Note: Page numbers in bold type refer to figures
Page numbers in italic type refer to tables
Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes
Abondance 502
Aboriginal rights 40–41, 434–436
Aboriginal Title and Rights 36, 37, 38–39
accelerated inertia 500
access roads 395
accessibility 54–55, 57, 239, 240, 261, 296, 349
high-Alpine areas 347
ski resorts 327
Accident & Emergency services 327
carbon dioxide emissions 69
eco-friendly 86
accountability 129
activities, winter 9
strategy 4
adventure tourism 463
adventure-based lifestyle 281
advertising
ski resorts 495
aerial tramways 340
affluent tourists 189
air travel 316
and climate change 87
greenhouse gas emissions 83, 88
airports 57, 216, 277, 363, 450, 457
all-season destinations 19
Alpenplan see Alpine Plan
alpine communities, lower-level 299
Alpine Convention 92, 100, 161
Alpine Plan (Alpenplan) 15, 26–28, 31, 32
alpine ski resorts
gross income 117
pricing strategies 20, 116–137
alpine skiing 20, 103, 189, 461
alpine (winter) tourism 64, 496–500
supply and demand 124
alternative outdoor activities 236–245
Carpathian 10
Convention on the Protection of the Alps (2013) 161
glaciers 64
hotel prices 113n1
land use changes 378
snow coverage 64
Swiss 308
temperatures 64
transport 70
water resources 64 see also Bavarian Alps; European Alps
alternative mobility 331, 332, 334, 335
alternative outdoor activities 179–180
alternative winter sports activities 237, 238, 242
amenity migration 277, 278–279, 282, 501, 502
Banff 282
American Dream 278
American Skiing Company 354–357, 355
Amsterdam, ecological footprint 83
Anthropocene 494
anthropogenic climate change 85
après ski 105
Bansko 375
archaeology 499
Argentina, Bariloche 36
art on the mountain 374
artificial ski areas, Sweden 319
artificial snowmaking 2, 11, 12, 49, 57, 93, 96, 98, 99, 383, 400, 403–404, 404, 494–496, 503
Aspen effect 309
Aspen Skiing Company 359, 360, 362
Australia, ski resort managers 77
Australians 276
Austria
Alpbach-Tal-Seenland 18
biodiversity 65
cable cars 104
carbon dioxide emissions 69
destination selection 407–408, 408, 409, 416–417
expenditure behaviour 104
Hohe Tauern National Park 30, 31
Ischgl 349
Kaprun 348
Kitzbühel 348
Kitzsteinhorn 348
Lech am Arlberg 12, 403–404, 404
mountaineering villages 30
nature experience programmes 67–68, 68
overnight stays 64, 65, 344–345, 344
renewable energy 403–421, 405, 406
Silvretta Montafon 403–404, 404
ski lifts 104
stay duration 69
summer activities 404
Thomatal 350
Zell am See 403–404, 404 see also Tyrol
Austrian Ecolabel 370
Austrian Tourism Bank 66
authentic products 54
auto-mobility 89
autumn tourism 56
Avalanche Canada 150
skills training courses 149–150, 152
aviation 82
backcountry
ethics 152
huts 230
skiing 229, 232, 237, 243, 309
tours 149
backyard effect 319
accommodation 118
après ski 375
cable cars 376
carbon dioxide emissions 383–384
environmental improvement 378–390
guest structure 376
internal management 383
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 375
Bariloche 36
Bavaria 15
SnowBavaria 58
climate change adaptation 19, 92–102
global warming 13
landscape protection areas 30
overnight stays 28
transport infrastructure 26
winter sport resorts 92
zoning 26
behaviour
environment 158
leisure 388
risk 301
sustainable 157 see also expenditure behaviour
behavioural change 18, 87, 471
behavioural research 1
best practices 5
bikes, rental 87
biking 12–13, 13, 16, 77, 87, 96, 376–377
biomechanics 236
Birds Directive 385
Black Forest 20
Black Forest National Park, expenditure behaviour 110–112, 111
blue ice hiking 450
bob sledding 333
bookings 128
branding
destinations 12
regional 58
Brazil 273
Adventure Tourism – Land use Operational Policy 150
Central Purcells 433
Commercial Alpine Ski Policy (CASP) 427, 429
commercial snowmobile offers 14
Commission on Resources and Environment (CORE) 429, 430
Crown Land 437n1
Environmental Assessment Act (2019) 438n7
government policy 427
Grizzly Bear Conservation Strategy (1995) 431–432
Ministry of Environment, Ecological Restoration Guidelines (2001) 437n3
Park Act (2006) 43
Purcell Mountains 36, 299–300, 426, 427
Purcell Wilderness Conservancy 426
resource exploitation 427
snowmaking 292
Sun Peaks Municipality 294
sustainable development policy 427
Tod Mountain 35
Valemount Glacier Destination Resort 44, 438n6 see also Jumbo Glacier Resort; Whistler; Whistler Blackcomb
British Columbia Commercial Snowmobile Operators Association (BCCSOA) 152
British Columbia Rockies 300
British Columbia Snowmobile Federation (BCSF) 148
British North America Act (1867) 39
Brundtland Commission 427
Buckelwiesen 95
Buddhism 266
budgeting 228
building codes 418
Bulgaria
Pirin Mountains 298
ski resorts 57 see also Bansko
Bürger Pass 130
buses 221
carbon footprint 80
green 380
sustainability 18
business model 3, 4, 20, 77, 118–121
business-led tourism promotion, subsidies 66
