers … E. Soyková-Pachnerová, B. Golová and E. Zvolská, Placenta as a lactagogon, Gynaecologia, 138 (1954): 617–627.
p. 182	‘The Somosomo people were fed …’ From Online Etymology Dictionary, www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=long+pig&allowed_in_frame, Extract of a letter from the Rev. John Watsford, dated October 6th 1846. In ‘Wesleyan Missionary Notices’, September 1847.
p. 183	‘I sautéed the steak of Bernd, with salt …’ First TV Interview With German Cannibal: ‘Human flesh tastes like pork’. Spiegel Online International, 16 October 2007, www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/first-tv-interview-with-german-cannibal-human-flesh-tastes-like-pork-a-511775.html
p. 184	‘It was good, fully developed veal …’ W. Seabrook, Jungle Ways (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1931), p. 272.
p. 184	‘Animals eat their placenta …’ BBC News, Why eat a placenta? http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4918290.stm

16 No Laughing Matter: Cannibalism and Kuru in the Pacific Islands

p. 186	‘Nothing it seems to me …’ J. H. P. Murray (Lieutenant Governor/Chief Judicial Officer, British New Guinea 1908–1940), Papua; or British New Guinea (New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1912).
p. 187	According to research biochemist Colm Kelleher … C. Kelleher, Brain Trust (New York: Paraview Pocket Books, 2004), p. 115.
p. 188	By 1987 there were over 400 confirmed cases … ibid., p. 117.
p. 189	Fore elders told the Australians … W. Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), p. 14.
p. 190	the locals were ‘difficult people to deal with …’ cited in Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls, pp. 21–22.
p. 190	‘Actually these people are “bestial” in many ways …’ ibid., p. 25.
p. 190	‘Dead human flesh, to these people …’ ibid., p. 24.
p. 191	A decade later, the not-yet-controversial anthropologist Bill Arens commented … Arens, The Man-Eating Myth, p. 99.
p. 191	‘Now you have cut off my penis! …’ R. Berndt, Excess and Restraint (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 283.
p. 191	He studied rabies and plague … R. Rhodes, Deadly Feasts (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), p. 32.
p. 192	‘I am in one of the most remote …’ cited in Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls, p. 61.
p. 192	But Gajdusek had never seen any actual cannibalism … ibid., pp. 62–80.
p. 192	their initial findings were published … D. C. Gajdusek and V. Zigas, Degenerative disease of the central nervous system in New Guinea – the endemic occurrence of kuru in the native population, New England Journal of Medicine, 257 (1957): 974–978.
p. 193	The closest condition he could think … Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls, p. 80.
p. 193	Another NIH scientist noticed a similarity … Kelleher, Brain Trust, pp. 29–31.
p. 193	Scrapie, which was present in European sheep … ibid., pp. 31–32.
p. 193	At this point, Ronald Berndt stepped in … Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls, p. 81.
p. 194	Bennett proposed that a mutant kuru gene … ibid., p. 124.
p. 194	‘In the eastern highlands of New Guinea …’ Anonymous, The Laughing Death, Time, 11 November 1957, pp. 55–56.
p. 195	For his part, Gajdusek hated the media coverage … Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls, p. 81.
p. 196	Glasse published their hypothesis … R. M. Glasse, The social effects of kuru, Papua New Guinea Medical Journal, 7 (1964): 36–47.
p. 196	In a later study, Glasse calculated that kuru … John D. Mathews, Robert Glasse and Shirley Lindenbaum, Kuru and cannibalism, Lancet, 292 (1968): 449–452.
p. 196	Nearly fifty years after Glasse published … J. Whitfield, W. Pako, J. Collinge and M. Alpers, Mortuary rites of the South Fore and kuru, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363(1510) (2008): 3721–3724.
p. 198	including reproductive organs and faeces … Rhodes, Deadly Feasts, pp. 22–23.
p. 198	By tracing the path of the kuru reports … S. Lindenbaum, Cannibalism, kuru and anthropology, Folia Neuropathologica, 47(2) (2009): 139.
p. 199	Whitfield, who conducted nearly 200 interviews … Shirley Lindenbaum and Jerome Whitfield, personal communications.