Åre 308
Austria 104
capacity utilization 54
carbon footprint 66
investment 113
cable cars and surface lifts (CCSLs) 339–353, 341, 342, 343, 350n1
Austrian overnight stays 344–345, 344
multiplier effect 349
camping 75
Canada
federal and provincial governments 37
Guide on Biodiversity and Environmental Assessment 432
Jasper National Park 44
Canada (continued)Vancouver International Airport 277, 363 see also British Columbia
Canadian Council of Snowmobile Organizations 148
carbon
footprint 80, 82, 83, 84, 86, 86
offsetting 83
carbon dioxide emissions 11, 17, 56, 82, 88, 334, 383–384, 421
accommodation 69
Austria 69
transportation 69
Carpathian Alps 10
Carpathian Mountains 32, 246, 250, 254
electric 18
greenhouse gas emissions 89
private 13
Caucasus 32
caving, Tatra National Park 249, 250
Central Purcell Mountains 433
environmental 298
Hoher Kranzberg 98
Mittenwald 95
spatial and socio-cultural 9–11
Chambers of Commerce 77
chapels 396
child care 11
winter sports 14
China
landscape loss 267
market 4, 181, 265, 266, 272, 273
National Level Scenic and Historic Interest Areas 267
population growth 267
skiing 268
urbanization 267
wilderness 267
World Heritage Sites 267
China Inbound Service 258–266, 268
Chinese guests 3
cultural values 268
customer experiences 261–263, 262
management consequences 264–266
travel motivations 259
typical 260
Chinese speaking staff 265
Chinese students, nature and landscape perception 266–271
Christmas tourism 47, 56, 443–444
citizens 389
cleanliness 261
mitigation targets 400
climate change 1, 11, 49, 76, 80, 298, 503
adaptation 2, 11–13, 17, 47, 49–50, 59, 67–69, 76–77
bottom-up 99
mountain areas 9
stakeholders 99
top-down 99
and air travel 87
anthropogenic 85
and communication strategies 66–67
Dolomites 324
and downhill ski tourism 316–319
European Alps 12
impact assessments 316
local impacts 76
perceptions 12, 17–18, 73–81, 197
policy 51
resident perceptions and behaviours 78–79
and snow reliability 331, 332,333
and summer tourism 503
and sustainability factors 55–56
technical solutions 11, 12, 17, 65
tourist perceptions 13
Climate and Energy Model 89
climbing, Tatra National Park 248, 249
cog railways 343
collision accidents 468, 469, 470, 471
colonization 37
Colorado, ski industry 278
Commercial Alpine Ski Policy 362
common development plans 119
common good 436
communication 11, 125, 373, 383, 504
environmental 370
target groups 205
community 10, 156, 298, 300, 324, 363, 501
involvement, Whistler 167, 168
compensation 10
competition 54, 56, 100–101, 248, 366, 392, 495
conference tourism 16
conflict
recreation 229
resolution 25
social values 1, 229, 233, 234
conservancies 43
conservation
landscape 331
nature 15, 19, 95–96, 99, 253–254, 267
consumers
Convention on the Protection of the Alps (2013) 161
corporate model 310
corporate–community relations, Whistler 354, 361–366
North American mountain resorts 354–357
corporatization, place 361
cost
artificial snowmaking 3–4, 116, 120, 505n1
efficiency 2
operating 105
snowmobiling 153 see also price; pricing
counter-culture lifestyle 281–282
counter-urban movement 278
cross-continental differences 193
cross-country skiing 11, 94, 237, 239, 308, 476
changes in participation 186, 186, 187
cross-cultural differences 193
cruise ship industry 19, 20, 94, 130
culinary tourism 16
cultural differences 3
climate change adaptation 207–208
cross- 193
destination choice 193
overcrowding 223
cultural features 267
cultural heritage 388, 396, 503
cultural identity, landscape 272
cultural landscapes 27
cultural practices 35
cultural products 17
cultural programmes 67
cultural resource management 296, 331–332, 335
cultural responsibility 498–499
cultural sites 418
destination choice 178
hospitality 58
Indigenous 436
marketization 58
preservation 161
snow sports 314
sports 193
customer-centric products 55
customers
added value 340
current and future 14
needs 175
research 55
value 58
customized services 258
cycling see biking
day trippers 20, 58, 92, 94, 147, 284
expenditure behaviour 105, 106, 107, 110
decision making 66, 192, 298, 335, 373
public interest 437
risk 463
deforestation 100
diversity 3
international 4
destination 1
branding 12
Austria 407–408, 408, 409, 416–417
community 324
coordinators 478
new 392
determinants 478
Destination Competitiveness Model 158, 159
destination management organizations (DMOs) 49, 95, 324, 477–478, 485–487, 489–490
semi-public 51
developers 24
development 1, 2, 4, 158, 291–304
environmental goals 176
EU funds 57
incremental 4
investors 57
pseudo-cultural 502
public actors 395
resort towns 296
rural 3
urban 4
zones 15 see also economic development; products, development; sustainable development
Diemtigtal
expenditure behaviour 106–110, 106, 107, 109
differences see cultural differences
digitalization (digital technology) 127, 134n6, 324
discrete choice experiment 194–196, 196, 205–207
Disneyfication 364
disputes 501
diversification 2, 16–17, 67, 189, 500, 505
French ski resorts 298–299, 388–399
ski resorts 177
Sweden 318
dog sledding 243
climate change 324
environmental destruction 328
environmental sustainability 336, 336
landscape 325
new demand trends 331, 332,333
ski consortium 325
changes in participation 186
costs 312
expansion 308
Finland 476
socio-economic changes 314–316
Sweden 177, 185, 186,295, 305–323, 312, 313, 314
dynamic pricing, SkiArena Andermatt-Sedrun 126–127, 126, 127, 134n5
Eastern Europe, ski resorts 118
eco-friendly mobility 18
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) 369, 370, 373, 375, 376, 382, 384, 385
basic principles 370–372, 371, 372
ecological footprint 83
ecological responsibility 385
ecology 374
economic benefits 11
economic challenges 1, 9, 13–14
mountain areas 3
pro-growth model 285
regional 103
Sweden 295
economic factors 54
economic growth 56, 59, 327, 427
economic migration 277
economic sustainability 167, 330
economical guests 129
mountain 505
regional 53
tourism 504
winter 498
ecosystems 432
electric cars 18
electric energy 340
elevations 2
emergency facilities 471
emissions
noise 29
renewable energy 408, 409, 410, 413
wind turbines 415 see also carbon dioxide emissions; greenhouse gas emissions
employees 384
employment 54, 68, 116, 176–177, 184, 285, 349
local 388
endogenous development model 329–330
New Zealand 82
transport 17
electric 340
photovoltaic 407
solar 77, 299, 407, 409, 411, 413, 419
wind 299, 409, 411, 417, 419, 421 see also renewable energy
engagement
investors 4
environment 331
awareness 180
behaviour 158
certification 370
communication 370
construction 376
destruction 328
monitoring 298
renewable energy 408, 409, 410, 413
responsibility 497
standards 370
Environmental Assessment Act (BC, 1996)426, 430
environmental assessment (EA) 430–434, 436
environmental certification 298
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) 418
environmental impacts 3, 24–25, 222, 222
environmental improvement 373, 376–390
Environmental Liability Directive (2004) 385
environmental management practices (EMPs) 331, 332, 334
environmental management systems (EMSs) 370, 384
environmental sustainability 330
Dolomites 336
environmentally friendly management, ski resorts 369–387
environmentally friendly tourism 421
equipment, technology 251
erosion 222, 376, 378, 380, 383
Europe
destination sustainability 158, 160–161
Eastern 118
European Alps 19
climate change 12
German tourists 21
renewable energy 299
European regional tourism strategies, comparison 16–17
European tourism Research Institute 184
European Union (EU) 54, 57, 385
expenditure
expenditure behaviour 14
Austria 104
average 104
Black Forest National Park 110–112, 111
day trippers 105, 106, 107, 110
nature-based tourism 107, 108, 109, 109
Switzerland 104
winter sport activities 19–20, 103–115
experience-led tourism 19, 20, 133
experiences, regional 205
extreme conditions 64
Facebook 162
family-friendliness 239
farm visits 392
financial crisis
global (2007–2010) 213
Iceland (2008) 447
financial tools 49
Finland
cross-country skiing 476
downhill skiing 476
gondolas 479
skiing tunnels 11
First Nations 10, 37, 363, 427, 428, 430, 431, 435
Land Management Act (1999) 41–42
flexibility 121
focal enterprises 349
Chinese guests 262, 263, 264, 265
footprint
ecological 83
Fordism 329
foreign independent tourist (FIT) 259, 260, 266, 273
foreign tourism
fossil fuel 56
France
Abondance 502
Chamrousse 501
Guillestrois-Queyras VA 390, 396–397
Haute-Maurienne-Vanoise inter-municipality 394, 394, 395, 396
Hauteville-Valromey 502
La Bresse 392
Massif Central 392
Modane 394
Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur 54, 499
ski lifts 391
territorial reform 393–395, 396
Vanoise National Park 30, 398n8
Villard-de-Lans 499 see also French ski resorts; Mountain Law
Frau Holle Guarantee 67
free skiing space 464
free-riders 237
Freestyle Ski World Cup 480
French ski resorts 398n9, 493–508
Chamonix/Les Houches 116
diversification 298–299, 388–399
Les Arcs 348
private–public 298
Ratti Pass 501
stakeholders 391
Val Thorens 116
frost days, Germany 93
public 502
Garibaldi Lifts Limited 358, 359, 360
Garibaldi Olympic Development Association (GODA) 357, 358
Gastings West Group 360
gastronomy 333
gender
and injuries 472
and risk 463
generally suitable zones 26
Generation X 315
geothermal energy 407, 409, 413
German Cable Car Association 104
German Sport University Cologne 21, 117
Germany 139
frost days 93
Munich 92
North Rhine-Westphalia 21
snow sports 138 see also Bavaria
Gibson’s principles 156
glaciers 49, 212, 431, 448, 449–450, 453, 455, 456
Alps 64
Iceland 300
Lake of the Hanging Glaciers 425
melting 64
Valemount Glacier Destination Resort 44, 438n6 see also Jumbo Glacier Resort
global financial crisis (2007–2010) 213
global travel 189