17 Apocalypse Cow: The Origins of BSE

p. 200	‘Unfortunately, the custom of consuming human flesh …’ B. Fagan, The Aztecs (New York: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1984), p. 233.
p. 200	meat and dairy industries in the UK … Kelleher, Brain Trust, p. 118.
p. 201	In searching for answers, the British government enlisted … P. Yam, The Pathological Protein (New York: Copernicus Books, 2003), p. 110.
p. 201	Previously, dangerous solvents had been used … Kelleher, Brain Trust, p. 120.
p. 202	The first was a significant increase … Rhodes, Deadly Feasts, p. 180.
p. 203	In 1947 an outbreak of what would become known … ibid., pp. 81–82.
p. 203	they inoculated a trio of chimpanzees … ibid., p. 87.
p. 204	In a February 1966 article … D. C. Gajdusek, C. Gibbs and M. Alpers, Experimental transmission of a kuru-like syndrome to chimpanzees, Nature, 209 (1966): 794–796.
p. 205	‘The mechanism of spread of kuru …’ D. C. Gajdusek, Kuru in the New Guinea Highlands, in J. Spillane (ed.), Tropical Neurology (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 376–383.
p. 205	In a radio interview, the NIH researcher … R. Uridge, BSE – the untold story, BBC Radio 4, 18 May 1999.
p. 207	At the forefront of the mystery … Rhodes, Deadly Feasts, pp. 120–122.
p. 207	In another set of experiments … T. Alper, D. Haig and M. Clarke, The exceptionally small size of the scrapie agent, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 22 (1966): 278–284.
p. 207	After reading Alper’s work … J. S. Griffith, Self-replication and scrapie, Nature, 215 (1967): 1043–1044.
p. 208	But Stanley Prusiner, a young biochemist … Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls, pp. 190–194.
p. 208	In 1982 Prusiner published his lab findings … S. Prusiner, Novel proteinaceous infectious particles cause scrapie, Science, 216(4542) (1982): 136–144.
p. 209	‘invaded and colonized the work …’ Rhodes, Deadly Feasts, p. 203.

18 Truth or Consequences: BSE, CJD and Human Health

p. 211	a ‘blue ribbon’ panel … Kelleher, Brain Trust, p. 125.
p. 211	offering them only 50 per cent of market value … Yam, The Pathological Protein, p. 118.
p. 212	‘Spongiform Fear Grows …’ Farming News, 22 April 1988.
p. 212	‘Raging Madness Attacks Cattle …’ Sunday Telegraph, 24 April 1988.
p. 212	An earlier paper in Nature also demonstrated … C. Gibbs, Jr. and D. C. Gajdusek, Transmission of scrapie to the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis), Nature, 236 (1972): 73–74.
p. 212	‘the risk of transmission of BSE …’ The BSE Inquiry: The Report, The National Archives, http://collections.europarchive.org/tna/20090505194948/http://bseinquiry.gov.uk/report/volume4/chapt102.htm#888456
p. 212	The authors of the Southwood report … Kelleher, Brain Trust, p. 140.
p. 213	she and her colleagues have performed … L. Manuelidis, Y. Zhoa-Xue, N. Barquero and B. Mullins, Cells infected with scrapie and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agents produce intracellular 25-nm virus-like particles, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(6) (2007): 1965–1970.
p. 214	In 1993, two British dairy farmers died … Rhodes, Deadly Feasts, p. 187.
p. 214	In May of the same year, fifteen-year-old British schoolgirl Victoria Rimmer … ibid., pp. 187–188.
p. 214	think of the consequences … ibid., p. 188.
p. 214	In 1994, a sixteen-year-old schoolgirl … ibid., pp. 188–189.
p. 215	On 8 March 1996 the hammer fell … Kelleher, Brain Trust, p. 165.
p. 215	The new disease was initially … J. Ironside and J. Bell, Florid plaques and new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, The Lancet, 350 (1997): 1475.
p. 215	By October 2013 the number of definite … One in 2,000 people in the UK carry ‘abnormal proteins’ linked to mad cow disease, Daily Mail, 15 October 2013, www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2461354/Mad-cow-disease-One-2-000-people-UK-carry-abnormal-proteins-linked-vCJD.html
p. 215	‘anonymous appendix samples …’ Researchers estimate one in 2,000 people in the UK carry variant CJD proteins, press release, British Medical Journal, 14 October 2013, www.bmj.com/press-releases/2013/10/14/researchers-estimate-one-2000-people-uk-carry-variant-cjd-proteins
p. 216	The researchers and their colleagues … S. Mead, J. Whitfield, M. Poulter, P. Shah, J. Uphill, J. Beck, T. Campbell, Al-H. Dujaily, M. Alpers and J. Collinge, Genetic susceptibility, evolution and the kuru epidemic, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, 363 (2008): 3741–3746.
p. 216	In 2015 Collinge and his research team … E. Asante, M. Smidak, A. Grimshaw, R. Houghton, A. Tomlinson, A. Jeelani, T. Jakubcova, S. Hamdan, A. Richard-Londt, J. Linehan, S. Brandner, M. Alpers, J. Whitfield, S. Mead, J. Wadsworth and J. Collinge, A naturally occurring variant of the human prion protein completely prevents prion disease, Nature, 522 (2015): 478–481.

Epilogue One Step Beyond

p. 219	‘Viewing anything that involves violence …’ F. Rice, Whodunnit then? Here’s why we’re all so obsessed with violent crime, Marie Claire, 9 March 2015, www.marieclaire.co.uk/blogs/548712/whodunnit-then-here-s-whywe-re-all-so-obsessed-with-violent-crime.html
p. 219	‘an older homosexual tramp …’ J. Green, Cassell’s Dictionary of Slang (London: Orion, 2005), p. 240.
p. 219	‘are people who have a tremendous desire to destroy …’ Why killers cannibalize, ABC News, 22 May 2002, http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=90012
p. 220	where researchers Daniel Griffin and Kevin Anchukaitis used soil … D. Griffin and K. Anchukaitis, How unusual is the 2012–2014 California drought?, Geophysical Research Letters, 41 (2014): 9017–9023.