global warming 2, 13, 47, 49, 56, 324, 500
goats 430
gondolas 248, 340, 350, 364, 479
governance
regional destination 291
GPS-based equipment 188
green business 380
green concerns 369
green image 375
green labels 164
green marketing 78
green movement 158
green tourism 421
greener products 157
greenhouse gas emissions 73, 316
cars 89
slope management 66
Whistler 82
Grizzly Bear Spirit 36, 426, 428, 434–436
grizzly bears 428, 430, 431–433, 438n5
growth
community 363
guests 1, 129 see also Chinese guests
guided tours 21
availability 152
licensing 14
wages 153 see also snowmobile guiding; snowmobiling
gymnastics, ski 140
Habitats Directive (1992) 385
helmets 461
high altitudes, construction projects 65
high-Alpine areas, accessibility 347
hiking 16, 27, 32, 75, 94–95, 374, 376–377
blue ice 450
buses 88
Sweden 309
Hohe Tauern National Park 30, 31
Holiday Act (UK, 1938)308
prices, Alps 113n1
renewable energy supply (RES) 403
Trentino 331
hybrid visitors 112, 179, 228–235
hydroelectric power 407, 409, 420
hypermobility 319
ice 47
caps 212
caves 301, 450, 451–452, 453, 456, 456
days
rinks 67 see also glaciers
Iceland
all-season tourism 178
buses 221
Iceland (continued)currency 447
financial crisis (2008) 447
flights 446
glaciers 300
Höfn 451
infrastructure 220
international arrivals 214, 214, 215, 215
international visitors 217, 218, 219, 221
Jökulsárlón 221, 449, 450, 450, 451, 457
Keflavík Airport 216, 450, 457
landscapes 226
map 446
nature destinations 178–179, 212–227, 219
overcrowding 179, 213, 222–224, 223, 224, 225, 225, 301
overnight stays 216
parking 222
seasonality 213, 300–301, 442–460, 445
on regional level 447–448, 447
Skaftafell National Park 449, 451
stay duration 448
travel 221
Vatnajökull 213
Vatnajökull National Park 448, 449, 453–454, 458
visitors
motivations 217
nationality by season 216, 217
whole-year tourism 458 see also Hornafjörður
Icelandic Tourist Board 217, 219–226, 220, 453
corporate 357
cultural 272
local 502
ideology 500
ignorance 500
image, green 375
impact benefit agreements 10, 44
incremental development 4
incremental model 3
Indian reserves 38
indicative planning 49
Indigenous Community and Conserved Areas, definition 42
Indigenous culture 436
Indigenous lands 427
Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas, definition 42
indigenous rights 15–16, 434–436
indoor ski slopes 140
industrial snow 500
industrialization 394
industry 392
ski 278, 302–303, 309, 493–508
textile 392
infrastructure 3, 56–58, 97–98, 272, 360, 364
all-season 225
costs 116
Iceland 220
marketing 16
public–private partnerships 316
renewable energy 401
ski tourism 25
Valais 57
villages 300
infrastructure-based tourism 20, 25, 31
injuries 236
and gender 472
reduction 301
skiing 457, 461, 465–470, 466, 469
environmental sustainability 330–335
insight travelling 258
institutionalized seasonality 443
institutions, power 393
inter-municipalities 299, 389, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396
inter-municipality tourist office 393, 394, 397
international market 2
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 369
International Ski Federation (FIS) 376, 382, 465
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 30, 42, 246, 448
Internet 55
interpersonal conflict 228, 233, 234
Intrawest Corporation 354–357, 355,360, 361, 362, 363, 366
inventiveness 501
investment
cable cars 113
mass ski model 329
ski lifts 312
Swedish ski tourism 316
investors, engagement 4
Ischgl 349
ISO 14001 Certification, basic principles 370–372, 372, 384
Italians, winter sports activities 197
Italy
Piedmont 58
Stelvio National Park 30
Trentino 330–335 see also Dolomites; Sexten
iterative planning 19
hospitality 283
snowmobiling 148
Jumbo Glacier Resort 36, 44, 299–300, 425–441
climate change 431
environmental assessment (EA) 425, 426
Jumbo Valley 36, 42, 426, 436, 438
keystone species 437n3
Kinbasket-Shuswap first nation 428
Kitzbühel 348
Kitzsteinhorn 348
knowledge
behavioural change 87
Ktunaxa First Nation 36, 42, 426, 428, 429–430, 435, 436, 437
Ktunaxa Nation v. British Columbia
(2014) 428
labels, green 164
labour
cohorts 276
migration, Sweden 309
land 42, 100, 161, 297, 430, 498
Indigenous 427
public 355
regulation 37
sacred 37
tenure 150
transfers 44
land tour operator (LTO)265
agricultural 3
changes 378
Levi 485
ski resorts 388
lands for lifts agreements 360, 362
landscape 197, 198, 205, 208, 400
conservation 331
cultural identity 272
Iceland 226
loss 267
natural 299
perception 181
Shanghai tourism students 268, 269, 270, 271
renewable energy 408, 409, 410, 410, 411, 411
seasonal 225
snowy 503
territorial and landscape management 331–332, 332, 335
wind turbines 411, 411, 412, 414
Lapland 318
summer tourism 58
Lapland Tourism Marketing Organization 481
destination success 477–479, 489
time 133
Leisure Constraint Theory 279
liability 465
lifestyle migration 181–182, 276–287, 309
definition 277
landed negotiation dynamic 279
participant description 280, 280
push and pull framework 278
Sweden 309
lifestyle travellers 278
lifts see chairlifts; ski lifts
Lil’wat Nation 42
local communities 156
local economy 330
mass ski model 328
local employment 388
local governance, evolution 391, 392
local identity 502
local planning 53
long-distance markets 258
long-haul flights 94
long-term planning 155
Maine see Western Maine
maldevelopment 500
Māori people 36
Mapuche people 36
Chinese 4, 181, 265, 266, 272, 273
long-distance 258
mountain tourism 32
realism 206
ski 183
marketing 3, 20, 58, 119, 178, 193, 380–382, 504
direct 125
green 78
infrastructure 16
Internet 55
joint 130
myopia 336
organizations 302
value added 370
marketization 58
mass ski model 324, 326–327, 336
investment 328
local economy 328
Massif Central 392
Master Development Agreements 363
meaningful leisure time 133
meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) 58
mega-events 315
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) 44
microclimates 328
microenterprises 453
migration
amenity 277, 278–279, 309, 501, 502
economic 277
labour 309 see also lifestyle migration
sustainability 155, 157–158, 162, 164–167, 166
sustainable mountain practices 164–165
alternative 331, 332, 334, 335
eco-friendly 18
sustainable 18
Modane, industrialization 394
mono-cable gondolas (MGDs) 347
monopoly 362
motivation theory 228
motorized visitors 179, 228–235
Mountain Law, France
(1985) 391
Mountain Resort Municipality 425, 426
alpine 20, 116–137 see also North American mountain resorts; ski resorts
mountain tourism 32, 293, 296, 504
summer 350
Sweden 295
Mountain Wilderness 501
mountains
access 501
anthropization 328
communities 501
economy 505
industry 504
regions 503
peripheral valleys 113
sustainability 161
transportation 339
multi-seasonal tourism 400
multi-stage planning 19
multiplier effect 116
National Association of Ski Resort Mayors 499
National Ministry of Environment and Water (MOEW) 381
conservation plans 247
goals 248
ticket prices 249
national planning 53
National Union of Ski Instructors 499
nationality, and renewable energy 410–413, 411, 416, 418–419
natural landscape, summer tourism 400
natural resources 155, 331–332, 335
natural seasonality 443
Natural Step, The 363
natural tourism 299
conservation 19, 95–96, 99, 180, 267
Tatra National Park 246
Tyrol 15
destinations
experiences 12, 17, 199, 237, 240
preservation 161
stakeholders 389
Styria 56
nature-based activities 104–195
nature-based tourism 20, 30, 308
affluent tourists 189
climate change risk perceptions 17–18, 73–81
drivers 187
expenditure behaviour 107, 108, 109, 109
needs
customers 175
guests 1
regional community 300
Neskonlith peoples 35
networks
rail 308
redefined 392
road 327
stakeholder 397
night-time activities 239, 240
NIMBYism 434
Nippon Cable 361
noise
emissions 29
nomadic skiing 497
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), environmental 100, 375, 376, 381–382
non-motorized visitors 179, 228–235
North American mountain resorts
corporate ownership 354–357 see also Vail entries
North Rhine-Westphalia
snow sport school trips 138–145, 141
Northern Lights tours 221, 221, 446, 454, 455, 458
NOTRe Law (2015) 389, 393, 395, 398n11
novelty 327
objective risks 462
Olympic Games 277, 357 see also Winter Olympics
on-site mobility, eco-friendly 88
online surveys 185, 189, 194, 195, 230–231, 238
operating costs 105
operators, tourism 392
outdoor activities
social aspects 237 see also alternative outdoor activities
Outdoor Association 308
overcrowding
cultural differences 223
Iceland 179, 213, 222–224, 223, 224, 225, 225, 301
perception 222–224, 223, 223, 224, 225, 225, 364
Tatra National Park 251
overdevelopment 496
overnight stays 28, 106, 147, 216
Austria 25, 64, 65, 344–345, 344, 350n4–6
expenditure behaviour 105, 107, 110
oversized tourism projects 496
overtourism 258
Para-Olympics 277
national 176, 396–397, 448, 449, 451, 453–454, 458
passes see ski passes
pastures 27
photovoltaic systems 407, 409, 411, 412, 413, 415, 420
physical security 261
picknickers 237
Pirin Mountains 298
corporatization 361
community involvement 157, 161, 164
definition 48
indicative 49
iterative 19
land use 16
local 53
long-term 155
multi-stage 19
national 53
OECD countries 48
resorts 14
statutory 49
territorial 15 see also destination planning; tourism planning
pleasure seekers 243
Poland
Białka Valley 250
Morskie Oko 250, 251 see also Tatra Mountains; Tatra National Park
police service 327
climate change 51
destination development 299
regional 17
sustainability 51
tourism 161
Polish Nature Conservation Act (2004) 248
Polish Olympic Committee 253
politics
environmental assessment (EA) 436
stakeholders 389
post-tourism 502
power, institutions 393
cultural differences 178
guests 1
price
alpine hotels 113n1
price performance ratio 408, 417
alpine ski resorts 20, 116–137
business model 20
flexible 131 see also cost
primary production, decline 54
private–public ski resorts 298
products
authentic 54
cultural 17
customer-centric 55
customized 258
lifestyle-oriented 14
development 16, 19, 58, 68, 70, 264, 265, 266–271
greener 157
preferences 181
regional 59
programmed snow 326, 328–329, 332
Project Approval Certificates 36
protected areas 9, 15, 24–34, 68, 100, 176, 247, 253, 267, 448
management 254
rules 249
social functions 249
Sweden 183
Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur 54, 499
pseudo-cultural development 502
public funding, winter sports 502
public interest, decision making 437
public land, exploitation 355
public participation, Hoher Kranzberg 99–100
public planning, climate change 50, 53
public policy
definition 48
public transport 18, 56, 87, 88–89, 199, 207, 239, 240, 261
public–private partnerships 48, 316
Pyrenees 493
Qat’Muk Declaration (2010) 36, 42, 435
quality of life 330
cog 343
Recreation Experience Preference (REP) scales 228
recreationist motivations 179, 228–235
recultivation, Bansko 380, 381, 382
recycling 78
redundancies 364
referral notices 43
regional brands 58
regional community needs 300
regional destination governance 291
regional experiences 205
regional planning and policy documents 1, 16, 17, 47–64
regional products 59
regional strategy and policy documents 52
relocation 318
renewable energy 18, 67, 77, 80, 164, 400–424
environment 408, 409, 410, 413
European Alps 299
infrastructure 401
installations 401, 417–418, 420
landscape 408, 409, 410, 410, 411, 411
local population 401, 414, 416–417, 416, 421
nationality 410–413, 411, 416, 418–419
valorization 403
renewable energy supply (RES) 403, 406, 421
rental bikes 87
rescue services 225
research
behavioural 1
customer 55
ski resorts 389
reservoirs 66, 334, 388, 407, 409
Resort Municipality Act (1975) 362
Resort Municipality of Whistler (RMOW) 156–157, 158, 359, 360, 362, 363
resortification 308
resorts
community 362
development 296
planning 14
village model 355 see also mountain resorts; ski resorts
resources
exploitation 427
management, cultural 296, 331–332, 335
regulation 37
responsibility, cultural 498–499
restaurants 119, 160, 199, 208
rights 10
Aboriginal 36, 37, 38–41, 434–436
fishing 39
indigenous 15–16, 35–46, 434–436
decision making 463
definition 462
gender 463
objective 462
skiing 461
snowboarding 461
subjective 462
Ruhegebiete (quiet areas) 15, 29–30
rural development 3
Saas Valley 125
sacred land 37
safety 1, 54, 188, 251, 261, 268, 272, 296, 301, 461–462, 471
regulations 327
skiing 327, 464–465, 464, 471–472
slopes 3
satisfaction, alternative outdoor activities 239–242, 240
Scandinavia 12
Scandinavian Mountains Airport project 316
schools 117
alternative disciplines 142, 142
Germany 139
North Rhine-Westphalia 21
scientific studies 144
trip barriers 141
sports 94
season passes 118, 120, 121, 131, 132, 357
Iceland 213, 300–301, 442–460, 445
institutionalized 443
natural 443
seasons, tourism 327
second homeowners 16, 57, 286, 309
Secwepemc Nation 35
Seilbahn-und Skigebietsprogramm 15, 26, 28
self-completion surveys 220
self-drive 216
services
adaptation 264
customized 258
delivery 228
diverse 296
expansion 11
rescue 225
Shanghai tourism students, landscape perception 268, 269, 270, 271
shopping 264
Shuswap First nation 435
Silvretta Montafon 403–404, 404
Sinixt First Nation 428, 437n2
sites, cultural or environmental importance 10
Skaftafell National Park 449, 451
ski bashing 498
ski carousels 326
ski chauffeur services 334
ski competitions 248
ski consortiums, Dolomites 325
ski gymnastics 140
ski huts 199
ski industry 309
Colorado 278
Austria 104
Tyrol 29
certification 161
expansion 296
France 391
investment 312
quality 326
Sweden 308
Tatra National Park 248
ticket revenues 310, 310, 312, 314
Trentino 331 see also chairlifts
ski market 183
ski operators 50
ski racing events 376
accessibility 327
advertising 495
Alps, location within 200, 202
Australia 77
Bavaria 57
brand identity 489
Canada 158
competition 495
costs 195
diversification 177
Eastern Europe 118
and global warming 500
community model 391
corporate model 391
Italian target group 204
land use planning 388
management 373
environmental 297–298, 369–387
management sustainability 296
as mega attractions 310
mid-elevation 395
private–public 298
research 389
selection criteria 198–199, 199, 203, 205, 477
stakeholders 395
Swedish 315
tickets 120
turnover 116
websites 50
year-round 427 see also French ski resorts
motivations 237
off trail 251
Tatra National Park 246–247, 248, 249, 250
ski tourism 328
climate change 184
development 25
employment 184
industrialization period 307–309
infrastructure 25
prehistoric and ancient times 306–307
spatial planning 27
ski-boom 26
skiers
behavioural change 471
as members 14
technical ability 350n3
skiing
for all utopia 495
organized 464
cat 151
China 268
and climate change 309
code of conduct 471
competitions 307
cultural differences 178, 192–211
day trippers 92
expenditure 117
free 464
and global warming 324
heli 151
history 305
injuries 457, 461, 465–470, 466, 469
mechanized 151
nature of 344
nomadic 497
Nordic 497
risk 461
safety 327, 464–465, 464, 471–472
schools 139
tunnels 11 see also cross-country skiing; downhill skiing
Skinow 127
Skwelkwek’welt Protection Centre 35
greenhouse gas emissions 66
indoor 140
quality 20
safety 3
slopes (continued)security 4
solar systems 409
small business tourism, economic role 50
small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) 54
smartphones 188
snow 47, 49, 67, 75, 225, 298, 318, 496, 500
commuters 327
guarantee 134
guns 494
industrial 500
insurances 49
Norway 319
powder 251
and climate change 331, 332,333
Sweden 317–318, 317 see also snowmaking
Snow Plan 308
snow sports
culture 314
Germany 138
lessons 264
snowboarding 140, 198, 327, 461, 500
snowmaking 66–67, 77, 184, 296
British Columbia 292
capacity 189
investment 113, 309, 312, 318 see also artificial snowmaking
conflict with other user groups 151
guides’ availability 152
and land tenure 150
snowmobile-assisted skiers 229, 232
snowmobiling 14, 75, 78, 147, 153, 179, 189, 229, 232
British Columbia 14, 21–22, 150
changes in participation 187, 187
costs 153
day trippers 147
jobs 148
overnight stays 147
push and pull motivations 146–147
Sweden 177
snowshoeing 78, 103, 140, 227, 239, 500
social conflicts 1
social goals 428
social interaction 232–233, 233
social responsibility 497, 498
social sustainability 167, 330
social values conflict 229, 233, 234
socio-cultural conditions 1, 14
socio-psychological health 142–143
socioeconomic stakeholders 389
soft-tourism 30
soil conditions 379
solar energy 77, 299, 407, 409, 411, 413, 415
slopes 409
solar power 419
Sound of Snow 67
spaces, distribution 425
spatial management 128
Bavaria 27
ski tourism 27
winter sport destinations 24–34
spatial and socio-cultural challenges 9–11
Special Management Area 429
species
keystone 437n3
umbrella 437n3
spending see expenditure
culture 193 see also winter sports
sports space theory 314
stakeholders 25, 50, 101, 297, 298, 303, 392
and carbon dioxide emissions 77–78
and climate change
adaptation 99
perceptions 17–18, 73, 76–78, 79–80
demobilization 397
French ski resorts 391
nature 389
nature-based tourism 73, 75, 76, 77
networks 397
political 389
Sexten 205
ski resorts 395
socioeconomic 389
standards 370
standby tourists 121
Startclim 67
Statistic Sweden 312
statutory planning 49
staycations 319
Stelvio National Park 30
Stockholm 316
students 120
Styria 56
subjective risks 462
Austria 404
climate change 503
Lapland 58
natural landscape 400
winter sports destinations 11–12
supply 49
surface lifts 342–343, 345, 347, 348
surveys
choice experiments 205
online 185, 189, 194, 230–231, 238
response rates 189
self-completion 220
sustainability 28, 101, 125, 155–172, 291–304, 370
business 18
European Alps 157
Millennials 155, 157–158, 162, 164–167, 166
mobility 18
mountain 161
policy 51
sustainability-profitability-gap 112
sustainable development 3, 5, 11, 14, 22, 155, 161, 419
ski resorts 369
Sustainable Mountain Tourism Experience Model (SMTE) 293, 294
sustainable practices
artificial ski areas 319
backcountry skiing 309
cross-country skiing 186–187, 186, 309
downhill skiing 185, 186,295, 305–323, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314
economic development 295
expanding resorts 316
financial crisis (1990s) 310, 319
foreign tourist consumption 189
hiking 309
Idre 36
Jämtland Härjedalen 56
Kebnekaise 318
labour migration 309
lifestyle migration 309
mountain bike trails 318
mountain tourism development 295
Norbotten 309
Olympic Committee 316
population projections 315, 315
protected areas 183
Sami people 16
Sarek 318
second homeowners 309
ski lift ticket revenues 310, 310, 312, 314
ski resorts 315
snowmaking investment 318
survey methodologies 184–185, 185
temperature 188
winter recreation trends 177–178, 183–191
Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth 189
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 184
Swedish Ski Areas Industry Association 310, 312
Swedish Tourist Federation 308
Swiss Alps 308
Swiss ski resorts, decline in visits 121, 122
Switzerland 58
Canton of Grisons 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 257–258
Chinese guests 176, 181, 257–275
crowdfunding model 20
economic difficulties 54
expenditure behaviour 104
landscape perception 181
Myclimate’Cause We Care’ 134n4
product preferences 181
Saas Valley 125
SkiArena Andermatt – Sedrun 126–127, 126, 127, 134n5
SWOT analysis 19
adaptation strategy 95–97, 101
t-test 407
Taoism 266
Tatra Mountain Rescue Service 251
Tatra Mountains 246, 248, 249, 250
Kasprowy Wierch 248, 250, 251, 252, 252
Kościeliska Valley 251
Tatra National Park
constructed infrastructure 249–250
educational trips 253
nature conservation 246, 253–254
outdoor recreation activities 248
overcrowding 251
ski lifts 248
ski touring 246–247, 248, 249, 250
visitor monitoring 249–251, 254
technology 49, 187–188, 251, 296
temperature 49, 56, 64, 75, 79, 188, 328–329
territorial and landscape management 331–332, 332, 335
territorial reform, France 393–395, 396
textile industry 392
thematic analysis 51
Thomatal 350n2
tickets
online 126
prices 129
ski
lifts 118, 120, 310, 310, 312, 314
Tla-oh-qui-aht Nation 42
Tod Mountain 35
touring see ski touring
tourism
annual growth rate 257
associations 119
expansion 32
multiplier effect 104
Tourism Monitor Switzerland 104
Tourism Naturally Conference (2018) 1
tours
backcountry 149
guided 21
Northern Lights 221, 221, 446, 454, 455, 458
trains 13, 88, 89, 197, 200, 296
climate change adaptation 207–208
tramways, aerial 340
transparency 129
Alps 70
Bavarian Alps 26
carbon dioxide emissions 69
energy consumption 17
low energy 83
mountain 339
networks 16
quality 349
urban 350 see also public transport; trains
transportation, uphill 296, 308, 339, 340, 344, 350n1
agencies 140
climate friendly 83
eco-friendly 89
global 189
Iceland 221
long-distance 67
packages 207
travellers, lifestyle 278
tribal parks 42
tricable gondola detachable (TGD) 348
TripAdvisor 260
tropical nights 64
Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia (2014) 40
Tsilhqot’in Nations 42
alternative winter activities 180, 236–245
cable car and ski resort programme 28–29
climate strategy 55
hospitality culture 58
Landscape Plan 29
nature conservation law 15
Seilbahn-und Skigebietsprogramm 15, 26, 28
ski lifts 29
South see Sexten
Tyrolean Nature Conservation Act (1975) 29
umbrella species 437n3
Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs 37
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) 40–41, 44
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 375
United Nations (UN)
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 292
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 292–293, 293
United States of America (USA)
Colorado 278
National Forests 105 see also North American mountain resorts; Western Maine
United States Forest Service 355
universities, role 143
uphill transportation 296, 308, 339, 340, 344, 350n1 see also cable cars and surface lifts (CCSLs)
Urals 32
urban development 4
urban transportation 350
Vail Pass Winter Recreation Area (VPWRA) 179, 229–234, 231
Vail Resorts Inc. 4, 22, 118, 167, 277, 284, 285, 297, 354, 361
acquisitions 356
Epic Pass 122–123, 131, 132, 357, 365
pricing 128
redundancies 364
marketing 370
China Inbound Service 264–266, 264
Vancouver International Airport 277, 363
Vanoise Express 348
Vanoise National Park 30, 398n8
Vatnajökull National Park 448, 449, 453–454, 458
visitor
expectations 251
monitoring, Tatra National Park 249–251, 254
Visitor Monitoring Systems 177, 180
Vosges Mountains 392
walkers 20
warm winter destinations 94
waste management 334
management 57, 296, 331, 332,333–334, 379, 380
weather conditions 2
wellness 11, 16, 58, 67, 93, 333
climate change 12
recreation behaviour 79
resident profile and recreational behaviour 78
visitors 74
corporate–community relations 354, 361–366
Whistler (continued)energy consumption 82
greenhouse gas emissions 82
housing 363
lifestyle migration 181–182, 276–287
mountain operations ownership 357–361
pricing 128
resort development 357
Resort Municipality of (RMOW) 156–157, 158, 359, 360, 362, 363
restaurants 160
ski schools 160
snowmobiling 150
social sustainability 167
structural elements 282–283, 285
sustainable development 22
traffic 363
2020 Plan 156, 157, 158, 167, 168, 363
urbanization 284
Whistler Blackcomb 156, 157, 168,276–277, 284, 354, 355, 359, 361
day trippers 284
gondolas 364
housing 366
infrastructure 364
overcrowding 364
ownership 297
Snow School 281
Whistler Mountain 277, 357–359, 358,360
White River National Forest (WRNF) 229, 230
whole-year tourism, Iceland 458
wind
farms 417
power 419
turbines 401–402, 403, 406, 409, 411, 413, 414, 419
emissions 415
Winter Olympics 359
(2006) 58
(2026) 316
winter sports 58, 175, 331, 443, 498–499
access 495
Austrians 197
Bavarian Alps 92
children 14
cultural factors 495
ecological footprint 112
expenditure behaviour 19–20, 103–115
Germans 197
Italians 197
media 495
public funding 502
schools 94
spatial planning 26–30 see also biking; hiking; ski entries; skiing; snow sports; snowmobiling;
winter tourism
timeframe 444
winter tourists, price sensitivity 117–118
WinterCard (Saas-Fee) 123–125, 129, 130–132, 133, 134n3
word-of-mouth advertising 132, 149
World Heritage Sites (WHS) 267, 375
year-round ski resorts 427
year-round tourism 19, 49, 54, 59, 67, 426
zoning 9, 10, 14, 176, 229, 234
Bavarian Alps 26